Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan

(1)

1

ENGAGING FARMWORKERS TO BUILD DISASTER RESILIENCE

Natalie Hyatt

A masters paper submitted to faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Public Health in the Public Health

Leadership department in Gillings School of Global Public Health

Chapel Hill 2019

Approved by:

_____________________________

Advisor:

_________________________

Second reader:

(2)

Engaging Farmworkers 2

ABSTRACT

Natalie Hyatt: Engaging Farmworkers to Build Disaster Resilience Under the direction of Lori Edwards-Carter, PhD

Migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSFWs) face several barriers to positive health outcomes due to the nature of their work. In the event of a natural disaster, such as hurricanes or tornadoes, MSFWs are extremely vulnerable and risk devastating loss. Substandard housing, unstable employment, language barriers, isolation, fear of deportation, job loss and a

disconnection with local disaster preparedness and response protocols all contribute to instability and insecurity during disasters. Natural disasters exacerbate this community’s unique burdens, leaving MSFWs more exposed to poor health outcomes. The broader community, including emergency response organizations, tend to overlook the needs of the MSFW community during the event of a natural disaster. Studies have shown involving MSFWs alongside the community organizations that support them, in the planning, response, and long-term recovery will build trust, empowerment, and yield better outcomes. The concept of ‘community resilience’ has been identified by disaster relief agencies and researchers as a strategy for communities to better prepare, respond, and recover from natural disasters. This paper describes an evaluation of methods for building community disaster resilience, and a proposed two-part program plan for MSFWs to develop strategies in community disaster resilience to be empowered to take action over their own health and safety.

(3)

Table of Contents

Introduction ... 4

Context ... 6

Hurricane Florence: Impact of a Natural Disaster ... 6

MSFWs Barriers Contributing to Disaster Vulnerabilities ... 8

Literature Review ... 10

Introduction ... 10

Research Question ... 11

Methods ... 11

Results ... 12

Summary ... 12

Literature Review Summary Table ... 15

Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan... 17

Background ... 17

Program Plan ... 19

Goals and Objectives ... 22

Potential Funding Sources ... 26

Implementation ... 27

Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition ...27

Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative ...29

Evaluation Plan ... 31

Evaluation Plan: Methods ... 31

Evaluation Planning Tables ... 33

Conclusion ... 38

References ... 40

Appendix ... 43

(4)

Introduction

Hurricane Florence, a well-recognized natural disaster, will forever be remembered by North Carolina residents. This Category One hurricane devastated the Carolina coast. Floods well above the normal flood stage destroyed the livelihoods of many rural inland communities.

The entire insides of homes were thrown out to the curbs, leaving the dwellings unlivable, families separated, and individuals suffering life changing trauma. Amidst the turmoil, migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSFWs) living in those communities also suffered similar losses, but they were often overlooked, misrepresented, or misinformed in the disaster’s aftermath (FAN 2019; Hernandez, S 2018). Language, isolation, immigration status, unfamiliarity with the area, low economic status, and substandard housing are just a few factors contributing to the MSFW community’s extreme vulnerability to disasters (Burke, S. et al, 2012; Gares, G. & Montz, B., 2014). Furthermore, MSFWs often have little disaster preparedness training or knowledge of relief resources available to them (Burke, S. et al, 2012). While Hurricane Florence will forever be remembered, farmworkers are still being forgotten.

MSFWs live in isolated rural areas, often do not have access to media information in their own language (typically Spanish), or do not comprehend their location in relationship to the incoming disaster (Burke, S. et al 2012). For farmworkers living in camps (grower provided housing), their main sources of information are through the grower, or crew leaders. During Hurricane Florence, a group of farmworkers said they did not receive information of an evacuation order. Furthermore, when flood waters began rising at their camp and they called 911. The farmworkers received little to no help as the grower had reportedly told emergency management the farmworkers were in no harm. After several farmworker advocates became

(5)

involved with the situation, the farmworkers were eventually rescued (see Figures 1 & 2) (Hernandez, S 2018).

During the aftermath of Hurricane Florence, several farmworker-serving organizations band together to provide relief to MSFWs. These organizations admitted they lacked the capacity, training, and protocols to comprehensively assist farmworkers. They scrambled to reach out to farmworkers, assess the needs, and provide resources. Their relief efforts required endless phone calls and personal visits to farmworker families, and farmworker camps (FAN 2019).

Through research and the experiences of Hurricane Florence, three main gaps in disaster mitigation for farmworkers have been identified: poor collaboration, lack of disaster

preparedness, and inadequate resources. Collaboration is not streamlined, and communication is fragmented both to MSFWs and between community-based organizations (CBOs). Disaster preparedness knowledge is insufficient for both MSFWS and the organizations serving them.

The repercussions of inadequate resources refer to the CBOs inability to adequately respond.

This is due to insufficient staff, a lack of space for storing donations, a lack of training and a lack of protocols for disaster response.

In response to the gaps in disaster mitigation, a Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan (FDRP) will be created and tailored to the needs of MSFW communities living in the areas of Bladen, Pender, and Sampson. All these areas are dense with MSFWs and historically

susceptible to river flooding. The FDRP is inspired by the reactions of three disaster relief programs created by and for farmworkers, Latinx day laborers, and women in informal

occupations. A program and evaluation plan will be presented consisting of two main strategies;

(6)

the Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition and the Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative. Both of these plans will support each other to promote disaster resilience by

streamlining collaboration, improving disaster preparedness and creating resources to build capacity amongst farmworkers and CBOs.

Context Hurricane Florence: Impact of a Natural Disaster

Hurricane Florence made landfall on the North Carolina coast on Friday, September 14, 2019. Florence started as a Category Five but was eventually downgraded to a Category One hurricane. The wind damage caused major power outages along eastern North Carolina coast.

Days following the hurricane, 9-13-foot storm surges and 20-30 inches of rain caused major flooding (National Weather Service 2019). The Northeast Cape Fear River rose to 29.5 feet, 18 feet higher that is the normal flood stage (Bonner, L. & Brosseau, C. 2018). Pender County residents were being rescued from their homes by the hundreds. Weeks after Hurricane Florence, on October 11, 2018, Tropical Storm Michael made its way across central North Carolina.

Needless to say, this additional storm prolonged the coastal flooding. It should be noted, many were still recovering from 2016 Hurricane Matthew when Hurricane Florence arrived (Bonner, L. & Brosseau, C. 2018).

Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers

During peak harvest season, there are an estimated 13,421 MSFWs (not including their dependents) living in the tri-county area of Pender, Sampson, and Bladen. This area is one of the most densely population areas of farmworkers in the state of North Carolina (Department of

(7)

Commerce 2018). Crops include, but are not limited to strawberries, blueberries, sweet potatoes, tobacco and peppers.

Farmworkers perform a variety of work on the farm from handpicking fruits and vegetables, spraying herbicides or pesticides, taking care of livestock, or working in packing houses. A farmworker is considered someone who has been working for the last two years in agriculture at least 50 percent of the time. Farmworkers are classified in two categories: migrant and seasonal.

Migrant farmworkers are those who have moved in the last two years for the purpose of working in agriculture. Migrant farmworkers may move from state to state or they may be contracted through the H2A visa program. In the H2A visa program, the workers typically travel from their home country (most commonly Mexico) to the United States to work on the farm for a contract period. At the end of their contract the farmworker returns to their home country and typically repeats this cycle year after year. According to the Department of Labor, “a seasonal farmworker is defined as a person who works 25 days or more in farm work over a 12 –month period, earned half or more of their income in farm work and is not employed year-round in farm work by the same employer” (Gares, G. & Montz, B. 2014). Seasonal workers stay in the same area year-round. Typically, seasonal workers comprised of families who have settled in the area, work during the agricultural season and find other work in the off season.

According to the 2013-2014 National Agriculture Workers Survey (NAWS), seventy- percent of farmworkers are foreign born with largest majority (68%) being born in Mexico (NCFH 2018). Twenty-seven percent of farmworkers could not speak English “at all”, thirty-two percent could speak “a little” and eleven percent could speak English “somewhat”. The average

(8)

completed education for farmworkers was the 8^th grade. The NAWS reported thirty percent of farmworker families had incomes below the national poverty guidelines (NCFH 2018).

Farmworkers have a high risk for poor health outcomes due to the occupational health risk. Agriculture is frequently rated by U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics as “one of the most dangerous industries in the nation.” (NCFH 2018). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (2018) also ranks agriculture as one of the most hazardous industries. NIOSH (2018) claims everyday 100 agricultural workers “suffer a lost-work-time injury.”

Apart from occupational hazards, farmworkers often suffer from chronic conditions. In 2015, the top five diagnoses among farmworker patients reported by Community Health Centers nationwide were: overweight/obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, otitis media & Eustachian tube disorder, and depression and other mood disorders (NCFH 2018). The nature of their work (long work hours, frequent mobility, unsteady income) and the lack of health insurance also make managing chronic conditions extremely challenging.

MSFWs Barriers Contributing to Disaster Vulnerabilities

According to Gares, G. & Montz, B. (2014), Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers are an especially vulnerable population. Their socioeconomic status, nature of their work, substandard housing, isolation, languages barriers and immigration status all contribute to vulnerabilities to natural disasters. Furthermore, MSFWs living in eastern North Carolina risks are extremely high for hurricane exposure (Gares, G. & Montz, B. 2014).

Disaster vulnerability is defined as “a concept that denotes a social practice in which a certain unit (a subject, a group, or any kind of system) is place at the center of a complex

(9)

analysis of injury” (Kusenbach, M., & Christmann, G., 2013). When faced with a natural disaster certain population characteristics such as low socioeconomic status, substandard housing, and social isolation (for example, those living in rural communities all contribute to vulnerability).

Factors such as poor health, disabilities, proximity to hazardous environments, lack of education and unstable income all increase vulnerability (Kapuca, N & Rivera, F. 2015).

Burke, S. et al (2012) completed a study eastern North Carolina using the community- based participatory model. The study involved conducting focus groups with farmworkers and others with stakeholders. The authors assessed “…awareness, perceived risk, and practices regarding disaster preparedness and response resources and identified barriers to utilizations of community and government services during or after a natural disaster among Latino MSFWs’

and their families” (Burke, S. et al 2012). Several barriers identified were lack of knowledge of disasters preparedness and resources for disaster preparedness, such as emergency kits or an evacuation plan. Most MSFWs had some experience with previous hurricanes; however, they admitted to typically being out of the area during hurricane season. While MSFWs had some knowledge about preparedness, most said they did not have necessary items in their homes and were underprepared when a natural disaster arrived.

Immigration status, lack of transportation, and languages barriers contributed to

confusion, fear and isolation during natural disasters (Burke, S. et al 2012). For example, county emergency managers expressed the importance of knowing where farmworkers were located. At the same time, the farmworker focus groups raised their concern that the information might be used by Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).

(10)

Other vulnerabilities such as poverty and isolation were noted to be exacerbated post- disaster due to loss of work, transportation issues, and loss of power. Loss of life was correlated with loss of support to their families. One participant mentioned the possibility of the disaster effecting their work, "...if it's time to harvest the crops and it's a water-related natural disaster everything would be lost. Then immediately our contract would end because there would be no harvest for us" (Burke, S. et al 2012).

Literature Review Introduction

Due to their lack of social power and poor access to resources, low-income and

disadvantaged groups prove to carry the most burden during a disastrous event (Gil-Rivas, V., Kilmer, R., 2016). Resources such as stable employment, reliable income, housing, access to clean water and sanitation, availability and access to health and social services, and financial support are important for reducing vulnerability (Gil-Rivas, V., Kilmer, R., 2016). In order for communities to build resilience, they must be flexible and adaptive and they must trust their resources. This requires a broader community collaboration between organizations and

community members. Both must engage in mitigation, strengthen social support and most of all work toward reducing inequities (Norris et al 2008).

Disaster relief agencies utilize the term ‘community resilience’ to coincide with a

community’s ability to prepare, endure and bounce back from a disaster (Patel et al, 2017; Norris el al 2008; Gares, G. & Montz, B., 2014). The concept of ‘community resilience’ has been known to be “associated with increasing local capacity, social support, and resources, and decreasing risk, miscommunication and trauma” (Patel el al 2017). According to Patel (2017),

(11)

there is not one concise definition of community resilience; however, their systematic review showed nine core elements were related to disasters resilience: local knowledge, community networks and relationships, communication, health, governance and leadership, resources, economic investment, preparedness and mental outlook.

While community resilience is difficult to measure, it seems to be the most recommended means to strengthen and prepare communities for disasters. In Building Community Capacity and Fostering Disaster Resilience, Rivas & Kilmer (2016) identify eight principles for community-

level disaster preparedness and response: collaboration and community strength, empowerment, social justice, sociocultural considerations and understanding and appreciation of diversity, and empirical grounding. Rivas & Kilmer (2016), recommend using these underlying principles for fostering resilience.

