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(1)City University of New York (CUNY). CUNY Academic Works Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects. CUNY Graduate Center. 1974. Effects of Instructions and Stimulus Representation on Selective Learning in Children Adele E. Gottfried Graduate Center, City University of New York. How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1655 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected].

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(3) 75-9869. GOTTFRIED, Adele Eskeles, 1947EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONS AND STIMULUS REPRESENTATION ON SELECTIVE LEARNING IN CHILDREN. The C ity U niversity o f New York, Ph.D., 1975 Psychology, general. Xerox University Microfilms,. Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48106. \. © 1975. ADELE ESKELES GOTTFRIED. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. ii.

(4) EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONS AND STIMULUS REPRESENTATION ON SELECTIVE LEARNING IN CHILDREN by ADELE E. GOTTFRIED. A d i s s e r t a t i o n s u b m itte d t o t h e G ra d u a te F a c u lty i n E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y , The C ity U n i v e r s i t y o f New Y ork.. 197^.

(5) T h is m a n u s c r ip t h a s b e e n r e a d and a c c e p te d f o r th e G ra d u a te F a c u lty i n E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y i n s a t i s f a c t i o n o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n r e q u ir e m e n t f o r t h e d e g re e o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y .. [signature]. C h a ir m a r /o f E x am ining C om m ittee [signature]. E x e c u tiv e O f f i c e r. D r. P h y l l i s A. K atz_______. D r. J o s e p h G llc k _________. D r. B a rry G holson S u p e r v is o r y C om m ittee. The C i t y U n i v e r s i t y o f New York. iii.

(6) A b s tra c t. EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONS AND STIMULUS REPRESENTATION ON SELECTIVE LEARNING IN CHILDREN. A d ele E . G o t t f r i e d A d v is e r i. P r o f e s s o r P h y l l i s A. K atz. S e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g p a t t e r n s o f c h i l d r e n were i n v e s t i g a t e d u s in g i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g m e th o d o lo g y .. S in c e i n c i d e n t a l , i n. c o n tr a s t to in te n tio n a l le a r n in g o c c u rs in th e absence o f in s t r u c t i o n s w h ich p r e p a r e t h e s u b j e c t f o r l a t e r r e t e n t i o n t e s t s , a s u b j e c t h a s r e l a t i v e l y more freed o m t o ch o o se t o a t t e n d to and l e a r n o n ly a p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t e d in f o r m a tio n ( th u s e x e rc is in g s e le c t iv i t y ) .. F r e v io u s r e s e a r c h s u g g e s te d t h a t. s e l e c t i v i t y seem ed t o i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e w ith d e v e lo p m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o d i f f e r e n t i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g p a ra d ig m s .. For s tu d ie s. i n w h ich i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i w ere p r e s e n te d w ith o u t a c o n c u r r e n t i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k (Type 1 ) i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i n c r e a s e d w ith ag e in d ic a tin g d ecrease d s e l e c t i v i t y .. F o r s t u d i e s i n w h ich i n c i d e n t a l. s t i m u l i w ere p r e s e n te d w ith a s im u lta n e o u s i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k (Type 2 ) i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g re m a in e d s t a b l e o r d e c r e a s e d w ith a g e , w h ile c o n c u r r e n t i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g i n c r e a s e d , i n d i c a t i n g in c r e a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y .. The p u rp o s e o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y was t o. d e l i n e a t e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s e s e e m in g ly d iv e rg e n t tre n d s .. I n a d d i t i o n , c h i l d r e n 's s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g. o f s t i m u l i c o r r e s p o n d in g t o d i f f e r e n t d e v e lo p m e n ta l l e v e l s o f c o g n i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n had b e e n s e r i o u s l y n e g l e c t e d i n th e lite ra tu re .. M ost i n v e s t i g a t i o n s em ployed u n r e l a t e d s t i m u l i iv.

(7) w h ic h n e c e s s i t a t e d r o t e p r o c e s s e s f o r r e c a l l .. I t was a l s o. t h e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y t o d e te r m in e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s ti m u l u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n upon c h i l d r e n 's s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g . B ased upon t h e o r y (d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n c e p tu a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) and e m p i r i c a l t r e n d s , i t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t o l d e r c h i l d r e n a r e more f l e x i b l e i n e x e r c i s i n g s e l e c t i v i t y th a n younger c h ild r e n .. T h u s, l e a r n i n g p a t t e r n s o f o l d e r b u t n o t. y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n w ere e x p e c te d to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o d ifie d by i n s t r u c t i o n a l and s tim u lu s v a r i a t i o n .. To t e s t t h i s h y p o . t h e s i s , a th re e -w a y f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n was em p lo y ed . w ere*. ( a ) ty p e o f i n s t r u c t i o n. (Type 1 v s . 2 ) ,. The f a c t o r s. (b ) s tim u lu s. r e p re s e n ta tio n (c o n c e p tu a lly -, p e rc e p tu a lly - o r u n r e la te d ) , and ( c ) d e v e lo p m e n ta l l e v e l ( f i r s t - and s i x t h - g r a d e r s ) . S u b j e c t s w ere 168 w h i t e , m id d le c l a s s c h i l d r e n who w ere ran d o m ly a s s ig n e d t o e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s .. An e q u a l. num ber o f f i r s t - and s i x t h - g r a d e g i r l s and b o y s w ere em ployed. E ig h t p a i r s o f c o lo r e d p i c t u r e s w ere p r e s e n te d i n e a c h c o n d itio n .. The same s t i m u l i w ere u s e d i n a l l c o n d i t i o n s , b u t. w ere p a i r e d c o n c e p t u a l l y , p e r c e p t u a l l y o r i n u n r e l a t e d m an n er. I n t h e Type 1 c o n d i t i o n s u b j e c t s w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o lo o k a t t h e p i c t u r e s b u t w ere n o t in fo rm e d t h a t t h e y w ould r e c e i v e l a t e r re te n tio n ta s k s .. I n th e Type 2 c o n d i t i o n s u b j e c t s w ere. i n s t r u c t e d t o lo o k a t a l l s t i m u l i and t o rem em ber t h e to p member o f e a c h p a i r f o r l a t e r r e t e n t i o n .. F re e r e c a l l and. m a tc h in g o f p a i r s ta B k s w ere a d m in is te r e d f o llo w in g s ti m u l u s e x p o s u re t o d e te r m in e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n s t r u c t i o n s and s ti m u l u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on l e a r n i n g . R e s u lts re v e a le d t h a t s e le c t iv e le a r n in g p a tte r n s o f. v.

(8) b o th a g e g ro u p s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y and s i m i l a r l y m o d ifie d by i n s t r u c t i o n s and s t i m u l i .. I n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g was s i g n i f i c a n t l y. s u p e r i o r f o r s u b j e c t s i n Type 1 com pared t o th o s e i n Type 2 c o n d i t i o n s , w h ile l e a r n i n g o f t h e to p ( i n t e n t i o n a l — Type 2 ) s ti m u l u s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r f o r s u b j e c t s i n Type 2 com pared t o th o s e i n Type 1 c o n d i t i o n s .. R e la tiv e p ro p o rtio n s. o f i n t e n t i o n a l ( to p ) t o t o t a l s tim u lu s r e c a l l w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t b etw een t h e g r a d e s .. M atch in g p e rfo rm a n c e. o f s u b j e c t s i n p e r c e p t u a l c o n d i t i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f s u b j e c t s i n c o n c e p tu a l c o n d i t i o n s , w hose m a tc h in g was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f s u b j e c t s i n u n r e l a t e d s ti m u l u s c o n d i t i o n s .. D e v e lo p m e n ta l d i f f e r e n c e s w ere r e l a t e d. t o t h e l e v e l r a t h e r th a n t h e p a t t e r n o f r e t e n t i o n .. Type 1. i n s t r u c t i o n s e n h an c ed s i x t h - g r a d e r s * f r e e r e c a l l o f i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i and p a i r s t o a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n f o r f i r s t - g r a d e r s , w h ile Type 2 c o n d i t i o n s en h an ced f i r s t - g r a d e r s ' t o t a l s ti m u l u s r e c a l l t o a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r d e g r e e th a n f o r s ix th -g ra d e rs . S e l e c t i v i t y d i d n o t i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e w ith a g e b u t was r e l a t e d t o e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s f o r a l l s u b j e c t s . The r e s u l t i n g d e v e lo p m e n ta l d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t r e l a t i v e l y n o n s t r u c t u r e d c o n d i t i o n s en h an ced o l d e r s u b j e c t s ' r e c a l l t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t r e l a t i v e t o y o u n g e r s u b j e c t s , w h ile y o u n g e r s u b j e c t s ' r e c a l l was f a c i l i t a t e d b y r e l a t i v e l y s t r u c t u r e d c o n d i t i o n s com pared t o o l d e r s u b j e c t s .. P r o d u c tio n d e f i c i e n c y. a n d /o r r e t r i e v a l i n e f f ic ie n c ie s o f younger r e l a t i v e to o ld e r c h i l d r e n a r e p r o c e s s e s ad v an ced t o e x p l a i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n ta l d iffe re n c e s .. The s i m i l a r i t y o f y o u n g e r and o l d e r c h i l d r e n 's. vi.

