Organizational Behavior

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S.Gnanavel,B.Sc.,M.B.A., M.Phill.,

Asst.Professor / HOD I / C.

MBA Department, NPRCET,

Natham.

10488MB 115 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR T P C 3 0 0 3

UNIT I FOCUS AND PURPOSE 5

Definition, need and importance of organizational behaviour – Nature and scope – Frame work- Organizational behaviour models.

UNIT II INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR 12

Personality – types – Factors influencing personality – Theories – Learning – Types of learners– The learning process – Learning theories – Organizational behaviour modification. Misbehaviour –Types – Management Intervention. Emotions - Emotional Labour –

Emotional Intelligence – Theories.Attitudes – Characteristics – Components – Formation – Measurement- Values. Perceptions –Importance – Factors influencing perception –

Interpersonal perception-Impression Management.Motivation – importance – Types – Effects on work behavior.

UNIT III GROUP BEHAVIOUR 10

Organization structure – Formation – Groups in organizations – Influence – Group dynamics –Emergence of informal leaders and working norms – Group decision making techniques – Teambuilding - Interpersonal relations – Communication – Control.

UNIT IV LEADERSHIP AND POWER 8

Meaning – Importance – Leadership styles – Theories – Leaders Vs Managers – Sources of power – Power centers – Power and Politics.

UNIT V DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR 10

Organizational culture and climate – Factors affecting organizational climate – Importance. Job satisfaction – Determinants – Measurements – Influence on behavior. Organizational change – Importance – Stability Vs Change – Proactive Vs Reaction change – the change process – Resistance to change – Managing change.Stress – Work Stressors – Prevention and Management of stress – Balancing work and Life.Organizational development –

Characteristics – objectives –. Organizational effectiveness.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS TEXT BOOKS

1. Stephen P. Robins, Organisational Behavior, PHI Learning / Pearson Education,11th edition, 2008.

REFERENCES

1. Fred Luthans, Organisational Behavior, McGraw Hill, 11th Edition, 2001.

2. Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, Organisational behavior, John Wiley, 9th Edition, 2008. 3. Udai Pareek, Understanding Organisational Behaviour, 2nd Edition, Oxford Higher Education,

2004.

4. Mc Shane & Von Glinov, Organisational Behaviour, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2007.

5. Ivancevich, Konopaske & Maheson, Oranisational Behaviour & Management, 7th edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008..

UNIT I FOCUS AND PURPOSE

5

Definition, need and importance of organizational behaviour – Nature and scope – Frame work- Organizational behaviour models.

Introduction

In order to be effective organizations need to develop their interpersonal or people skills According to Robbins( 2003), Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively. Specifically, OB focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism and

turnover, and increase employee citizenship and job satisfaction. An organization is more than a formal arrangement of functions, more than an organization chart, more than a vision statement, more than a set of accounts. An organization consists of people and so it is also a social system. The field of organizational behavior (OB) draws primarily from the behavioral science disciplines of psychology, social psychology, and cultural

anthropology. The areas on which OB focuses are individuals who will often be working within groups, which themselves work within organizations, as well as all the

interrelationships between them. Some of the specific themes embraced by OB are personality theory, attitudes and values, motivation and learning, interpersonal behavior, group dynamics, leadership and teamwork, organizational structure and design, decision-making, power, conflict, and negotiation. Some OB thinkers go further and suggest that the behavior within the organization has to be viewed partly in the wider context of the outside world‘s effect on the organization and its human resources, missions, objectives, and strategies.

Definition:

Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that

individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively (Robbins, 2003)

According to Fred Luthans Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, Prediction, and control of human behavior in Organizations.

Contributing Disciplines To The OB Field

Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines. The main areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science.

Psychology :

Psychology is the science that attempts to measure, explain, and at times change the behavior of humans and other animals. Early industrial/organizational psychologists were concerned with problems of fatigue, boredom, and other factors relevant to working

conditions that could disrupt/ impede efficient work performance. More recently, their contributions have been expanded to include learning, perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and motivational forces, job satisfaction,

decision making processes, performance appraisals, attitude measurement, employee selection techniques, work design, and job stress.