Finding a way to engage MSFWs and build resilience could prove to be the best solution for this particular community. Given that MSFWs have immense barriers to overcome, and given apparent gaps in solutions, it is important to investigate strategies to better serve MSFWs as well as promote disaster resilience among MSFWs. This systematic review summarizes literature on programs, projects, or examples of how vulnerable communities have improved their resilience.

Research Question

Are there current community disaster resilience programs specific to disadvantaged populations and in particular, farmworkers? If so, 1) What methods have been used to empower these populations toward disaster resilience, and 2) How can these programs be applied to improve the disaster resilience of farmworkers living in Pender, Bladen and Sampson Counties?

Methods

(12)

After a preliminary investigation on the Internet to better understand community disaster relief planning, the term “community resilience” became an evident theme for designing a program plan responsive to MSFWs communication and capacity needs. This term was then incorporated into the literature search. The National Library of Medicine PubMed database was used to search and identify articles on ‘community resilience.’ Terms used included

“community”, “resilience”, and “disaster,” followed by the terms “immigrant,” “Latino,” and

“farmworkers.” Only scholarly and peer-reviewed journal articles published in the last five years (2014-2019) were included. Articles that did not described a project, plan, initiative or program were excluded. Only articles describing a natural disaster were utilized.

Results

The search using the terms “community + resilience + disaster + farmworkers” yielded 57 results. Of this search, two articles were chosen because they specifically described programs related to disaster resilience. A second search with the same criteria and the key terms

“community + resilience + disaster + Latino + immigrants” yielded 214 results. One article was selected as it specifically described a project promoting preparedness and resilience for and by Latino immigrants as a result of a natural disaster.

Summary

The literature review found four programs promoting community resilience post a natural disaster among vulnerable populations: Disaster Response Community Group; Immigrant

Worker Disaster Resilience Workgroup; Buklod Tao; and PATAMABA. The programs demonstrated the ability to build capacity, empower vulnerable populations, and improve collaborations among community organizations. The programs are led by members of the target

(13)

population: farmworkers, women in informal work and Latinx day laborers. A common theme among the programs is the connection of the target population with community-based

organizations. Most of the programs supported and trained the target population on a disaster related topic. The literature on program planning and evaluation for disaster relief programs targeting farmworkers or Latinx immigrants is limited; therefore, information on the evaluation and outcomes was not available for most programs. See Literature Review Summary Table for summary. It is clear more knowledge is needed around the success and failures of programs supporting underserved populations through disaster resilience. For this reason, the Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan will include a program evaluation. The following is a brief summary of each program. It should be noted the Buklod Tao and PATAMABA are two separate programs;

however, their similarities were compared in one journal article. For this reason, they are summarized together below, but listed separately in the Literature Review Summary Table.

The Disaster Response Community Group formed as a result of the 2004 hurricanes, and the 2006 and 2007 tornadoes in Central Florida. Drawing from these experiences, the

farmworkers and other community organizations began to organize and prepare themselves for future disasters. The Farmworker Association, the Alianza de Mujeres Activas, and Hispanos Unidos came together during a Florida Catholic conference. As a result of these conference meetings, the “Grupo Comunitario de Respuesta a Disaster” (Disaster Response Community Group) was formed. From this community group, 15 people were certified in CERT (Community Emergency Response Teams) and a disaster community center was created. One of the

farmworkers in the Volusia focus group stated “Now we feel a little more (prepared)…we know

(14)

where…we know that we are going to look for help here or if we don’t find the help at least we have adequate knowledge” (Rivera, F., Kapuca, N., Hawkins, C. 2015).

The Immigrant Worker Disaster Resilience Workgroup (IWDRWG) was created following Hurricane Sandy in 2012. The goal of IWDRWG was to “create sustainable partnerships across CBOs to provide better services to these workers and to improve CBOs' connectedness to formal disaster preparedness systems is one facet of building community resilience, defined as a community's ability to withstand and recover from a disaster.” The project provided funding to CBOs to sponsored Latinx immigrant construction and cleanup laborers to be trained in occupational safety and health (OSH). The 16 hour “train the trainer”

classes were taught in Spanish. The workers were provided with an Occupational Safety and Health Administration 10-hour certification card (Cuervo, I., Leopold, L., Baron, S. 2017).

Buklod Tao and the PATAMABA were organizations formed in separate municipalities in the Philippines as a response to major typhoons. The Buklod Tao and the PATAMABA are community-based organizations led by women employed in “informal” position. Informal positions are considered: housing keeping, farm working, vending, or waste recycling. These initiatives are meant to empower women by providing food security and economic stability in response to disaster related changes. Both initiatives sought to minimize the damage from disasters, promote food security, and economic stability. Both have shown excellent capacity to mitigate disastrous events. They have shown community resilience by coordinating with local Disaster Risk and Management Committees and creating a sense of unity and solidarity among women in informal employment (Ofreno, R., Hega, M. (2016).

(15)

These common themes all correlated with the concept of community resilience. While there has not been an identified guide or measurement for community resilience (Patel 2017), these programs lay the groundwork for future disaster resilience programs tailored to vulnerable population. The program examples will serve as a guide for the Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan.

Literature Review Summary Table

Project Program

Elements

Program Team Evaluation Outcome Disaster Response

Community Group (Rivera, F.,

Kapuca, N., Hawkins, C.

2015).

Resulted from several natural disasters

Program supported by several

organizations Farmworkers trained in CERT (Community Emergency Response Teams)

Farmworker community members Community agencies

Not available 15 people were certified in CERT A disaster community center was created.

Immigrant Worker Disaster Resilience Workgroup

(Cuervo, I., Leopold, L., Baron, S. 2017).

Resulted from Hurricane Sandy Program supported by several

organizations Latinx immigrant construction and cleanup laborers received a 16 hour occupational safety and health training

Connects with emergency

Latinx immigrant construction and cleanup laborers Community Based

Organizations

Key informant interviews Tracked actions by others

contributing to community resilience

Partnering with community organizations improved capacity and collaboration Continued training shows to contribute to long term sustainability.