(9) u s e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d , a s w e ll a s t h e in f l u e n c e o f Type 1 an d 2 d e s ig n s on s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g p a t t e r n s . d e f i n i t i o n o f s e l e c t i v i t y w h ich a c c o u n ts ’ f o r com ponents r a t h e r th a n t o t a l am ount o f l e a r n i n g i s p r o p o s e d .. vii. A.

(10) A cknow ledgem ents My d e e p a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x te n d e d t o P h y l l i s A. K a tz , co m m itte e c h a i r p e r s o n , f o r h e r v a l u a b l e g u id a n c e and i n t e r e s t th r o u g h o u t th e c o u r s e o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .. I am g r a t e f u l. t o J o s e p h G lic k and B a rry G h o lso n f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s , c r i t i c a l comments and f o r s e r v i n g on th e d i s s e r t a t i o n c o m m itte e . S in c e r e th a n k s a r e e x te n d e d t o G ordon H ale and E d ith N eim ark f o r s e r v i n g a s r e a d e r s f o r t h e f i n a l o r a l e x a m in a tio n . I a l s o th a n k my h u sb an d and c o l le a g u e A lle n W. G o t t f r i e d f o r h i s s u g g e s t i o n s and e n c o u ra g e m e n t d u r in g my d i s s e r t a t i o n r e s e a r c h and g r a d u a te s t u d i e s , and S u sa n Horn f o r h e r a s s is ta n c e . The c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e f a c u l t y and s t u d e n t s o f t h e M urray Avenue S c h o o l i n t h e M amaroneck S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , W e s tc h e s te r , was e s s e n t i a l t o c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s tu d y . is s in c e re ly a p p re c ia te d .. T h e ir p a r t i c i p a t i o n. S p e c i a l th a n k s go t o C a l v e r t. S c h l i c k , R ic h a rd A n d erso n an d B e rn a rd K e s s le r f o r t h e i r k in d s u p p o r t o f my r e s e a r c h .. viii.

(11) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ .. X. LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................x i i C h a p te r I.. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 1. Review o f I n c i d e n t a l L e a r n in g S tu d ie s w ith a C o n c u rre n t I n t e n t i o n a l T ask (Type 2 ) .............. 6 Review o f I n c i d e n t a l L e a r n in g S tu d ie s w ith o u t 18 a C o n c u rre n t I n t e n t i o n a l T a s k .................. P ro b lem and H y p o th e s e s ..................2k II.. METHOD.................................................................................................. 3% D e s ig n ............................................... S u b j e c t s ................................................. ..................... S tim u li ................ Type o f T a sk P r e s e n t a t i o n . ...................................................... R e te n tio n T a s k s P r o c e d u r e . . . ..................................... ....................................... D ep en d en t M e a su re s ................................... P r e t e s t s ................... III. IV.. 31 31 32 35 36 37 39 kO. RESULTS................................................................................................ kZ DISCUSSION.......................................................................................... 71. The F l e x i b i l i t y H y p o t h e s i s . . ....................... 71 86 S e l e c t i v e L e a rn in g T r e n d s ............................ O th e r I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e D a ta .................... 101 C o n c l u s i o n . . . ............................... ........................... . . . . . . . 1 0 4 E d u c a tio n a l I m p l i c a t i o n s ................................................. 106 APPENDIX................................................................................................................ 108 REFERENCES............................................................................................... ix. 127.

(12) LIST OP TABLES T a b le 1. Page Means f o r T o t a l Number o f S t i m u l i R e c a lle d G rouped b y G rade and T y p e............................... 2. Mean Number o f I n c i d e n t a l S t i m u l i R e c a lle d Grouped by G rade and T ype. 3. .................................. 48.. Mean Number o f I n c i d e n t a l S t i m u l i R e c a lle d G rouped by G ra d e « Sex and S t im u lu s. 4.. 44. ............... 51. Mean Number o f C o r r e c t l y M atched P a i r s G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S tim u lu s .................................................. 5.6. 5. Mean Number o f C o n c e p tu a l P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped by Type and S t i m u l u s . . . ................... 6. Mean Number o f P e r c e p t u a l P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped b y Type and S t im u lu s. 7. 59. ............................. Mean Number o f P e r c e p t u a l P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped by G rade and T y p e............................... 8. 6l. 63. Mean Number o f U n r e la te d P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S t i m u l u s . ................................................ 6 5. 9. Mean Number o f W ith in T re a tm e n t P a i r s Grouped Sy G rade and T y p e . . . . . . ............................................................ 68. A. Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r T o t a l Amount o f R e c a lle d G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S t i m u l u s . . . . . 1 1 0. B. Means an d S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r Number o f I n t e n t i o n a l S t i m u l i G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S t i m u l u s .. .......................... H I. x *.

(13) LIST OF TABLES T a b le C. Page Means an d S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r Number o f I n c i d e n t a l S t i m u l i G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S tim u lu s ...................................................... D. H2. Means an d S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r t h e P r o p o r t i o n o f I n t e n t i o n a l t o T o ta l S t im u l i G rouped by G ra d e , Type an d S t i m u l u s . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................13-3. E. Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r Number o f. -■. C o r r e c t l y M atched P a i r s Grouped by G ra d e , Type and S t i m u l u s .............................................................. F. 114*. Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r C o n c e p tu a l P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped b y G ra d e , Type and S t im u l u s ............115. G. Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r P e r c e p t u a l P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S tim u lu s ............116. H. Means an d S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r U n r e la te d P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped b y G ra d e , Type and S tim u lu s ............1 1 ?. I. Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r W ith in T re a tm e n t P a i r s R e c a lle d G rouped by G ra d e , Type and S tim u lu s ...............• . • ....................................... .......................... J. 118. Means an d S ta n d a r d D e v ia tio n s f o r L a te n c y Grouped by G ra d e , Type and S tim u lu s ................ .................................119. K. Summary o f A n a ly s e s o f V a r ia n c e i F R a tio s f o r D ep e n d en t V a r i a b l e s . . .......................................................... L. 120. Mean Number o f M a tc h in g E r r o r s G rouped b y G ra d e , Type an d E r r o r T y p e .. xi. ............................................ 126.

(14) LIST OP FIGURES F ig u r e 1. Page G rade X Type i n t e r a c t i o n f o r num ber o f s t i m u l i r e c a l l e d ................................................... ............................... ... 2. G rade X Type i n t e r a c t i o n f o r t h e num ber o f i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i r e c a l l e d ...................................... 3. 45. 4-9. S ex X G rade X S tim u lu s i n t e r a c t i o n f o r th e num ber o f i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i r e c a l l e d . . . . . .................. 5 2. 4. M ain e f f e c t s f o r g r a d e , ty p e and s ti m u l u s i T o t a l num ber o f c o r r e c t l y m atched p a i r s. 5. ...............5 7. G rade X Type i n t e r a c t i o n f o r th e num ber o f w i t h i n t r e a t m e n t p a i r s ............................................................ 69. xii.

(15) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I n te r e s t in in c id e n ta l le a rn in g in c h ild re n h as p r o l i f e r a t e d d u r in g t h e p a s t few y e a r s .. Such s t u d i e s p r o v id e. a n o p p o r tu n i t y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e l e c t i v e p ro c e sse s in a tte n tio n ( S te v e n s o n , 1 9 7 2 ).. (Hagen & H a le , 1973) and l e a r n i n g. I n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g , i n c o n t r a s t to. in t e n t i o n a l le a r n in g , o c c u rs in th e ab sen ce o f in s tr u c tio n s w h ich p r e p a r e t h e s u b j e c t f o r l a t e r r e t e n t i o n t e s t s 1 9 6 4 ).. (P o stm an ,. T h e r e f o r e , a s u b j e c t h a s r e l a t i v e l y more freed o m. t o ch o o se t o a t t e n d t o and l e a r n o n ly a p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t e d in f o r m a t i o n ( th u s e x e r c i s i n g s e l e c t i v i t y ) i n i n c i d e n t a l a s o p p o sed t o i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s . A c c o rd in g t o P o stm an ( 1 9 6 4 ), i n s t r u c t i o n s " a c t i v a t e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e m a t e r i a l s " ( p . 18 9 ) w h ich f a c i l i a t e le a rn in g .. Such r e s p o n s e s i n c l u d e l a b e l i n g and r e h e a r s a l ,. among o t h e r s .. T h u s, i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g s h o u ld be s u p e r i o r. t o i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g due t o t h e s u b je c ts * u s e o f d e l i b e r a t e , o r g a n iz e d l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s w h ich a r e a c t i v a t e d by i n s t r u c tio n s .. R e s e a rc h w ith a d u l t s h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n t e n t i o n a l. le a rn in g i s u s u a lly s u p e rio r to in c id e n ta l le a rn in g I 9 6 5 i P o stm an , 1 9 6 4 ).. (M cL aughlin,. D e v e lo p m e n ta l s t u d i e s , h o w ev er,. h av e shown t h a t i n s t u c t i o n s may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s e r v e th e same r o l e s i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f c h i l d r e n .. 1.