Sociology

Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies people in relation to their fellow human beings. Their significant contribution to OB is through their study of group behavior in organizations, particularly formal and complex organizations.

Social Psychology

Social psychology blends the concepts of psychology and sociology. It focuses on the influence of people on one another. The major challenge deals with the issue of how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. Anthropologists work on cultures and environments; for example, they have aided in understanding differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within different organizations.

Political Science

Political science studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment. It focuses on areas, such as, conflict, intra-organizational politics and power.

Importance Of Organizational Behavior

In any organization one can assume that the main goal of that business is to succeed; what exactly does being a winning organization mean and what does it take to get there? In the past companies placed a great amount of emphasis on the numbers and how to achieve those numbers. The people who actually helped achieve those numbers were graded on their technical skills, productivity, and budgets. Employees were

moneymaking machines and how they achieved those numbers was not a concern of their managers as long as the numbers were being met. Organizational behavior studies have become more important today than in previous years because corporations must learn to adapt to the rapidly changing business cultures that have stemmed from a competitive and fast-paced market. Organizational behavior was a topic that was not discussed until an employee's behavior changed, productivity changed, or sales decreased. In today's business world, managers are paying more attention to how employees react to situations rather than if they respond. They are beginning to view organizational behavior as an intricate piece of training and development of the workforce. Soft skills were never a part of management training and it was rare that managers were commended for having those

skills. In the business world today, I feel organizational behavior is an essential tool for managing effective teams. If you can zone in on an employees' personality, creativity, and adaptability, motivating that employee the way they need to be motivated is never a gray area and a guaranteed success.

With this knowledge managers can achieve a successful career. Since a manager needs to get his job done by the others, to have an organizational behavior skills become a

valuable talent.

As the environment of business is always changing, the role of the managers has become more sensitive. In order to know how to handle a new workforce, and deal with the complication of the new environment, the supervisors need to develop their information about attitude and behavior of individuals, and groups in organization. Now we know not only the hard skills is important for get the job done, soft skills are helps managers to do their job more effectively and efficiently.

The discipline of organizational behavior is concerned with identifying and managing the attitudes and actions of individuals and groups, looking particularly at how people can be motivated to join and remain in the organization, how to get people to practice effective teamwork, how

people can accomplish their jobs more efficiently, and how employees can be encouraged to be more flexible and innovative. Attention is brought to these attitudes and actions in order to help managers identify problems, determine how to correct them, and change behavior so that individual performance and ultimately organization effectiveness increase.

As a field of study, organizational behavior is built on a succession of approaches or ways of thinking about people. Since the early 1900s those who studied behavior in organizations have attempted to prescribe ways to effectively manage employees in order to achieve the organization's goals. The early approaches, referred to as the classical view, promoted increased management coordination of tasks, strict specialization and standardization of work tasks, a strict chain of command, and centralized decision

making at the manager level. During the 1920s and 1930s the next new school of thought began to emerge, which was referred to as the human relations movement. By and large this movement began with the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric plant that demonstrated how psychological and social processes could affect productivity and work behavior. This new way of thinking looked at organizational behavior by

advocating a more people-oriented style of management that was more participative and oriented toward employee needs. Contemporary organizational thought has shifted to a more integrative systems approach, which includes the consideration of external influences; the relationship of the organization with managers and employees; and

organizational processes, which are the activities through which work gets accomplished. In other words, the best solution for the situation depends on many factors. The

organization is depicted as a number of interrelated, interdependent, and interacting subsystems that are continually changing.

Those who managed by the classical approach emphasized the critical role of control and coordination in helping organizations to achieve goals. Those who managed by the human relations approach considered the risks of high levels of control and coordination, focusing instead on the need for flexibility. So where do today's managers fit in? A contemporary approach to management recognizes that there is no one best way to manage; management approaches need to be tailored to fit the situation.

The manager's role is to effectively predict, explain, and manage behavior that occurs in organizations. Particularly, managers are interested in determining why people are more or less motivated or satisfied. Managers must have a capacity to observe and understand the behavior patterns of individuals, groups, and organizations; to predict what responses will be drawn out by managerial actions; and ultimately to use this understanding and eventual predictions to effectively manage employees. Behavior can be examined on three levels—the individual, the group, and the organization as a whole. Managers seek to learn more about what causes people—individually or collectively—to behave as they do in organizational settings. What motivates people? What makes some employees leaders and others not? How do people communicate and make decisions? How do organizations respond to changes in their external environments?