Improved the IWDRWG’s sense of

(16)

agencies during a disaster

“social

connectedness”

The success of the IWDRWG gained

additional financial support Lack of power to change working conditions among IWDRWG shows limited influence over employers Buklod Tao

(Ofreno, R., Hega, M. 2016)

Resutled from a Super Typhoon Served as

representative of the civil society within the

Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee Monitored water gauges for early warning signs Participated in Disaster Risk Reduction skills training

Provided rescue operations

Women in informal employment Local Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Committee

Not available Not available

(17)

Activated relief center

Distributed relief goods

PATAMABA (Ofreno, R., Hega, M. 2016)

Resulted from Typhoon Frank Started Micro finance, savings and mutual fund Worked with the local government and relief agencies to provide

resources to the community Raised awareness for sustainable agriculture, recycling, food production and processing.

Women in informal employment Local Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Committee

Not available Not available

Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan Background

The Farmworker Advocacy Network (FAN) is a “statewide network of organizations that works together to improve the living and working conditions of farmworkers and poultry

workers in North Carolina.” Months following Hurricane Florence, FAN conducted interviews with farmworker outreach workers, union organizers, attorneys and other farmworker support organizations. The interviews uncovered that organizations were: 1) unprepared, as they did not

(18)

have formal disaster relief training, or emergency assistance protocols; 2) lacked capacity to provide sufficient relief; 3) felt the weight of the burden to provide relief assistance as they were often the first point of contact for both farmworkers and disaster relief agencies (FAN 2019).

As a result of the interviews, FAN (2019) recommends organizations look for ways to increase their capacity to better serve farmworkers prior to, during and after a disaster. Staff, volunteers and farmworkers would all benefit from disaster relief training. In addition, one or more locations near farmworkers need to be identified to collect, store and distribute donations.

Finally, FAN recommends farmworkers be included in any training, planning and relief efforts.

Their (farmworkers) input is crucial to increasing capacity and improving efforts (FAN 2019).

Manos Unidas, a farmworker health outreach program was interviewed by FAN. They provided disaster relief to farmworkers post Hurricane Florence. Manos Unidas is a health outreach program serving MSFWs in Pender, Bladen, Sampson, Duplin, Brunswick, Columbus and Robeson Counties (NCFHP 2019). Their main office is located in Atkinson, NC within Black River Health Services, a Federally Qualified Health Center (Look-a-like) (BHRS 2019).

Manos Unidas receives their funding through the North Carolina Farmworker Health Program (NCFHP), a migrant voucher assistance program located within the office of Rural Health (NCFHP 2019).

The Program Director of Manos Unidas, said prior to Hurricane Florence, they did not have a disaster relief plan, protocol or any formal training on disaster relief. Once informed of the impending Hurricane Florence, the Program Director instructed outreach staff to call MSFWs before the hurricane arrived to provide information on mandatory evacuations, shelters and general preparedness education. After the hurricane, outreach staff called MSFWs yet again to

(19)

provide additional guidance on shelters, donation centers and took special request for direct food and resource delivery. The outreach staff teamed up with several donation centers and provided supplies to four farms and directly to approximately 30 farmworker family homes. Manos Unidas received phone calls from local organizations and relief agencies who offered resources to MSFWs. While Manos Unidas was able to coordinate, they did not have the capacity to fully collaborate with all agencies, nor provide complete assistance to every farmworker in need (Personal Communication, 2019).

As a result of Hurricane Florence, NCFHP requested that all 2019-2020 grantees create a disaster relief plan for their individual programs. Since Manos Unidas lies in the eastern most part of the state, it has the highest risk for hurricanes and is in one of the most densely populated areas with MSFWs. As such, Manos Unidas found it especially important to create a

comprehensive program disaster preparedness plan to better serve MSFW. The Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan described in this paper will be overseen and utilized by Manos Unidas (Personal Communication, 2019).

Program Plan

The purpose of Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan (FDRP) is for farmworkers to be sufficiently prepared, adequately receive information, and appropriately served throughout the disaster lifecycle. The FDRP has two primary goals: 1) to strengthen community partnerships and collaborations; 2) to improve farmworker preparedness and recovery. The ultimate impact is to have stronger and more collaborative community ties that empower farmworkers and increase resilience.

(20)

To strengthen community partnerships and collaboration, a Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition (FCRC) will be formed. One of the noted accomplishments of the Disaster Response Community Group was communication between stakeholders, and a realization of considering the unique needs of farmworkers (Burke, S. et al 2012). The FCRC will provide a platform for improving partnerships and collaborations. The FCRC will recruit meaningful stakeholders such as community health organizations, migrant education programs, farmworker advocates, university programs, legal aid, the cooperative extension, local churches and local farmworker groups. The purpose of this group would be to provide an opportunity for partners to learn from each other, share ideas, and identify resources. The FCRC will established

communication protocols and duties in the event of a natural disaster.

To improve farmworker preparedness and recovery, a Farmworker Community

Leadership Initiative (FCLI) will be formed. This FCLI will be similar to the IWDRWG in that it will train farmworker on disaster response, but it will be community specific. One of the biggest obstacles to providing resources to farmworkers was knowing what they needed and where they were located (FAN 2019; Burke, S. et al 2012). Burke, S. et al (2012) listed communication as one of the major barriers to accessing services. Personal stories or small group educational sessions was mentioned as one means to promote disaster preparedness among farmworkers.

The FCLI will be comprised of representatives from various farmworker communities.

They will be similar to lay-health or community health worker model and like the IWDRWG, will work under the supervision of CBOs. In this program, the organization will be Manos Unidas. Farmworker Community Leaders (FCLs) will educate their community on disaster

(21)

preparedness. They will also serve as a connection point between farmworkers and the Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition.

Both of these initiatives follow Rivas & Kilmer (2016) eight principles of building capacity and fostering resilience. The FDRP strengthens collaboration and capacity of CBOs as well as provide a platform for farmworkers themselves to be present and contribute. The

initiatives will be grounded in an appreciation and understanding for culture and diversity. Both the FCRC and the FCLI will work together to acknowledge and address inequities and build trust between farmworkers and disaster relief agencies. See Figure 4 for a diagram displaying the ways in which the two programs will work together.

Program Model

The program will be designed based on two models: Socio-Ecological Model (SEM) and the Community Organization Model (COM). The Socio-Ecological Model examines the

relationship between a person’s behavior and their environment. The Socio-Ecological Model addresses intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional/organizational, community, and political factors (Simpson, V. 2015). Farmworkers behavior toward disasters preparedness and recovery is determined by all of these listed levels of influence.