(16) 2. In some i n s t a n c e s , w ith a d u l t s u b j e c t s , i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g may be e q u i v a l e n t o r ev en s u p e r i o r t o i n t e n t i o n a l le a rn in g .. Such i s t h e c a s e when r e s p o n s e s t o th e m a t e r i a l s. a r e s tr e n g t h e n e d th ro u g h g e n e r a l a c t i v i t i e s w hich o r i e n t t h e l e a r n e r t o t h e m a t e r i a l s ev en i n t h e a b s e n c e o f in te n tio n a l in s tru c tio n s. (M cL aughlin, 1 9 6 5 1 P o stm an , 196*0.. Such o r i e n t i n g t a s k s , a s th e y a r e c a l l e d , a llo w t h e l e a r n e r t o l a b e l a n d / o r r e h e a r s e s ti m u lu s m a t e r i a l s w ith o u t i n d i c a t i n g th a t r e te n tio n w ill be te s te d .. F or in s ta n c e , a s u b je c t. m ig h t b e a s k e d t o r a t e c e r t a i n s y l l a b l e s on p h o n e tic s i m i l a r i t y w ith o u t b e in g s p e c i f i c a l l y a s k e d t o rem em ber th e s y l l a b l e s . I t w ould b e e x p e c te d t h a t s u b s e q u e n t r e t e n t i o n w ould be s u p e r io r f o r s u b je c ts le a r n in g in c id e n ta l m a te r ia ls w ith , r a t h e r th a n w i t h o u t , o r ie lb in g t a s k s .. When o r i e n t i n g t a s k s. a r e o m itte d , i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g s h o u ld b e s u p e r i o r t o in c id e n ta l le a rn in g .. S t u d i e s o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g c o n d u c te d. w ith c h i l d r e n , h o w ev er, do n o t u n e q u iv o c a lly d e m o n s tr a te s u p e rio r in te n tio n a l le a rn in g r e l a t i v e to in c id e n ta l le a rn in g a d m in is te r e d w ith o u t o r i e n t i n g t a s k s . D i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h e s h av e b e e n ad v an ced t o e x p l a i n t h e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d i n i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g .. The n a t u r e o f th e s tim u l u s i s. a n im p o r ta n t s o u r c e o f s e l e c t i v i t y i n a l l a p p r o a c h e s . P o stm an (1964) p o s t u l a t e s t h a t s tim u lu s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , su c h a s m e a n in g f u ln e s s i n f l u e n c e s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s t o t h e m a t e r i a l s (su c h a s l a b e l i n g and em p lo y in g a s s o c i a t i o n s ) w hich i n f l u e n c e i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l r e c a l l .. T h u s, c h a r a c t e r . i s t i c s o f t h e s t i m u l i a f f e c t s u b je d b ' s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g by.

(17) 3. e n h a n c in g o r d im i n i s h i n g r e s p o n s e s p ro d u c e d i n r e l a t i o n to such m a te r ia ls .. B e rly n e ( 1 9 6 3 )* on "the o t h e r h a n d , s t r e s s e s. t h e r o l e o f s y m b o lic an d c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s r e l a t e d t o s e l e c t i v i t y i n i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g , r a t h e r th a n e m p h a s iz in g v e r b a l and a s s o c i a t i v e p r o c e s s e s .. A c c o rd in g t o B e r ly n e ,. i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i n c r e a s e s when s t i m u l i a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o l l a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's s y m b o lic s t r u c t u r e s .. C o l l a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s , su c h a s n o v e l t y ,. s u r p r i s e , o r c h a n g e a c t i v e l y in v o lv e t h e p e r s o n i n a c o m p a riso n o f th e s t i m u l i w ith o t h e r s a l s o p r e s e n t i n th e s tim u lu s f i e l d , o r w ith th o s e t h a t hav e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y e n c o u n te r e d and s y m b o l i c a l l y s t o r e d .. T h e re fo re , c o lla tiv e s tim u li e l i c i t. i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n and th u s en h an ce i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g . Though b o th o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s may h av e r e le v a n c e t o a d u l t l e a r n i n g , o t h e r p r o c e s s e s may b e in v o lv e d i n s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g an d a t t e n t i o n i n o c h i l d r e n .. F o r e x a m p le , t h e a b i l i t y. o f c h i l d r e n t o f o c u s d i f f e r e n t i a l l y upon i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i may i n c r e a s e w ith d e v e lo p m e n t, a s w e ll a s t h e i r a b i l i t y t o r e p r e s e n t s t i m u l i s y m b o li c a l ly .. T hese. l a t t e r p r o c e s s e s a r e t h e f o c u s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y .. In. o r d e r t o e l u c i d a t e th em , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o exam ine t h e p a ra d ig m s em p lo y ed . In i n v e s t i g a t i n g i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i n c h i l d r e n , two ty p e s o f m e th o d o lo g ie s h av e b e e n u s e d .. T hese p a ra d ig m s. h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d t o b y P ostm an (1964) a s Type 1 and Type 2 . s im p ly. Type 1 s t u d i e s a r e th o s e i n w h ich s u b j e c t s a r e e x p o se d t o m a t e r i a l s w ith o u t a n y s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n s. re g a rd in g r e te n tio n .. F o llo w in g e x p o s u r e , t h e s u b j e c t s '.

(18) 4. re te n tio n i s te s te d .. W ith in t h i s p a rd d ig m , t.. • ^1. s e l e c t i o n c a n o c c u r w ith r e s p e c t t o b o th t h e ty p e o f m a t e r i a l l e a r n e d and t h e a m o u n t.. In c o n t r a s t , Type 2 s t u d i e s a r e. t h o s e i n w h ich s u b j e c t s a r e i n s t r u c t e d t o l e a r n a s p e c i f i c ( i . e . in te n tio n a l) ta s k .. P r e s e n te d s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith th e. i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g s t i m u l i a r e o t h e r s t i m u l i w h ich a r e i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e l e a r n i n g t a s k , and w hich th e s u b j e c t i s n o t in s tr u c te d to le a r n .. W ith in t h i s l a t t e r p a ra d ig m , th e. r e l a t i o n o f i n c i d e n t a l t o i n t e n t i o n a l s t i m u l i may v a r y . I n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i may be e i t h e r i n t r i n s i c o r e x t r i n s i c t o th e in te n tio n a l s tim u li.. I n tr in s ic in c id e n ta l s tim u li a re. p r e s e n t e d a s i n t e g r a l com ponents o f t h e i n t e n t i o n a l s t i m u l i , b u t i n a way w h ich seem s i r r e l e v a n t f o r l e a r n i n g .. For. ex am p le , w ords t o b e l e a r n e d may b e p r i n t e d i n v a r i o u s c o l o r s , and th e c o l o r c u e s w i l l s u b s e q u e n tly b e u s e d t o m easu re in c id e n ta l le a rn in g .. E x trin s ic in c id e n ta l s tim u li a re. t y p i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d a s s e p a r a t e e le m e n ts o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n , f o r e x am p le , p r e s e n t i n g g e o m e tr ic fo rm s n e x t t o w ords i n a l i s t .. I n a l l s i t u a t i o n s , t h e m easu re o f. i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g i s d e f in e d by t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s , w h ile i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i s m easu red th ro u g h r e t e n t i o n o f i r r e l e v a n t s tim u li.. S e l e c t i o n i n Type 2 t a s k s h a s b e e n d e f in e d i n t h e '. d e v e lo p m e n ta l l i t e r a t u r e a s th e r e l a t i v e am ounts o f i n t e n t i o n a l and. i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i le a r n e d b y s u b j e c t s .. Type 2 p a ra d ig m s. a l s o a llo w f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g o f p a r tic u la r s tim u li. D ev e lo p m e n ta l s t u d i e s o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g h av e had a s t h e i r m a jo r aim th e s tu d y o f s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n i n c h i l d r e n ..