Although it may be said that the responsibility for studying organizational behavior rests with researchers, assessing and increasing organizational effectiveness is a primary responsibility of managers. They need to collect data about the environment in which people work and describe events, behaviors, and attitudes in order to develop plans for changing and improving behavior and attitudes. Managers can begin to understand organizational behavior by accurately describing events, behaviors, and attitudes. How can this be accomplished?

Data can be gathered by observing situations, surveying and interviewing employees, and looking at written documents. These methods help to objectively describe events,

behaviors, and attitudes—a first step in determining their causes and then acting on them.

By direct observation, for example, managers can attend meetings and then describe what is happening, such as who talks most often, what topics are discussed, or how frequently those attending the meeting ask for the managers' viewpoint on the topic. In addition, survey questionnaires could be sent to employees; these might provide concrete data about the situation, proving more useful than relying solely on personal perception of events. Sending the same questionnaire to employees each year could provide some insight into changes in behavior and attitude over time. Employees could also be interviewed in order to examine attitudes in greater depth. Some valuable information about attitudes and opinions may also be gathered by talking informally with employees.

Finally, data could be gathered from organizational documents, including annual reports, department evaluations, memoranda, and other nonconfidential personnel files. An analysis of these documents might provide some insight into the attitudes of employees, the quality of management, group interactions, or other possible reasons behind the problems or situation.

Nature of Organizational Behavior:

Different leading authorities in the field of ‗the Organizational Behaviour' have defined the nature and scope of this subject in different terms. There is no unanimity of opinion in the matter. However, students of an introductory course in the subject need not be bogged down by this multiplicity of views. Following discussion is enough to understand the basic nature and scope of this discipline.

The Organizational Behaviour personified has a nature, just as any human being has a peculiar nature or the psychological tendency. It is a science, art and philosophy by nature. So, it follows that the subject of the Organizational Behaviour is a science, art

and philosophy, too.

It is a science because it follows the scientific methods of the observation, the collection

of the data, the hypothesis, the theory and the model building ever open to the scientific scrutiny in terms of the relationship among variables under the study and the validity of such a relationship.

It is an art, since it involves quite a subjective approach, too in terms of the skilful

organization of the field studies, the collection of the data and the interpretation of the results by human beings who generally are more subjective than objective in their approach.

It's a philosophy, too, in terms of ever trying to philosophize the questions of human

beings and the organization's relationship in the behavioural terms. It tries to frame postulations as to what, why, how, and where a particular kind of human behaviour takes place in an organization in a particular corner of the globe or the universe along with the other relevant aspects like its impact or effects?

Finally, it of course inter alia is interdisciplinary, flexible, dynamic, friendly and far-reaching, too.

Scope of Organizational Behavior:

The scope, ambit, sphere or area of the subject of the Organizational Behaviour is quite vast both in the temporal and the spatial terms, besides the applicability. The Universal Integrated Cubical Temporal - Spatial - Applicability Scope model illustrates it aptly. The given cube can easily be sliced into 90 pieces (3 Temporal faces x 6 Spatial faces x 5

Applicability faces ). Each slice represents one face each of the Temporal - Spatial -

Applicability Scope. Thus, we may elaborate the scope of the subject in 90 different ways.

For example, let us cut the slice with 3 following faces: the Future, the Philosophical and the Asthenospheric. This slice means that the Organizational Behaviour can be studied from the point of view of the philosophical questions related to the use of the

Asthenospheric resources at any given point of time in the Future.

A complete and detailed exposition of all the above mentioned 90 integrated slices is beyond the scope of this paper/article. So, we may attempt the following brief description of the various facets of the scope of this challenging dynamic subject.

Theoretical Frameworks of Organizational Behavior

Initially psychology was developed using the mental thinking expressed by persons interested in developing the subject of psychology. But John B. Watson differed from that approach and he pioneered the approach in which visible behavior and visible environmental stimulus became the subject of study. B.F. Skinner developed this behavioristic framework further by bringing in the contingent environmental consequences. Behavior is not the outcome of stimulus alone, but it is an outcome determined by the stimulus as well as the contingent environmental consequences of a behavior. This means, there are alternative behaviors for the same stimulus and which behavior is exhibited by a person depends on expected environmental consequences.