The Community Organization Model “is a participatory decision-making process that empowers communities to improve health.” This model includes elements of empowerment, community participation, capacity building, active engagement and collaborative decision making (RHIhub 2019). The model will be incorporated through the farmworker community to identifying their own strengths, collectively organizing and creating a program that best

(22)

addresses their needs. It is also imperative community organizations improve their collaborations in order to better support farmworkers in the event of a disaster.

Goals and Objectives

The FDRP has two primary goals: 1) To strengthen community partnerships and

collaborations 2) To improve farmworker preparedness and recovery. The ultimate impact is to have stronger and more collaborative community ties that empower farmworkers and increase resilience. The following describes the goals, objectives and activities.

Goal 1. To strengthen community partnerships and collaborations

Objective 1. By 1-3 months, create the Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition.

Activity 1. Assemble core group, which will be a meeting with a few partners who are key

players. The key players will then branch out to their networks. Other stakeholders will be contacted including emergency management, local police force, and any relevant organizations.

Activity 2. Reach out to potential community partners. Call, email or establish in-person

meetings with each potential partner. If possible, take time to have a conversation, learn from their experience and establish a common ground.

Activity 3. Create and email out survey. This will include contact information, level of

involvement with the coalition, preferred dates and times of the meetings, communication method, frequency of communication, level of participation and type of participation.

Activity 4. Create a stakeholder matrix. This will include information from phone calls, meetings and survey results. This information will help the core group plan the first official coalition meeting.

(23)

Activity 5. Host first Coalition Meeting: 1) review the agenda; 2) establish leadership

roles within the coalition; 3) introduce emergency management 4) present relevant material based on surveys; 5) begin establishing common goals and objectives; 6) gather feedback for future coalition meetings

Long-term Objective 1. By 1 year, create a disaster action plan in conjunction with local emergency management plans: 1) collaboration and communication methods; 2) safety

protocols; 3) roles and responsibilities

Activity 1. Establish common goals and vision for the coalition: 1) have a facilitator lead

the discussion; 2) recognize the goals and the vision may evolve.

Activity 2. Establish structure: 1) number of coalition meetings; 2) one-on-one meetings

3) task forces; 4) presenting/sharing expert knowledge with coalition members; 5) desired trainings; 5) coalition leaders.

Activity 3. Establish communication methods: 1) how will stakeholders communicate

with each other in the event of a disaster; 2) is there specific technology we will use; 3) how will community partners communicate with farmworkers

Activity 4. Establish safety protocols: 1) what precautions should community partners

take in the event of a disaster; 2) have protocols written out and accessible to all community members

Activity 5. Establish roles and responsibilities: 1) identify task force for troubleshooting difficult topics; 2) identify roles for the entire disaster life cycle; 3) establish back up plans if community partners are unable to fulfill their roles.

(24)

Goal 2. To improve farmworker preparedness and recovery.

Objective 1. By 1-6 months, create the Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative Activity 1. Recruit and train a FCLI Coordinator: 1) create job description; 2) create a

comprehensive job describing timeline, duties, responsibilities and required trainings. 3) advertise the position; 5) hire FCLI Coordinator; 4) have FCLI Coordinator complete required trainings

Activity 2. Complete mapping of farmworker communities: 1) identify communities most

impacted during the hurricane; 2) identify farms host migrant or contract farmworkers through hurricane season; 3) create a heat map of areas flood prone areas and with a high density of migrant or seasonal farmworkers.

Activity 3. Identify and train Farmworker Community Leaders (FCLs): 1) create a

comprehensive job describing timeline, duties, responsibilities and required trainings. 2)

advertise and recruit from within the identified farmworker communities; 4) hire FCLs; 5) have FCLs complete required trainings

Long-term Objective 1. By 6-12 months, FCLs increase farmworker community knowledge on disaster preparedness

Activity 1. FCLs recruit community members to participate in disaster preparedness

education session

Activity 2. FCLs complete education session with the community. Each FCLs will completed 6 education session (once per month for 6 months).

(25)

Activity 3. Provide those attending the class with disaster preparedness kits: 1) list of

supplies; 2) First Aid Kit; 3) list of emergency contacts; 4) flashlight; 5) other identified items; 6) provide information for how to restock their kits.

Long-term Objective 2. By 6 months to 1 year, hold monthly focus groups with FCLs to establish communication methods, safety protocols, and roles and responsibilities

Activity 1. Establish communication methods: 1) How will FCLs communicate with

resources during the event of a disaster; 2) is there specific technology we will use. 3) what resources are available in Spanish.

Activity 2. Establish safety protocols: 1) what precautions should FCLs take in the event

of a disaster; 2) have protocols written out and accessible to all FCLs

Activity 3. Establish roles and responsibilities: 1) identify roles for the entire disaster life

cycle; 2) identify responsibilities for the entire disaster cycle; 3) establish back up plans if FCL are unable to fulfill their roles.

Timeline and Budget

The project is expected to be completed over the course of one-year. During the first three months, community mapping and focus groups will be conducted to include full community input. The first coalition meeting is expected to be held by month three.

Subsequently, farmworker leader focus groups will be held during months two to four. Trainings for MSFWs will start in month four. The timeline of this plan, does not allow for comprehensive planning prior to hurricane season 2019; however, at minimum community organizations will be identified for collaboration and farmworker community leaders will be identified and trained.

(26)

Between four months to one year, the full Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan will be completed.

An estimated budget for the Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan (see Figure 7) includes hiring a Community Consultant, a Farmworker Community Leadership Coordinator, Trainers and Farmworkers Leaders. Coalition leaders are expected to provide in-kind support to the project. Additional funding will be used to purchase supplies. Supplies include incentives such as preparedness kits, classroom supplies, health education materials, office supplies and

promotional materials. A budget for mileage and professional development will also be allocated to the FDRP.

Potential Funding Sources

Funding for initial activities will be sought through North Carolina Local News Lab grant. This is a $25,000 grant. The purpose of this grant is to increase communication between organizations. They will “consider projects that provide critical information to communities with a focus on collaboration, content, capacity building, and/or community engagement related to recovery and resilience in the region” (Local News Lab, 2019). Funding through this grant will support the initial start-up phase of resource mapping.

Additional support will later be sought through the Duke Energy Foundation. They are providing up to $50,000 through their Storm Resilience Grant. This grant is supporting projects for the following: “specialized training for first responders for severe weather scenarios,

organized planning initiatives for communities to prepare for extreme weather, community storm preparedness training, materials, kits or shelter, emergency communication tools for severe

(27)

weather, and improved outcomes for low-income communities experiencing extreme weather.”