(19) 5. The m a j o r i t y o f s t u d i e s c o n d u c te d w ith c h i l d r e n h av e b e e n Type 2 d e s ig n s u s in g e x t r i n s i c i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i .. S e le c tiv e. a t t e n t i o n t o t a s k - r e l e v a n t ( i n t e n t i o n a l ) and t a s k - i r r e l e v a n t ( i n c i d e n t a l ) m a t e r i a l s i s i n f e r r e d from th e c h i l d r e n 's r e s p o n s e s on r e t e n t i o n t e s t s .. I t i s th u s assum ed t h a t s e l e c t i v e. a t t e n t i o n h a s o c c u r r e d t o t h e s t i m u l i w h ich a r e r e c a l l e d (Hagen & H a le , 1 9 7 3 ). h o w e v er.. T h e re i s a p ro b le m i n t h i s a s s u m p tio n ,. S in c e t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n in v o lv e memory, and s i n c e. memory i t s e l f i s a f f e c t e d b y l e a r n i n g , i t i s n o t a t a l l e v id e n t t h a t s e l e c t i v i t y i n c h i l d r e n 's i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i s due t o a t t e n t i o n r a t h e r t h a n memory.. H ow ever, u s in g d i f f e r e n t. ty p e s o f r e t e n t i o n t e s t s may t a p p r o c e s s e s w h ich a r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o a t t e n t i o n and memory.. W ith in i n c i d e n t a l. l e a r n i n g s t u d i e s , r e c o g r itio n and r e c a l l t e s t s hav e d e m o n s tra te d d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f r e t e n t i o n (M cL aughlin, 1965» S i e g e l & C o r s i n i , 1 9 6 9 1 v on W rig h t, 1 9 7 3 ).. R e c o g n itio n t a s k s a p p e a r. t o b e m ore s e n s i t i v e t o a t t e n t i o n , w h e re a s r e c a l l may be more s e n s i t i v e t o memory f a c t o r s. ( S ie g e l & C o r s i n i , 1 9 6 9 ) .. Not a l l r e v ie w s o f c h i l d r e n 's i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g h av e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e l i t e r a t u r e a c c o r d in g t o ty p e o f m eth o d o lo g y em ployed ( e . g . H agen & H a le , 1 9 7 3 f S te v e n s o n , 1 9 7 0 ).. F a ilu re. t o do t h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n c o n t r a d i c t o r y d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d s . I n some i n s t a n c e s , f o r e x a m p le , no ch an g e o r d e c r e a s e s i n am ount o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g hav e o c c u r r e d w ith a g e (Maccoby & H agen, 1 9 6 5 1 H agen, 1 9 6 7 ) .. In o t h e r s t u d i e s c u r v i l i n e a r. r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith ag e h av e b e e n fo u n d ( S i e g e l & S te v e n s o n , 1 9 6 5 ) , and i n c r e a s e s w ith ag e hav e a l s o b e e n o b ta in e d (V aughan, 1 9 6 8 ).. Such d i s p a r a t e f i n d i n g s become more c o h e r e n t when th e.

(20) 6. p a r t i c u l a r m eth o d o lg y em ployed i s ta k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The n e x t p o r t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r w i l l r e v ie w t h e d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d s o b ta in e d i n c h i l d r e n 's i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g , a s th e y h av e b e e n fo u n d w ith Type 1 and Type 2 m e th o d o lo g ie s d e l i n e a t e d a b o v e .*. Review o f I n c i d e n t a l L e a rn in g S tu d ie s w ith a C o n c u rre n t I n t e n t i o n a l T a sk (Type 2) Type 2 d e v e lo p m e n ta l s t u d i e s o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g ap p ear to y ie ld d if f e r e n t p a tte r n s o f s e le c tiv e le a rn in g th a n studies u s in g Type 1 m e th o d o lo g y .. S e l e c t i v i t y may. b e d e f i n e d a s l e a r n i n g p a r t i c u l a r s t i m u l i a t th e e x p e n s e o f o th e rs .. -. L e a rn in g may b e more o r l e s s s e l e c t i v e on a. v a r i e t y o f d im e n s io n s one o f w h ich i s t h e t o t a l am ount o f le a rn in g .. F o r t h i s d im e n s io n , t h e g r e a t e r th e t o t a l am ount. o f l e a r n i n g , t h e l e s s t h e d e g r e e o f s e l e c t i v i t y m a n if e s te d . T h is p o s i t i o n ste m s from two s o u r c e s .. F i r s t , P ostm an (196*0. s t a t e s t h a t i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i s more s e l e c t i v e t h a n i n t e n t i o n a l le a r n in g s in c e. r e s p o n s e s a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o be. made t o a s many o f t h e s t i m u l i i n t h e fo rm e r a s i n t h e la tte r.. T h u s, o v e r a l l am ount o f l e a r n i n g i s l i k e l y t o be. lo w e r i n i n c i d e n t a l th a n i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g .. G e n e r a l iz i n g. 1S in c e t h e m a j o r i t y o f d e v e lo p m e n ta l s t u d i e s h av e em ployed Type 2 m e th o d o lo g y , t h i s p a ra d ig m w i l l be re v ie w e d firs t. T re n d s from t h e s e s t u d i e s w i l l form a b a s i s f o r c o m p a riso n w ith Type 1 s t u d i e s . The d e s i g n a t i o n s o f Type 1 a n a Type 2 w i l l b e u se d t o r e f e r t o t h e p a ra d ig m s a s d e fin e d above..

(21) 7. from t h i s p o s i t i o n , i n i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g d e c r e a s e d l e a r n i n g d e n o te s i n c r e a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y .. S eco n d , th e word. s e l e c t i o n i t s e l f im p lie s t h a t l e a r n i n g "m ore* i s g l o b a l r a t h e r th a n p a r t i c u l a r . A se c o n d d im e n sio n i n w h ich s e l e c t i v i t y may b e m a n if e s te d r e l a t e s t o t h e n a t u r e o f th e i n c i d e n t a l m a t e r i a l s .. S tim u li. may v a r y w ith r e g a r d t o t h e i r c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith c h i l d r e n 's c o g n itiv e a b i l i t i e s a n d /o r le a r n in g s t r a t e g i e s .. T h u s,. c h i l d r e n o f d i f f e r e n t d e v e lo p m e n ta l l e v e l s may be i n c l i n e d t o s e l e c t i v e l y l e a r n some ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l s more r e a d i l y th a n o t h e r t y p e s .. A g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f s e l e c t i v i t y w ould be. evdidfenced by d i f f e r e n t i a l l e a r n i n g b e tw e e n ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l s , w h ile l e s s s e l e c t i v i t y w ould b e e v id e n c e d by e q u i v a l e n t l e a r n i n g o f s t i m u l i r e g a r d l e s s o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f su c h m a t e r i a l s .. T h ese two d im e n s io n s w i l l s e r v e a s th e. c r i t e r i a by w h ich t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g w i l l b e a n a ly z e d i n th e p r e s e n t r e v ie w . A s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s h a s b e e n c o n d u c te d by Hagen and h i s a s s o c i a t e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g d e v e lo p m e n ta l a s p e c t s o f in c d e n ta l le a r n in g .. The g e n e r a l p a ra d ig m in v o lv e d e x t r i n s i c ,. Type 2 m a t e r i a l s i n w h ich t h e c e n t r a l ( i n t e n t i o n a l ) t a s k was r o t e r e c a l l o f t h e s e r i a l p o s i t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s s t i m u l i p r e s e n t e d on c a r d s .. E ach o f t h e i n t e n t i o n a l. s t i m u l i was p a i r e d w ith a n o t h e r on t h e same c a r d .. The. i n c i d e n t a l t a s k was f o r s u b j e c t s t o rem em ber t h e p a i r e d s tim u li.. S u b j e c t s w ere n o t i n s t r u c t e d t o l e a r n thfese. p a ir e d a s s o c i a t i o n s p r i o r t o t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n .. B oth.

(22) 8. c e n t r a l and i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g in v o lv e d r o t e memory. In a n e a r l y s t u d y , Maccoby and Hagen ( 1 9 6 5 ) i n v e s t i g a te d i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g t o d e te r m in e t h e e f f e c t s o f e x tr a n e o u s in f o r m a tio n on t h e s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n t o f t a s k - r e l e v a n t and t a s k - i r r e l e v a n t s t i m u l i .. S u b je c ts. w ere f i r s t - , t h i r d - , f i f t h - and s e v e n th - g r a d e , e t h n i c a l l y m ixed c h i l d r e n who h ad b e e n m atch ed on g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e b e tw e e n c o n d i t i o n s .. S t i m u li w ere a s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e c a r d s. w ith c o lo r e d b a c k g ro u n d s .. The c a r d s w ere d is p la y e d i n. a n a r r a y t o th e s u b j e c t , and th e n w ere tu r n e d o v e r t o h id e t h e p i c t u r e s and m atch ed c o l o r s .. The i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k was. a s e r i a l p o s i t i o n t a s k i n w hich s u b j e c t s w ere a s k e d t o p o i n t t o t h e c a r d w hose b ac k g ro u n d c o l o r m atched a c o lo r e d c h ip shown by t h e e x p e r im e n te r w h ile t h e f r o n t o f th e c a rd was h id d e n from t h e s u b je c ts * v ie w .. The c e n t r a l t a s k s c o r e. was t h e num ber o f tim e s t h e s u b j e c t c o r r e c t l y p o in te d t o th e c a r d s w h ich m atched t h e c o lo r e d c h i p s .. The i n c i d e n t a l. t a s k c o n s i s t e d o f i d e n t i f y i n g th e p i c t u r e th a th h a d a p p e a re d w ith e a c h c o l o r .. The i n c i d e n t a l r e t e n t i o n s c o r e was th e. num ber o f p i c t u r e s c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d a s b e in g p a i r e d w ith b a c k g ro u n d c o l o r s .. In a d d i t i o n , a d i s t r a c t o r was. in c lu d e d f o r h a l f t h e s u b j e c t s w hich r e q u i r e d them t o l i s t e n t o a t a p e o f p ia n o m u sic and t a p w h en ev er a b a s s n o te was h e a rd .. T h is d i s t r a c t o r was p r o v id e d t o i n c r e a s e in f o r m a tio n. o v e r lo a d .. R e s u lts in d ic a te d t h a t c e n t r a l ta s k r e c a l l. i n c r e a s e d w ith a g e .. H ow ever, a n i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een age. and c e n t r a l v s . i n c i d e n t a l r e c a l l r e v e a l e d t h a t s e v e n th -.