Cognitive perspective on psychology have developed by arguing that human beings are capable of thinking and concepts related to thinking must be brought into the subject of psychology whose objective is to explain behavior. Even though, one cannot see or observe thinking, still developing concepts related to thinking and using the concepts to explain behavior is required in psychology. Even though one cannot see or observe gravitation, the concept of gravitation is a useful concept in physics. Similarly, concepts related to thinking or cognition are to be developed and used in psychology was the argument of propopents of congitive approach to psychology.

The perspectives in psychology have influenced the development of organizational behavior.

Cognitive Framework

Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person‘s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing.

The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals.

In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting.

Behavioristic Framework

Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences. Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable).

Social Cognitive Framework

Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior. It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior.

Bandura developed social learning theory into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Stajkovic and Luthans have translated this SCT into the theoretical framework for organizational behavior. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorism‘s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the

cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action. In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors. The participants as a group of produce the environment, every individual is a product of the enironment and through his behavior changes the environment for others as well as for himself, every individual is a product of his personality, but also influences his personality as consequence of results of his behavior.

Bandura identified five basic human capabilities as a part of SCT.

1. Symbolizing: People process visual experiences into cognitive models. They help in future action.

2. Forethought: Employees plan their actions.

3. Observational: Employees learn by observing the performance of the referent group (peers, supervisors and high performers) and the consequences of their actions.

4. Self-regulatory: Employees self regulate their actions by setting internal standards (aspired level of performance).

5. Self-reflective: Employees reflect back on their actions (how did I do?) and perceptually determine how they believe then can successfully accomplish the task in the future given the context (probability of success between 0 to 100% is estimated)

The systems framework

The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. One of the early thinkers in the field was Alexander Bogdanov, who developed his Tautology, a theory widely considered a precursor of Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory, aiming to model and design human organizations. Kurt Lewin was particularly influential in developing the systems

perspective within organizational theory and coined the term "systems of ideology", from his frustration with behavioral psychologies that became an obstacle to sustainable work in psychology (see Ash 1992: 198-207). The complexity theory perspective on

organizations is another systems view of organizations.

The systems approach to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative entropy through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is Tran disciplinary and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of individual disciplines, integrating them on the basis of a common "code", or more exactly, on the basis of the formal apparatus provided by systems theory. The systems approach gives primacy to the interrelationships, not to the elements of the system. It is from these dynamic

interrelationships that new properties of the system emerge. In recent years, systems

thinking has been developed to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways

to supplement traditional reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems theory in organizational studies is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the natural sciences.

Organizational behavior models:

Keith davis recognizes four different models of organizational

behaviour . These models show the evolution of the thinking and behaviour on the part of management.

These models are autocratic, Custodial, Supportive and collegial.

The Autocratic Model

The autocratic model depends on the power.

These who are in command must have the power to demand ‗you do this‘ Employees who do not follow orders will be penalised

Under autocratic conditions the employee‘s orientation is obedience to a boss It is very useful way to accomplish the work and not a complete failure

It was an acceptable approach to guide managerial behaviours when we have no well known alternatives

This model focuses better employee satisfaction and security

This model organizations satisfy the security and welfare needs of employees. This model leads to employee dependence on an organization rather than a boss. As a result of economic rewards and benefits, employees are happy

A successful custodial approach orientation is towards resources.

The question of motivating, guiding and developing the employees did not arise

The supportive model

This model is based on the assumptions of theory Y

This model depends on leadership instead of power or money

This theory assumes that the employees have the skill and contribute to the organizational efforts.

This model assumes that the employees will take responsibility to develop a drive to contribute at improve themselves

Therefore management‘s direction is to ‗support‘ the employee‘s job performance rather than to support employees benefit payments as in the custodial approach

The Collegial model

This model emphasizes team concept

The manager role is changed from that of a leader to that of a partner

The manager and the employees are the partner to develop teamwork concept and attain the objectives of the organization. The psychological result of the collegial approach for the employee is self discipline

We cannot say that particular model is the best model. The selection of model by a manager is determined by number of factors such as the existing philosophy, vision, environmental conditions and goals of the organization.