All of these areas are relevant to the Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan. In particular these funds would support phase two of the training leaders and increasing community organizations capacity (Duke Energy Foundation 2019).

The National Weather Service (2019, 2018) offers several resources from training opportunities to resources in Spanish. The Skywarn Spotter Program through the National Weather Service is an opportunity for community members to report severe weather to the National Weather Service. This opportunity could potentially empower farmworker leaders to contribute to the safety of their communities. Furthermore, the initiation of this type of program could lead to potential funding opportunities.

Implementation

The implementation of the Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan encompasses two primary goals: 1) to strengthen community partnerships and collaborations; 2) to improve farmworker preparedness and recovery. This will be accomplished through a two-part plan: 1) Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition and; 2) Farmworker Community Leader Initiative.

Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition

It was identified by FAN (2019), that community organizations did not have the capacity, lacked the knowledge, or were unprepared to fully serve farmworkers during Hurricane Florence.

The Community Toolbox states that a coalition “is a group of individuals and/or organization with a common interest who agree to work together toward a common goal.” Since several organizations in the target areas of Pender, Bladen, and Sampson have already expressed interest

(28)

in improving their approach for disasters, a coalition appears to be the best method to unite organizations. Starting a coalition will lead the way toward strengthening community partnerships and collaborations.

The activities for starting the coalition follow the Community Toolbox guide for starting a coalition (Community Toolbox 2019). To start several key players will meet initially. This will include the Manos Unidas, Bladen County Migrant Education, Sampson County Farmworker Health and Safety Program and local emergency management. Members of these organizations worked together during the events of Hurricane Florence. The core groups will begin identifying other key community partners to join the coalition. It is important to have members of the coalition who have several types of influence, from health care, education, policy makers, law enforcement, religious groups, farm owners and the farmworkers themselves. Once the core group has identified partners in their current network, they will then reach out to them. This could be over the phone, in person, or via email. Once a large amount of interest is gained within the community, a survey will be sent out. The survey will include times and dates for the first meeting. It will gather general information on their interest, potential roles, and motivations.

Once the survey is 80% completed, planning for the first official meeting will begin.

Utilizing the survey data, a date and time for the first meeting will be held. It is held in a central location with enough space to host everyone comfortably. Utilizing the Community Toolbox (2019) as a guide, the first meeting will be as follows: 1) introductions; 2) define the purpose; 3) decide on the structure of the coalition; 4) begin to create a vision, common goals

(29)

and values; 5) begin creating an action plan for how the coalition will collaborate; 6) review list of things to do before the next meeting; 7) schedule the next coalition meeting.

After the first meeting and before the next meeting, an email will be sent out with the meeting minutes. Coalition members will complete assignments. Task forces will meet to solve specific problems. Recruitment of new coalition members will continue.

As the coalition continues to meet, they will refine their vision, mission and action plan.

Priority will be given to establishing policies and procedures before, during and after a disaster.

The coalition will delegate roles and responsibilities. If training or expert advice is needed, they should recruit presenters for the coalitions. An action plan with a proposed timeline will be completed and monitored for progress.

The end result should be a powerful, collaborative and connected group that will be better prepared to serve farmworkers in the event of a disaster. The coalition should continue to meet and take on other areas related to farmworker issues and burdens they face.

Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative

The Rural Health Information Hub (RHIhub) (2019), describes several types of

community health worker models. The model which most reflects the Farmworker Community Leader Initiative, is the Promotora de Salud/Lay Health Worker Model. In this model, lay health workers (LHWs) are from the population being served. LHWs act as advocates, educators, mentors, interpreters or outreach workers. The LHWs model is meant to build trust within the community. They are meant to serve as a bridge between the target community and resources

(30)

available to them (RHIhub, 2019). In a similar fashion, FCLs should be farmworkers themselves or from a farmworker family and share a common cultural, language, and socioeconomic status.

One of the RHIhub (2019) recommended resources for implementing an LHW program is the

“Promotora Program Manual” created by MHP Salud (2014). MHP Salud is a special focus in serving and empowering the Latinx community through culturally appropriate program strategies. The FCLI will follow the guidelines recommended by MHP Salud.

The first step to implementing the FCLI is the program design. The second goal of the FDRP is to improve farmworker preparedness and recovery. The objectives include: 1) create the Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative; 2) FCLs increase farmworker community

knowledge on disaster preparedness; 3) establish communication methods, protocols, and responsibilities during the event of a disaster and in align with the local emergency management system.

The first step to starting the FCLI will be to hire an FCLI Coordinator. the FCLI

Coordinator will help to identify farmworker communities in areas most susceptible to disasters (i.e. flood zones, substandard housing, camps etc.) The FCLI Coordinator will assist in recruiting FCLs from those target areas. The FCLI Coordinator will train, oversee and provide support, meet individually and host team meeting with all FCLs. The FCLs then begin educating their communities on disaster preparedness. At the same time, monthly focus groups with the FCLs will be held. The purpose of these focus groups will be to create a plan in the event of a disaster.

The focus groups will identify roles and responsibilities, best practices for communication methods, safety precautions and protocols. Gathering information from the FCLs as to what their

(31)

communities need in the event of a disaster will be crucial to community resilience and

empowerment. The results of these focus groups will also be utilized in the disaster preparedness planning of the FCRC.

Evaluation Plan Evaluation Plan: Methods

The Center for Disease Control (CDC) creates a “Framework for Evaluation in Public Health” (CDC 2017). These steps include: 1) engaging stakeholders; 2) describing the program;

3) focusing the evaluation design; 4) gathering credible evidence; 5) justifying conclusions; 6) ensuring use and share lessons learned (CDC 2017).

Engaging stakeholders. During this course of the program planning, stakeholders will be identified. Once stakeholders are fully identified, it will be important to make sure they are engaged in the process. Manos Unidas, North Carolina Farmworker Health Program, migrant education programs, cooperative extensions, emergency management, other program funders and farmworkers are a few crucial stakeholders to engage. As we narrow down the most relevant and influential stakeholders, the evaluation plan could evolve. For the time being, the evaluation plan will be geared toward engaging the aforementioned stakeholders.

Describing the program. A logic model (see Figure 5) is composed of the assumptions, inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes and impacts. This will help to not only engage stakeholders, but will serve as a road map for the program. As the program evolves, the inputs of both the Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition and the Farmworker Community Leader Initiative will be vital. Focus groups will be formed in each. Additional pre and post-test will be completed

(32)

through the formation of both programs. This will be valuable to receive feedback from those directly involved and monitor the progress and eventual impact of the program.