(23) 9. g r a d e r s d i s p l a y e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s i n c i d e n t a l r e c a l l com p ared to younger s u b je c ts .. D is tra c tio n a ffe c te d c e n tr a l. b u t n o t in c id e n ta l r e c a l l . i n a l l g ra d e s in d ic a tin g t h a t d is tr a c tio n r e s u lte d in d ecrease d in te n tio n a l le a rn in g . G e n e ra l a b i l i t y d id n o t haVe a c o n s i s t e n t n o r s e e m in g ly s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n i n c i d e n t a l and c e n t r a l l e a r n i n g a s ju d g e d by t h e low m a g n itu d e s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n I .Q . and r e t e n t i o n s c o r e s , a s w e ll a s v a r i a b l e d i r e c t i o n s o f su c h c o rre la tio n s . Hagen ( 1 9 6 7 ) s t u d i e d m id d le c l a s s c h i l d r e n i n g r a d e s o n e , t h r e e , f i v e and s e v e n .. M a te r ia ls i n t h i s s tu d y d i f f e r e d. from th o s e u s e d i n th e p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d Maccoby and Hagen s tu d y ( 1 9 6 5 )*. B la c k l i n e d ra w in g s o f two o b j e c t s , an. a n im a l and h o u s e h o ld o b j e c t , w ere p a i r e d on c a r d s p la c e d ab o v e t h e o t h e r .. w ith one. A n o th e r s e t o f c a r d s was in c lu d e d. i n w h ich o n ly one o b j e c t a p p e a re d on a c a r d .. D is tra c tio n. was in c lu d e d f o r h a l f t h e s u b j e c t s , i n t h e same m anner a s i n Maccoby an d Hagen (1 965) and f o r t h e same p u r p o s e .. For. t h e t a s k u s in g two o b j e c t s p e r c a r d , t h e c e n t r a l t a s k was t h e same a s i n Maccoby and H agen*s s tu d y , e x c e p t t h a t s u b j e c t s l o c a t e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t r a t h e r th a n c o l o r s .. The. i n c i d e n t a l t a s k c o n s i s t e d o f r e c o g n iz in g p a i r s o f i n c i d e n t a l and c e n t r a l s t i m u l i . R e s u l t s a g a in i n d i c a t e d t h a t c e n t r a l t a s k p e rfo rm a n c e i n c r e a s e d w ith a g e and was h i g h e r in n o n d i s t r a c t i o n th a n d is tr a c tio n c o n d itio n s .. One p i c t u r e p e r c a r d was s i g n i f i c a n t l y. e a s i e r t o l e a r n a t a l l g ra d e l e v e l s th a n two p i c t u r e s pper.

(24) 10. c a rd , in d ic a tin g t h a t th e p re se n c e o f in c id e n ta l s tim u li d i s t r a c t e d a l l s u b j e c t s d u r in g c e n t r a l t a s k l e a r n i n g r e g a rd le s s o f ag e.. In te re s tin g ly , d is tr a c tio n a ffe c te d c e n tra l. b u t n o t in c id e n ta l r e c a ll,. A G rade X Type o f r e c a l l i n t e r . a c t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t w h ile c e n t r a l r e c a l l i n c r e a s e d w ith a g e , i n c i d e n t a l r e c a l l d id n o t c h a n g e .. In c id e n ta l r e c a ll. d id n o t d e c l i n e a t t h e s e v e n th g ra d e a s was fo u n d i n th e p r e v io u s s tu d y .. C o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n c e n t r a l and i n c i d e n t a l. r e c a l l on t h e t w o - p i c t u r e t a s k w ere p o s i t i v e th ro u g h g ra d e f i v e , an d n e g a t i v e a t g ra d e s e v e n . o f th e. O v e r a l l , b o th t h e r e s u l t s. m ain a n a l y s e s and c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n i n c i d e n t a l. and c e n t r a l l e a r n i n g s u g g e s te d t h a t. y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n 's l e a r n . in g showed l e s s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e tw e e n i n t e n t i o n a l and i n d i d e n t a l s i m u l i th a n o l d e r c h i l d r e n 's , p e r h a p s a t t r i b u t s b l e t o e i t h e r t h e l a c k o f d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i by y o u n g e r s u b j e c t s , o r t h e i r p o o r e r i n te n tio n a l le a rn in g r e l a t iv e to o ld e r s u b je c ts . Hagen and Sabo ( 1 9 6 7 ) em p lo y in g t h e same t a s k a s Hagen ( 1 9 6 7 ) u s e d g ro u p a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ith s t i m u l i p r e s e n t e d i n b o o k l e t f o r m a t.. Only t h e two o b j e c t s p e r p i c t u r e c o n d i t i o n. was u s e d , h o w e v er. and n i n e .. S u b je c ts w ere i n g r a d e s t h r e e , f i v e , s e v e n. E x p e rim e n ta l m a n ip u la tio n s in c lu d e d 1 (a ) i n s t r u c . t i o n s t o s u b j e c t s i n w h ich t h e i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k was t o l e a r n e i t h e r p o s i t i o n s , p a i r s , o r b o th * and (b ) o r d e r o f r e p o r t o f i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i .. The r e s u l t s i n d i . c a t e d t h a t w h ile c e n t r a l t a s k p e rfo rm a n c e i n c r e a s e d w ith ag e an d i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g re m a in e d t h e sam e, t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s.

(25) 11. d e f i n i n g t h e i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k t d i d n o t have t h e same e f f e c t s f o r p o s itio n s a s f o r p a ir s .. I n s tru c tio n s in d ic a tin g th a t. l e a r n i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s was t h e i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k d id n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t p e rfo rm a n c e a t any g r a d e , w h ile i n s t r u c t i o n s w ith r e g a r d t o p a i r s d id a f f e c t p e rfo rm a n c e , b u t o n ly f o r s e v e n t h - an d n i n t h - g r a d e r s .. O rd e r o f r e p o r t d id n o t. a f f e c t iftte n tio n a l o r in c id e n ta l r e c a l l .. The l a c k o f e f f e c t . iv e n e s s o f i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r y o u n g e r s u b j e c t s , and t h e i r a lm o s t e q u i v a l e n t p e rfo rm a n c e i n i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l le a rn in g in d ic a te d a la c k o f s e l e c t i v i t y in th e le a rn in g o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n w h ich was n o t a f f e c t e d by p r i o r s e t .. S in c e. o r d e r o f r e p o r t d id n o t a f f e c t r e c a l l , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t s e l e c t i o n o f i n f o r m a tio n o c c u r r e d d u r in g l e a r n i n g r a t h e r t h a n d u r in g th e r e t e n t i o n p h a s e . D ru k e r and Hagen ( 1 9 6 9 ) , u s in g t h e same i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k s a s p r e v io u s s t u d i e s and t e s t i n g c h i l d r e n in d iv id u a lly , in v e s tig a te d th e e f f e c t s o f d is c r im in a b ility o f t h e s t i m u l i th ro u g h two m a n ip u la tio n s !. (a ) s p a t i a l s e p a r a . t i o n o f t h e two o b j e c t s on t h e c a r d s v s . c o n tig u o u s p o s i t i o n o f t h e p b j e c t s j and (b ) random a l t e r n a t i o n v s . n o n a l t e r n a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n s o f a n im a ls and o b j e c t s .. S u b je c ts w ere b l a c k ,. w o rk in g c l a s s c h i l d r e n i n g r a d e s f o u r , s i x and e i g h t .. The. c e n t r a l r e c a l l t a s k was memory f o r p o s i t i o n s , and, t h e i n c i d e n t a l t a s k was memory f o r t h e p a i r s t h a t a p p e a re d t o g e t h e r .. R e s u lt s. f o r c e n t r a l l e a r n i n g c o r r o b o r a t e d e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s i n w h ich c e n t r a l s c o r e s i n c r e a s e d w ith g r a d e l e v e l .. None o f th e. e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t e d c e n t r a l r e c a l l .. R e s u lts f o r.

(26) 12. i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i n d i c a t e d t h a t o n ly s p a c in g t h e s t i m u l i a f f e c te d r e c a l l , r e s u l t i n g in d e c re a se d le a r n in g sc o re s a t a l l ages.. T h u s, i n c r e a s i n g v i s u a l d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y. th ro u g h s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y t o d i f f e r e n t s ti m u l u s c o m p o n e n ts, r e s u l t i n g i n a d e c r e a s e o f i n c i d e n t a l le a rn in g . P h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e tw e e n i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i was a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by Sabo and Hagen (1973) and W heeler and D usek (1973)». Sabo and Hagen fo u n d t h a t r e c o g n i . tio n sc o re s f o r in te n tio n a l s tim u li. im proved f o r a l l ag e. g ro u p s ; ( t h i r d - , f i f t h - and s e v e n t h - g r a d e r s ) when a n im a ls and h o u s e h o ld o b j e c t s w ere y e llo w and b lu e r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n c o n t r a s t t o a c o n d i t i o n i n w h ich th e y w ere b o th b l a c k and w h ite .. W heeler and D usek (1973) u se d s p a t i a l l y s e p a r a t e d. v s . c o n tig u o u s i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l s t i m u l i w ith m ethod o lo g y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f D ru k e r and Hagen (19^9) •. R e s u l ts. e s s e n t i a l l y r e p l i c a t e d th o s e fo u n d by t h e l a t t e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s and w ere e x te n d e d t o a y o u n g e r sam p le ( k i n d e r g a r t e n e r s , t h i r d and f i f t h - g r a d e r s ) .. Age g ro u p s w ere n o t d i f f e r e n t i a l l y. a f f e c t e d by t h e s p a c in g . In summ ary, s e v e r a l t r e n d s w ere fo u n d i n t h e s t u d i e s re v ie w e d a b o v e .. I n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g in c r e a s e d w ith a g e ,. w h ile i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g e i t h e r re m a in e d a t a p l a t e a u o r d e c r e a s e d w ith i n c r e a s i n g a g e .. E s s e n tia lly id e n tic a l r e s u lts. w ere fo u n d by H ale an d P i p e r (1973* 197^» i n p r e s s ) and S c h u c k e r (1972) u s in g s i m i l a r m e th o d o lo g y .. T h u s, r e l a t i v e. t o t o t a l am ount o f l e a r n i n g , t h e d e g re e o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g becam e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y s m a l l e r w ith a g e , s u g g e s t in g t h a t.

(27) 13. c h i l d r e n 's s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s te n d t o c e n t e r on m a t e r i a l d e f in e d a s t a s k - r e l e v a n t w ith i n c r e a s i n g a g e .. S e le c tiv e. p r o c e s s e s te n d e d t o be en h an ced by v i s u a l s e p a r a t i o n , a c o n d i t i o n w hich d e c r e a s e d th e am ount o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g a t a l l ages. little. H ow ever, i n s t r u c t i o n s seem ed t o e x e r t r e l a t i v e l y. i n f l u e n c e on s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g i n y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ,. and w ere o f l i m i t e d i n f l u e n c e f o r o l d e r c h i l d r e n .. T h ese. r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n may f a i l t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n t a s k - r e l e v a n t and t a s k - i r r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a tio n , d e s p i t e th e p re se n c e o f s p e c if ic in s tr u c tio n s d e f in in g an in te n tio n a l ta s k .. T h e r e f o r e , th e y may p r o c e s s a l l i n f o r m a tio n a s t a s k . re le v a n t.. The p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s b etw een i n c i d e n t a l. and i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g fo u n d i n y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n s u p p o r t th is in te rp re ta tio n .. I n c o n t r a s t , c o r r e l a t i o n s b etw een. i n c i d e n t a l and c e n t r a l l e a r n i n g w ere n e g a t i v e f o r o l d e r c h i l d r e n i n many i n s t a n c e s , s u g g e s t in g g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y i n p r o c e s s i n g r e l e v a n t v s . i r r e l e v a n t in f o r m a tio n . One p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e young c h i l d 's seem in g i n a b i l i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e i n t e n t i o n a l f r o m 'i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g may h a v e t o do w ith t h e i r v e r b a l a b i l i t y .. I t is. p o s s i b l e t h a t young c h i l d r e n l a c k t h e a b i l i t y t o s p o n ta n e o u s ly p ro d u c e t h e i r own m e d ia to r s f o r t h e c o d in g and r e t e n t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k s c a u s in g a r e l a t i v e l a c k o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b etw ee n i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i .. The p r e v i o u s l y. m e n tio n e d s tu d y by W h eeler and D usek (1973) s u p p o r ts t h i s ' ' p o s s ib lity .y. T h ese l a t t e r j i n v e s t i g a t o r s s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s. o f v e r b a l l a b e l i n g ( o v e r t i n t e n t i o n a l s tim u lu s nam ing v s . no v e r b a l i z a t i o n s ) i n a d d i t i o n t o p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n.

(28) 14. o f th e s t i m u l i .. I t was fo u n d t h a t s u b j e c t s i n i a l l g r a d e s who. v e r b a l l y l a b e l e d th e c e n t r a l s t i m u l i le a r n e d t h e s e more r e a d i l y th a n s u b j e c t s who d id n o t .. As i n p r e v io u s s t u d i e s ,. c e n t r a l l e a r n i n g i n c r e a s e d w ith g r a d e l e v e l .. G i r l s le a r n e d. more r e a d i l y th a n b o y s , a p p a r e n t l y due t o s a m p lin g f a c t o r s s i n c e s e x d i f f e r e n c e s w e re , i n g e n e r a l , n o t fo u n d i n o t h e r s tu d ie s .. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e f f e c t s o f l a b e l s on c e n t r a l. l e a r n i n g , s u b j e c t s i n th e l a b e l i n g c o n d i t i o n had lo w e r i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g s c o r e s th a n s u b j e c t s i n th e n o n la b e l in g c o n d itio n .. H ow ever, d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d s f o r i n c i d e n t a l. and i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g w ere c o n s i s t e n t w ith p r e v io u s f i n d i n g s , and w ere n o t a l t e r e d by l a b e l i n g . T h ese r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t p ro v id n g young c h i l d r e n w ith a c o d in g s t r a t e g y en h an ced t h e i r s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g r e s u l t i n g i n i n c r e a s e d i n t e n t i o n a l and d e c r e a s e d i n c i d e n t a l le a rn in g .. A p p a r e n tly , w ith th e a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g c h i l d r e n. a r e c a p a b le o f r e s p o n d in g s e l e c t i v e l y .. H ow ever, l a b e l i n g. a f f e c t e d a l l a g e g ro u p s t o an e q u i v a l e n t d e g re e and th u s d id n o t a l t e r th e b a s i c ag e t r e n d s i n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g o b ta in e d i n p r e v io u s in v e s tig a tio n s .. T h e r e f o r e , l a b e l i n g i s p r o b a b ly n o t t h e. o n ly f a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e i n s e l e c t i v i t y in o ld e r c h ild re n .. M o reo v er, t h e s p e c i f i c m echanism s. a f f e c t e d b y v e r b a l t r a i n i n g a r e n o t c l e a r s in c e l a b e l s may i n f l u e n c e p e rfo rra a n e n c e by a f f e c t i n g th e s u b j e c t 's a t t e n t i o n , p r o v id in g a r e c a l l s t r a t e g y , o r b o th . The e f f e c t s o f l a b e l i n g on t h e i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l le a r n in g o f o ld e r c h ild r e n a r e e q u iv o c a l.. H agen, Meacham and.

(29) 15. M esibov ( 1 9 7 0 )» u s in g th e same t a s k a s e a r l i e r s t u d i e s , found th a t la b e lin g o f in te n tio n a l s tim u li n e ith e r f a c i l it a t e d n o r i n t e r f e r e d w ith i n t e n t i o n a l and i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g o f m id d le c l a s s , f o u r t h - , s i x t h - and e i g h t h - g r a d e r s .. On th e. o t h e r h a n d , Wray (1 9 6 8 ) fo u n d t h a t l a b e l i n g in f lu e n c e d t h e i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g o f s e v e n th - g r a d e g i r l s .. S u b j e c t s who. v e r b a l i z e d th e names o f in c id e n ta il s t i m u l i ( th e c o l o r s o f g e o m e tr ic f i g u r e s ) l e a r n e d m ore i n c i d e n t a l - i n t e n t i o n a l p a i r s t h a n s u b j e c t s who d id n o t en g ag e i n l a b e l i n g a c t i v i t y .. I n te n . t i o n a l l e a r n i n g was n o t d e c r e a s e d by v e r b a l i z a t i o n o f i n c i d e n t a l v a lu e s .. S tim u lu s and m e th o d o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een. t h e two s t u d i e s may h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e d i s c r e p a n t f in d in g s .. Wray u s e d i n t r i n s i c s t i m u l i , w h ile th o s e o f. Hagen e t a l . w ere e x t r i n s i c .. T h u s, i n t h e fo rm e r s tu d y , th e. s u b j e c t s ' a t t e n t i o n and r e c a l l s t r a t e g i e s may hav e b een en h an ced by b o th th e ty p e o f s tim u lu s em ployed and l a b e l i n g a c tiv ity .. The d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een th e tw o s t u d i e s w hich. c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d is c r e p a n c y a r e d i f f i c u l t t o p i n p o i n t , h o w ev er, from t h e e x t a n t d a t a .. In c o m p a riso n t o t h e f in d i n g s. o f W heeler an d D usek (1 973) th o s e o f Hagen e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t o l d e r c h i l d r e n a r e m ore l i k e l y t o r e l y on t h e i r own l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s , and p r o f i t l e s s from l a b e l i n g a c t i v i t i e s , t h a n y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n f o r Type 2 e x t r i n s i c i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i . The s t u d i e s re v ie w e d ab o v e h av e r e v e a l e d c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d s i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g u s in g s i m i l a r m e th o d o lo g y .. Y et few o f them have sh ed a n y l i g h t on d e v e lo p . m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s w h ich d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e ag e g ro u p s (Hagen & H a le , 1 9 7 3 ).. C o n d itio n s w h ich r e s u l t e d i n i n c r e a s e d i n t e n .