Focusing the evaluation design. A process evaluation and outcome evaluation will be implemented. A process evaluation will monitor the progress of the plans. It will ensure the program/s are running as intended. Process evaluation questions will help to track the Who, What, When, and Where (CDC n.d). The program design will be non-experimental. Since the program is dedicated to farmworkers who are already at a disadvantage, it would be unethical to do a control group or comparison group in the event of a disaster. An outcome evaluation will measure the progress and achieved outcomes (CDC n.d). The outcome evaluation questions will measure the long-term objectives: whether or not the FCRC completed their disaster relief protocols; and whether or not disaster preparedness was increased among farmworkers.

Gathering credible evidence. The program will measure the goals and objectives through both qualitative and quantitative data. Information will be gathered through interviews, documenting attendance, pre and post-test and group sessions. The program will be evaluated by an expert in public health program evaluation and monitoring. A pre and post-test, questions for interviews and focus groups will be designed. It will be important to choose questions with indicators that show whether or not the program is functioning as planned. The FCLI

Coordinator and the FCL’s will also take part in some of the observational documentation such as number FCL recruited and number of farmworkers trained. Some of the Manos Unidas outreach staff will be trained by the Community Consultant on how to conduct a focus and interviews.

(33)

Justifying conclusions. The evaluation of the program/s will be essential to the long-term sustainability and impacts. It is crucial for the evaluation to show that the initial objectives have been accomplished. Should there be results showing a lack of participation or difficulties carrying out plan, the program will need to take time to address those issues. The evaluation results will also consider reasons why certain activities did, or did not work. This will give the stakeholders advice for how to best move forward with their plans.

Ensuring use and share lessons learned. This evaluation plan and its results will be transparent to all stakeholders. The results will be shared with both the FCRC and the FCLI. All stakeholders will remain informed throughout the process. The evaluation should be

disseminated to stakeholders at least half-way through each timed activity. This will help those leading the project to troubleshoot any issues that arrive. The final evaluation results will be shared with all stakeholders.

Evaluation Planning Tables

Goal 1. To strengthen community partnerships and collaborations

Objective 1. By 1-3 months, create the Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition.

Evaluation Questions Participants(s) Evaluation Method

Indicator

How many participated in the core group?

Community Consultant

Core group members

Organizational Record

# of core participants

How many community partners were reached?

Community Partners

Observational documentions

# of community partners contacted

(34)

How many community partners completed the survey?

Community Partners

Observational documentations

# of surveys completed

By month 2, was a stakeholder matrix completed?

Completed

Stakeholder Matrix

Was the first coalition meeting accomplished by month 4?

Core group Community Consultant

Coalition Members

(attendance sheet)

Date of first meeting

How many community partners attended the first coalition meeting?

Core group Community Consultant

Coalition Members

(attendance sheet)

# of attendance

Was a vision statement completed during the first meeting?

Coalition Leaders Coalition Members

Organizational Record (minute notes)

Completed vision statement

Were goals established? Coalition Leaders Coalition Members

Completed goals

Were coalition leaders

identified? Coalition Leaders

Coalition Members Organizational Record (minute notes)

Coalition Leaders listed

How many follow up coalition meetings were set?

Coalition Leaders listed

Were there task forces

established? Coalition Leaders Coalition Members Task force members

Task forces listed

Long-term Objective 1. By 1 year, create a disaster action plan: 1) collaboration and communication methods; 2) safety protocols; 3) roles and responsibilities

(35)

Indicators

What communications (if

any) were established? Coalition Leaders Coalition Members Task force members Local Emergency Management

Organizational Record (minute notes)

Listed

communication methods

How many times in one year did the coalition meet?

(attendance sheet)

# of meetings

What was the average attendance for each meeting?

Coalition Leaders

Coalition Members Organizational Record

(attendance sheet)

# of attendance per meeting/# of meetings How many (if any) safety

protocols were created?

Organizational Record. (Safety protocols created)

# of safety protocols

Were roles and responsibilities were established?

Coalition Leaders

Coalition Members Organizational Record (minute notes)

Established roles and

responsibilities

Goal 2. To improve farmworker preparedness and recovery

Objective 1. By 1-6 months, create the Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative Evaluation Questions Participants(s) Evaluation

Method

Indicators

Was a FCLI Coordinator hired?

Community Consultant Manos Unidas Director

FCLI Coordinator

Interview Observational

Hired FCLI Coordinator

Did the FCLI Coordinator

attend trainings? Manos Unidas

Director Organizational

Records (Certificate of

Attended all trainings

(36)

FCLI Coordinator attendance) Was a job description

created for FCLs?

Community Consultant Manos Unidas Director

FCLI Coordinator

Organizational Record (FCLs Job Description)

Completed Job Description

How many FCLs were

recruited? Community

Consultant Manos Unidas Director

FCLI Coordinator FCLs

Interview

Observational # of FCLs recruited

By 6 months, did all FCLs received required training?

Manos Unidas Director

Organizational Records (Certificate of attendance)

Attended all trainings

Long-term Objective 1. By 6-12 months, FCLs increase farmworker community knowledge on disaster preparedness

Indicators

How many educational sessions were completed in 6 months?

Farmworkers

(attendance sheet)

# of educational sessions

completed

How many farmworkers were trained?

FCLI Coordinator Organizational Record

# of farmworkers trained

(37)

FCLs

Farmworkers

(attendance sheet)

How many disaster preparedness kits were received (one per family)?

Farmworkers

(attendance sheet/check box next to name of participant who receive kit)

# number of disaster

preparedness kits

Was knowledge of disaster preparedness increased?

Farmworkers

Pre and post test % of knowledge increase

Long-term Objective 3. By 6 months to 1 year, hold monthly focus groups with FCLs to establish communication methods, safety protocols, and roles and responsibilities

Indicators

What communication

methods were established? FCLI Coordinator FCLs

Farmworkers Local Emergency Management

Established communication methods

What safety protocols were

established? FCLI Coordinator FCLs

Farmworkers

Established safety protocols

What roles and responsibilities were established?