(30) 16. t i o n a l and d e c r e a s e d i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g a f f e c t e d a l l c h i l d r e n s im ila rly re g a rd le s s o f ag e.. In c re a s in g p e r c e p tu a l d is c rim -. i n a b i l i t y o f s t i m u l i , d e c r e a s i n g d i s t r a c t i o n , and p r o v id in g a c o d in g s t r a t e g y d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i n f l u e n c e th e s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g o f c h i l d r e n v a r y in g i n a g e .. R e la tiv e. t o titter c h i l d r e n , y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n 's l e a r n i n g was s e e m in g ly n o n s e l e c t i v e d e s p i t e e f f o r t s t o i s o l a t e p r o c e s s e s w h ich w ould r e s u l t in in c re a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y , T hese s t u d i e s , h o w ev er, h av e l i m i t e d t h e d im e n s io n o f s e l e c t i v i t y t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e t o t a l am ount o f i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g .. W hile c e r t a i n i n f e r e n c e s. c a n be made c o n c e r n in g s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s th ro u g h i n v e s tig a tin g t o t a l amoung o f l e a r n i n g , t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s to o n a rro w f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s w hich may i n f l u e n c e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g i n c h i l d r e n . As d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g may be e v i d e n t n o t o n ly i n s u b j e c t s ' t o t a l am ount o f l e a r n i g , b u t a l s o i n d i f f e r e n t i a l l e a r n i n g o f v a r i o u s s tim u lu s m a t e r i a l s w hich may c o r re s p o n d t o c h i l d r e n ’ s c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t i e s o r l e a r n i n g s tra te g ie s . d im e n s io n .. P r i o r s t u d i e s h av e f a i l e d t o v a r y t h i s l a t t e r I n a l l o f th e p r e v io u s s t u d i e s , t h e s t i m u l i. w ere u n r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r , and i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g n e c e s s ita te d r o te a s s o c ia tio n s fo r r e c a l l .. None o f t h e s t u d i e s. a l t e r e d th e ty p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l s t i m u l u s p a i r s , a lth o u g h t h i s f a c t o r h a s b e e n fo u n d tfc i n f l u e n c e s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g i n a d u l t s (Q u a rte rm a in & M angan, 1 9 5 9 ) .. T h u s, one c o u ld c o n je c tu re t h a t t h e s e s t u d i e s. i n v e s t i g a t e d o n ly th o s e p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e g ro w th.

(31) 17. o f memory f o r r o t e s t i m u l i , and f a i l e d t o exam ine o t h e r c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s w h ich w ould b e e x p e c te d t o i n f l u e n c e s e l e c t i v e le a rn in g . One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c h i l d r e n 's c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s w hich may b e e x p e c te d t o i n f l u e n c e s e l e c t i v i t y i n l e a r n i n g i s t h e ty p e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n em ployed by c h i l d r e n v a r y in g i n d e v e lo p m e n t.. A c c o rd in g t o B ru n e r ( 1 9 6 6 ) , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n. becom es i n c r e a s i n g l y a b s t r a c t w ith d e v e lo p m e n t, p r o c e e d in g from e n a c t i v e t o i k o n ic t o s y m b o lic .. In p a r t i a l s u p p o r t. o f B r u n e r 's t h e o r y , O lv e r and H ornsby ( 1 9 6 6 ) fo u n d t h a t y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n w ere more l i k e l y t o g ro u p p i c t o r i a l s t i m u l i on th e b a s i s o f p e r c e p t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , w h ile o l d e r c h i l d r e n w ere more l i k e l y to em ploy c o n c e p tu a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The ty p e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n em ployed by c h i l d r e n i s o f u tm o s t im p o rta n c e i n s tu d y i n g s e l e c t i v e i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g s i n c e r e c a l l i s d e p e n d e n t upon in f o r m a tio n w h ich i s s t o r e d i n memory. M o re o v er, s t i m u l i i n i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g s t u d i e s h av e b e e n t y p i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d p i c t o r i a l l y i n p a i r s , o r w i t h i n a com plex o f o t h e r s t i m u l i , and t h e g r o u p in g s c h i l d r e n u s e t o .'.r e p r e s e n t s t i m u l i may a f f e c t s u b s e q u e n t r e c a l l . i n s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g m ig h t d i f f e r ,. D e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d s. from th o s e c i t e d above. i f i n c i d e n t a l an d i n t e n t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s w ere r e l a t e d by d i f f e r e n t fo rm s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n su c h a s p e r c e p t u a l o r c o n c e p tu a l ( i n f e r e n t i a l ) .. One m ig h t e x p e c t o l d e r r a t h e r th a n. y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n t o show an i n c r e a s e i n t h e am ount o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i g g i f i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l s t i m u l i w ere r e l a t e d on a c o n c e p tu a l b a s i s r a t h e r th a n b y a r b i t r a r y a s s ig n m e n t to be r e l a t e d by r o te a s s o c ia tio n .. In s t u d i e s u s in g H a g e n 's.

(32) 18. m e th o d o lo g y , s y m b o lic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l a b i l i t i e s o f o l d e r c h i l d r e n may h av e e n a b le d them t o d i s t i n g u i s h b etw een t a s k r e l e v a n t a n d : i r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l s more s u c c e s s f u l l y th a n y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n by i d e n t i f y i n g t h e i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i a s i r r e l e v a n t on c o n c e p tu a l g ro u n d s a s w e ll a s f o r t h e t a s k a t hand.. Y ounger c h i l d r e n may h av e la c k e d t h e n e c e s s a r y. c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n s t i m u l i on a c o n c e p tu a l b a s is .. T h u s, one o f t h e h y p o th e s e s t e s t e d i n th e p r e s e n t. s tu d y was t h a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g d i f f e r s d e p e n d in g on th e t y p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n i n c i d e n t a l and in te n tio n a l s tim u li.. T h ree ty p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c o n c e p tu a l,. p e r c e p t u a l and n o n r e l a t e d , w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d .. A c c o rd in g t o. t h e v ie w e x p r e s s e d a b o v e , s e l e c t i v i t y s h o u ld n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s e w ith d e v e lo p m e n t, b u t s h o u ld be a f f e c t e d by th e c o rre s p o n d e n c e o f p a r t i c u l a r ty p e s o f s t i m u l i t o d e v e lo p m e n ta l le v e l.. The p r e s e n t s tu d y a s s e s s e s t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y .. R eview o f I n c i d e n t a l L e a rn in g S tu d ie s w ith o u t a C o n c u rre n t I n t e n t i o n a l T ask (Type 1) D e v e lo p m e n ta l s t u d i e s o f Type 1 i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g h av e b e e n fe w e r i n num ber th a n Type 2 s t u d i e s .. D e s p ite th e. r e l a t i v e p a u c i t y o f su c h s t u d i e s , r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n c o n s i s t e n t and c o n t r a s t s h a r p l y w ith Type 2 s t u d i e s u s in g e x t r i n s i c in c id e n ta l s tim u li.. R a th e r th a n f i n d i n g a p l a t e a u o r d e c r e a s e. w ith a g e , Type 1 s t u d i e s d e m o n s tr a te a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g up t o ag e 1 2 .. A f t e r ag e 1 2 , h o w ev er,. some s t u d i e s h av e fo u n d i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g t o c o n tin u e t o i n c r e a s e , w h ile o t h e r s h av e fo u n d a su d d en d e c r e a s e ..

(33) 19. Vaughan ( 1 9 6 8 ) p r e s e n te d c l u s t e r e d and u n c l u s t e r e d l i s t s o f p i c t u r e s t o m id d le c l a s s f i r s t - , f o u r t h - and s e v e n th g ra d e rs,. S t i m u l i w ere p i c t u r e s o f nouns from t h e h ig h. f re q u e n c y p o r t i o n o f t h e L o rg e -T h o rn d ik e l i s t .. A fte r p re . d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l i i n w hich s u b j e c t s w ere a s k e d t o name t h e p i c t u r e s t o e n s u r e f a m i l i a r i t y , s u b j e c t s w ere p r e s e n t e d w ith one o f t h e l i s t s c o n d itio n s .. i n one o f two i n s t r u c t i o n a l. I n t h e i n c i d e n t a l c o n d i t i o n , c h i l d r e n w ere t o l d. t o make up s e n te n c e s a b o u t e a c h p i c t u r e b u t w ere n o t in fo rm e d o f a l a t e r t e s t o f re te n tio n .. I n th e i n t e n t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n ,. s u b j e c t s w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o p e rfo rm t h e o r i e n t i n g t a s k ( c r e a t i n g s e n te n c e s a s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e ) i n a d d i t i o n t o remem b e r i n g th e w ords f o r j l a t e r f r e e r e c a l l .. A th ird. (c o m p a ris o n ). g ro u p c o n s i s t i n g o n ly o f s e v e n t h - g r a d e r s was in c lu d e d t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e o rieifcing t a s k w ould i n t e r f e r e w ith in te n tio n a l r e c a ll.. T h is g ro u p was in fo rm e d o f a l a t e r t e s t. o f r e t e n t i o n b u t n o t i n s t r u c t e d t o p e rfo rm t h e o r i e n t i n g t a s k . A f t e r e x p o s u re t o s t i m u l i , s u b j e c t s w ere a llo w e d t h r e e m in u te s fo r fre e r e c a ll. R e s u l t s showed a l i n e a r i n c r e a s e i n r e c a l l w ith g r a d e , e a c h g ra d e b e in g s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e o t h e r s . C l u s t e r e d l i s t s w ere r e c a l l e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r t h a n n o n c lu s te re d l i s t s .. W hile t h e r e w ere no d i f f e r e n c e s i n. r e c a l l b e tw e e n i n c i d e n t a l and i n t e n t i o n a l g r o u p s , t h e c o m p a riso n g ro u p r e c a l l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r num ber o f w o rd s , b u t o n ly f o r t h e c l u s t e r e d l i s t s .. T h e re fo re , th e o r ie n tin g ta s k. seem ed t o i n t e r f e r e w ith th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f s u b j e c t s i n t h e in t e n t i o n a l - c l u s t e r e d g ro u p ..

(34) 20. T h is s tu d y s u p p o r ts P o s tm a n 's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t when r e s p o n s e s a r e made t o i n c i d e n t a l m a t e r i a l s th ro u g h a p p r o p r i a t e o r i e n t i n g t a s k s , i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g c a n become e q u i v a l e n t t o i n t e n t i o n a l le a rn in g .. The d e v e lo p m e n ta l i n c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g. i n b o th c l u s t e r e d and n o n c l u s t e r e d c o n d i t i o n s , h o w ev er, i s n o t e x p la in e d b y P o s tm a n 's a n a l y s i s .. The im p o r ta n t d e v e lo p . m e n ta l q u e s t i o n i s why l e a r n i n g i s l e s s s e l e c t i v e f o r o l d e r c h i l d r e n u n d e r Type 1 i n c i d e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , w h ile i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g i n Type 2 s i t u a t i o n s d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e w ith a g e . The t r e n d to w a rd d e c r e a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y w ith i n c r e a s i n g a g e w i t h i n Type 1 s t u d i e s d id n o t a p p e a r t o be i n f lu e n c e d by t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a n o r i e n t i n g t a s k s s in c e s i m i l a r r e s u l t s w ere fo u n d i n s t u d i e s f o r w h ic h su ch t a s k s w ere o m itte d .. H a le ,. M i l l e r and S te v e n s o n ( I 9 6 8 ) , f o r i n s t a n c e , s tu d i e d Type 1 i n c i d e n t a l r e t e n t i o n o f f ilm e d c o n t e n t i n c h i l d r e n r a n g in g i n g ra d e from t h r e e t o s e v e n .. N e ith e r i n s t r u c t i o n s n o r. o r i e n t i n g t a s k s w ere a d m in is te r e d p r i o r t o s u b j e c t s ' v ie w in g /. th e f ilm .. I n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g m easu red by m u l t i p l e c h o ic e. an d t r u e - f a l s e q u e s t i o n s in c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e tw e e n g r a d e s t h r e e and s i x . O th e r s t u d i e s h av e f u r t h e r s u p p o r te d t h e d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d to w a rd d e c r e a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y w ith v a r i o u s ty p e s o f p r o c e d u r e s f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e Type 1 r u b r i c .. S i e g e l and. h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r s s t u d i e d i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g u s in g a t h r e e c h o ic e s u c c e s s i v e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k .. In p h a s e ,o n e , t h e. o r i g i n a l o r i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g t a s k was p r e s e n te d w ith o u t s im u lta n e o u s ip re s e n ta tio n o f in c id e n ta l s tim u li.. S u b je c ts. l e a r n e d t o p r e s s a p a r t i c u l a r b u t t o n upon p r e s e n t a t i o n o f.

(35) 21. a p ic tu r e d o b je c t s tim u lu s .. A f t e r c r i t e r i o n was r e a c h e d. i n o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g , e a c h o f th e s t i m u l i p r e s e n t e d i n p h a s e one was embedded w i t h i n t h r e e o t h e r o b j e c t s ( n in e i n a l l ) . The s u b j e c t was s t i l l r e q u i r e d t o make th e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e t o th e o r i g i n a l s t i m u l i .. No i n s t r u c t i o n s w ere r e l a t e d t o. t h e s u b j e c t c o n c e r n in g th e e x t r a s t i m u l i .. F o llo w in g t h i s. p h a s e , i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g was m easu red by p r e s e n t i n g th e p re v io u s ly e x h ib ite d i r r e l e v a n t o b je c ts r e q u ir in g th e s u b je c t t o re s p o n d t o e a c h s tim u lu s by p r e s s i n g th e b u t t o n w h ich was c o r r e c t f o r th e o r i g i n a l s t i m u l i w ith w hich th e y had b e e n p a ire d .. I n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g was d e f in e d a s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n. b e tw e e n t h e o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g s t i m u l i , and t h e e x tr a n e o u s s t i m u l i w i t h i n w h ich th e y had b e e n em bedded.. I t s h o u ld b e. n o te d t h a t t h i s d e s ig n f a l l s more a p p r o p r i a t e l y w i t h i n th e Type 1 r a t h e r th a n Type 2 r u b r i c .. A lth o u g h t h e r e was an. i n t e n t i o n a l t a s k , th e i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i w ere in tr o d u c e d w ith o u t f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s to s u b je c ts a f t e r o r ig i n a l l e a r n i n g had r e a c h e d c r i t e r i o n .. T h e re fo re , in te n tio n a l. l e a r n i n g was n o t c o n c u r r e n t w ith e x p o s u re t o i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i . S i e g e l and S te v e n s o n (1 9 6 6 ) s t u d i e d m id d le c l a s s c h i l d r e n r a n g in g i n a g e b etw e en s e v e n and f o u r t e e n , and a d u l t s . c h i l d r e n w ere above a v e r a g e i n i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y .. A ll For. c h i l d r e n , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere n o t fo u n d b e tw e e n ag e g ro u p s on o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g , w h ile a d u l t s l e a r n e d th e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a s t e r th a n c h i l d r e n .. In c id e n ta l. l e a r n i n g i n c r e a s e d b e tw e e n a g e s s e v e n and tw e lv e , th o u g h a d e c r e a s e was o b ta in e d f o r s u b j e c t s b e tw e e n a g e s tw e lv e and fo u rte e n .. A d u lts ? I n c i d e n t a l - l e a r n i n g was s u p e r i o r t o th a tc - r.

(36) 22. o f an y o t h e r ag e g r o u p , a p p a r e n t l y due t o t h e e a s e o f th e ta s k s .. S in c e i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i w ere in tr o d u c e d s u b s e q u e n t. t o i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g , s u b j e c t s w ere m ore l i k l e y t o hav e had s u f f i c i e n t o p p o r tu n i t y t o s c a n and co d e th e i n c i d e n t a l s tim u li.. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e su d d en p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i r r e l e v a n t. s t i m u l i a f t e r i n t e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g may h av e a l e r t e d s u b j e c t s t h a t t h e s e s t i m u l i w ere s p e c i a l and s h o u ld be l e a r n e d .. H ow ever,. s u c h e x p l a n a t i o n s do n o t e l u c i d a t e p r o c e s s e s w h ich may a c c o u n t f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d w h ich was o b ta in e d , s i n c e th e y may a p p ly t o a l l s u b j e c t s . The d e c r e a s e i n Type 1 i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g found b e tw e e n a g e s tw e lv e and f o u r t e e n b y H a le , M i l l e r and S te v e n s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) and S i e g e l and S te v e n s o n ( 1 9 6 6 ) may h av e b e e n due t o th e p a r t i c u l a r s t i m u l i em ployed r a t h e r th a n a g e n e r a l d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d to w a rd s g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y i n th o s e y e a r s .. Though. t h e l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s p ro p o se d by S te v e n s o n (1 9 7 0 ), s e v e r a l f in d i n g s s u p p o r t t h e fo rm e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .. F irs t,. i n S i e g e l and S t e v e n s o n 's s tu d y a d u l t s l e a r n e d i n c i d e n t a l m a t e r i a l s more r e a d i l y th a n an y g ro u p o f c h i l d r e n .. T h u s,. i f a d e v e lo p m e n ta l t r e n d to w a rd s in c r e a s e d s e l e c t i v i t y w ith ag e a c c o u n te d f o r t h e d e c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g b e tw e e n a g e s tw e lv e and f o u r t e e n , th e n a d u l t s s h o u ld h av e had t h e lo w e s t l e v e l o f i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g . case.. T h is was c l e a r l y n o t t h e. S eco n d , a s tu d y c o n d u c te d b y S i e g e l and C o r s in i (1969). fo u n d t h a t f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d s ' i n c i d e n t a l r e c a l l was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f e i g h t - y e a r ; o ld s .w h e n i n c i d e n t a l s t i m u l i w ere c o n c e p t u a l l y r e l a t e d .. For u n re la te d s tim u li,. e i g h t - and f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d s * i n c i d e n t a l l e a r n i n g was e q u i v a l e n t ..

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