Establishes roles and

responsibilities

(38)

Farmworkers Local Emergency Management

Conclusion

The Farmworker Disaster Resilience Plan incorporates two projects, the Farmworker Community Resilience Coalition and the Farmworker Community Leadership Initiative. It should be argued that each part of the FDRP are not exclusive of the other. The success of the program requires both plans cofunction. The FDRP creates a cycle of communication by having the FCRC support and advocate, while the FCLI will grow through empowerment and provide feedback of their experience to the FCRC.

Farmworkers face immense barriers that are not results of disasters. The issues of

immigration, language barriers, job security and poverty will continue to exist despite a disaster.

The only way to create a truly disaster resilient community is to address the conditions which farmworkers already face (Rivera, F., Kapuca, N., Hawkins, C. 2015; Cuervo, I., Leopold, L., Baron, S. (2017). While the FCRC is meant to provide collaborative support during a disaster, the long-term intentions of the FCRC is to tackle and alleviate systematic barriers faced by farmworkers.

Crucial to the potential success of the FCRC are a variety of stakeholders from not only farmworker advocates, but policy makers, influential leaders, law enforcement and emergency management. While there is evidence of successful farmworker and day laborer led programs

(39)

such as, the Disaster Response Community Group and the Immigrant Worker Disaster Resilience Workgroup, each of these programs were supported by CBOs and had a direct line of community to emergency response agency (Rivera, F., Kapuca, N., Hawkins, C. 2015). The FCRC should always seek to include the input of farmworkers and adjust any intervention, or support based on their feedback.

The successful labor organizer and founder of the United Farmworkers Union, Cesar Chavez states “Once social change begins it cannot be reversed. You cannot uneducate the person who has learned to read. You cannot humiliate the person who feels pride. You cannot oppress the people who are not afraid anymore” (United Farm Workers 2017). Through strengthening community partnerships and collaborations and improving farmworker

preparedness and recovery, the FDRP is facilitating an opportunity to build, to educate, and to empower. The long-term impacts and success of the FDRP should result in eventual systematic and social changes that alleviate the burdens faced by farmworkers. This in itself will lead toward a more resilient community.

(40)

References

Black River Health Services (BRHS 2019). About Us. Black River Health Services, Inc.

Retrieved from http://blackriverhealth.org/about-us/

Bonner, L. & Brosseau, C. (2018). Record-breaking flooding in North Carolina prolongs the agony from Florence. The News & Observer. Retrieved from:

https://www.newsobserver.com/news/state/article218537220.html

Burke, S.; Bethel, J.; Britt, A. (2012). Assessing Disaster Preparedness among Latino Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers in Eastern North Carolina. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 9, Issue 9, pp 3115-33. Retrieved from https://search- proquest-com.libproxy.lib.unc.edu/docview/1095233488?pq-origsite=summon

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (n.d.). Types of Evaluation. Center for Disease Control Division of STD Prevention. Retrieved from

https://www.cdc.gov/std/Program/pupestd/Types%20of%20Evaluation.pdf

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2017). Program Performance and Evaluation Office. U.S Department of Health & Human Services. Retrieved from

https://www.cdc.gov/eval/framework/index.htm

Community Tool Box. (2018). Section 5. Coalition Building 1: Starting a Coalition. Center for Community Health and Development at the University of Kansas. Retrieved from

https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/assessment/promotion-strategies/start-a-coaltion/main Cuervo, I., Leopold, L., Baron, S. (2017). Promoting Community Preparedness and Resilience:

A Latino Immigrant Community-Driven Project Following Hurricane Sandy. American Public Health Association. DOI 10.2105/AJPH.2017.304053

Department of Commerce (2018). Estimates of Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers During Peak Harvest by County. Department of Commerce - Workforce Solutions - Agricultural Services Duke Energy Foundation. (2019). Duke Energy announces $1 million in grant opportunities to power storm resilience in N.C. communities. Duke Energy Corporation. Retrieved from

https://news.duke-energy.com/releases/duke-energy-announces-1-million-in-grant-opportunities- to-power-storm-resilience-in-n-c-communities

Farmworker Advocacy Network (FAN) (2019). Farmworker Disaster Toolkit. Retrieved from http://ncfan.org/research/

Gares, G. & Montz, B. (2014). Disaster Vulnerability of Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers: A Comparison of Texas and North Carolina. Southeastern Geographer, The University of North Carolina Press. Volume 54, Number 1, pp. 36-54. 10.1253/sgo.2014.0000

(41)

Gil-Rivas, V., Kilmer, R., (2016). Building Community Capacity and Fostering Disaster Resilience. Journal of Clinical Psycology. Volume 72, Issue 12 Retrieved from

https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.libproxy.lib.unc.edu/doi/full/10.1002/jclp.22281

Hernandez, S. (2018). These Migrant Workers Called 911 During Hurricane Florence. But No One Came To Their Rescue. BuzzFeed News. Retrieved from

https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/salvadorhernandez/migrant-workers-stranded-hurricane- florence

Kapuca, N & Rivera, F. (2015). Disaster Vulnerability, Hazards, and Resilience: Perspectives from Florida. Springer International Publishing. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16453-3

Kusenbach, M., & Christmann, G. (2013). Understanding hurricane vulnerability. In N. Kapucu

& C. Hawkins (Eds.), Disaster resilience: Interdisciplinary perspectives (p. 61). New York:

Routledge.

Local News Lab. (2019). Call for Proposals: NC Local News Lab Fund Disaster Relief Information and Engagement Grants. Democracy Fund. Retrieved from

https://localnewslab.org/about/north-carolina-local-news-lab/disaster-relief-call-for-proposals/

MHP Salud (2014). Promotor(a) Program Manual. MHP Salud. Retrieved from https://2ow7t71bjuyu4dst8o28010f-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-

content/uploads/2013/11/Promotora-de-Salud-Program-Manual.pdf

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (2018). Agricultural Safety. U.S Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/default.html

National Weather Service (2018). Social Media: Winter Safety (Español). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved from https://www.weather.gov/wrn/winter2018-espanol- sm

National Weather Service (2019). Historic Hurricane Florence, September 12 - 15, 2018. United States Department of Commerce. Retrieved from https://www.weather.gov/mhx/Florence2018 National Weather Service (2019). Skywarn Program. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved from https://www.weather.gov/pqr/Skywarn

North Carolina Farmworker Health Program (NCFHP), (2019). Our Farmworker Health Service Delivery Sites. Office of Rural Health. Retrieved from https://www.ncfhp.org/sites-we-fund/

Nirupama, N. & Maula,. (2013). Engaging public for building resilient communities to reduce disaster impact A. Nat Hazards 66: 51.