UNIT II INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

Personality – types – Factors influencing personality – Theories – Learning – Types of learners– The learning process – Learning theories – Organizational behaviour

modification. Misbehaviour –Types – Management Intervention. Emotions - Emotional Labour – Emotional Intelligence – Theories.Attitudes – Characteristics – Components – Formation – Measurement- Values. Perceptions –Importance – Factors influencing perception – Interpersonal perception-Impression Management.Motivation – importance – Types – Effects on work behavior.

Personality

Introduction

The term ‗personality‘ has been derived from the Latin term ‗persona‘ which means to ‘speak through‘. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore, a very common meaning of the term personality is the role which the person (actor) displays in the public domain at large. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person‘s whole psychological system-it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. Allport (1937) defined personality as ―the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment‖.

Personality Determinants

The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below:

Heredity – The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted fact. Traits

like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual‘s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual‘s personality. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. The second addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and across situations.

1. Environment – Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational

factors. The environmental factors influence personality of an individual since they provide the basis of certain experiences which determine the individual‘s view about life, both positive and negative.

2. Culture – Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on from generation to generation and create consistencies over time. Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. People from different cultural groups have different attitudes towards

independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, artistic talent, etc. However, on the basis of culture, an individual‘s personality cannot be always assessed, since individuals within the same culture (but from different family and sub-cultural background) have been seen to differ in their behavior.

3. Family - One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is

the immediate family. Families influence the behavior of a person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socio-economic level of the family, family size, race, religion, parent‘s educational level and geographic location.

1. Situation – Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the

personality of a person. Every individual goes through different type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some of the events and experiences, which an individual goes through in his/her life, can serve as important determinants of his/her personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can sometime change the structure of his/her own personality.

Theories of Personality.

Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person‘s feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree.

Some of the most important research works on personality traits are mentioned below:

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Model

Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior. Cattell‘s (1973) is one of the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors.

Primary Factors and Descriptors in Cattell‘s 16 Personality Factor Model (Adapted From Conn & Rieke, 1994).

Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor

Descriptors of High Range

Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, aloof (Sizothymia)

Warmth

Warm, outgoing, attentive to others, kindly, easy going, participating, likes people (Affectothymia)

general mental capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problems (Lower Scholastic Mental Capacity)

intelligent, bright, higher general mental capacity, fast learner (Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity)

Reactive emotionally, changeable, affected by feelings, emotionally less stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Strength)

Emotional Stability

Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces reality calm (Higher Ego Strength)

Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict, submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, docile, accommodating

(Submissiveness)

Dominance

Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy (Dominance)

Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn, introspective, silent (Desurgency)

Liveliness

Lively, animated, spontaneous, enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful, expressive, impulsive (Surgency)

Expedient, nonconforming, disregards rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego Strength)

Rule-Consciousness

Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious, conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound (High Super Ego Strength)

Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant, intimidated (Threctia)

Social Boldness

Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned, uninhibited (Parmia)

Utilitarian, objective,

unsentimental, tough minded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough (Harria)

Sensitivity

Sensitive, aesthetic,

sentimental, tender minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia)

Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, unconditional, easy (Alaxia)

Vigilance

Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful, oppositional (Protension)

Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution orientated, steady, conventional (Praxernia)

Abstractedness

Abstract, imaginative, absent minded, impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia)

Forthright, genuine, artless, open, guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved (Artlessness)

Privateness

Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd, polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic (Shrewdness)

Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, secure, free of guilt, confident, self satisfied (Untroubled)

Apprehension

Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming (Guilt Proneness)

Traditional, attached to familiar, conservative,

Openness to Change

Open to change, experimental, liberal, analytical, critical, free

respecting traditional ideas (Conservatism)

thinking, flexibility (Radicalism) Group-oriented, affiliative, a

joiner and follower dependent (Group Adherence)

Self-Reliance

Self-reliant, solitary,

resourceful, individualistic, self sufficient (Self-Sufficiency)

Tolerated disorder, unexacting, flexible, undisciplined, lax, self-conflict, impulsive, careless of social rues,

uncontrolled (Low Integration)

Perfectionism

Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self –

sentimental (High Self-Concept Control)

Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient, composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension)

Tension

Tense, high energy, impatient, driven, frustrated, over wrought, time driven. (High Ergic

Tension)

Type A and Type B personality

Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively

time-conscious, insecure about one‘s status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation (Friedman & Rosenman 1974). They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are impatient with the rate at which most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope with leisure time. They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. Type ‗A‘s operate under moderate to high levels of stress. They expose themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, give preference to quantity over quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative.

Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of

things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Type Bs never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience and feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless otherwise demanded by the situation. They can relax without guilt.

Type Personality Characteristics

Congruent Occupation

Realistic: Prefers physical

activities that require skill,

Shy, genuine, persistent, stable,

Mechanic, drill press operator,

strength, and coordination conforming, practical assembly-line worker, farmer

Investigative: Prefers

activities

that involve thinking, organizing, and understanding

Analytical, original, curious, independent

Biologist, economist, mathematician, news reporter

Social: Prefers activities

that

involve helping and developing others

Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding

Social workers, teacher, counselor, clinical psychologist

Conventional: Prefers rule-

regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities

Conforming, efficient, practical,

unimaginative, inflexible

Accountant, corporate manager, bank teller, file clerk

Enterprising: Prefers

verbal

activities in which there are

opportunities to influence others and attain power

Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, domineering

Lawyer, real estate agent, public relations specialist, small

business manager

Artistic: Prefers

ambiguous and

unsystematic activities that allow creative expression

Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic,

emotional, impractical

Painter, musician, writer, interior decorator

Learning

Introduction

Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude (KSA) of individuals, to increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the workplace. Such learning should be sustainable and comparatively stable for people and for the institutions that serves people. Learning definitely includes academic studies and occupational training through high school and beyond. But it also encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional and social development of children in the earliest years of their lives.

Learning can be defined as ―any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience‖ (Robbins, 2003).

Following are the characteristics of learning:

First, learning involves change.

Second, the change must be relatively permanent. Third, learning is concerned with behavior.

Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning

Theories of Learning

There are three theories of learning namely – classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning

1. Classical conditioning:

Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov

(1927). This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the organism. This is called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response (CR).Classical conditioning was first experimented by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov used a bell before giving food to his dog. Rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat (a response to food – unconditioned response), after a few repetitions, the dog started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the

unconditioned stimulus (US – meat). Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a Conditioned Response.

2. Operant Conditioning:

The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner (1953, 1954). This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual‘s response to stimuli. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner‘s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.

Principles of operant conditioning are as follows:

1. Behavior is learned.

2. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur.

3. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (‖shaping‖)

4. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (‖stimulus generalization‖) producing secondary conditioning.

5. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.

For example, if a subordinate is praised by his boss for looking good in a certain attire, the subordinate is likely to wear that attire and present himself in front of boss, especially when he needs to please the boss.

3. Social Learning

The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura (1977), most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Social learning has four processes:

Attentional processes – People learn from a model only when they recognize and

pay attention to its critical features.

Retention processes – A model‘s influence will depend on how well the

individual remembers the model‘s action after the it is no longer readily available.

Motor reproduction processes – After a person has seen a new behavior by

observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing.

Reinforcement processes- Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled

Principles of social learning are as follows:

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if it results in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value

Shaping behavior

When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals‘ behaviour by directing their learning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior.

There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are as follows:

Positive reinforcement – This is the process of getting something pleasant as a consequence of a desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a commission, if he/she achieves sales target

Negative reinforcement – This is the process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a undesired behavior. For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student who has not done well on the examination

Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior. Example: having your pay docked for lateness

Extinction—eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior. So, if a person

puts in extra effort, but gets no recognition for it, he will stop doing it

Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency

Schedules of reinforcement

The two major types of reinforcement schedules are: 1) continuous and 2) intermittent.

1. A Continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each and every time it is demonstrated. It is the traditional reinforcement schedule and is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. Each time the correct behavior is performed it gets reinforced.

2. An Intermittent reinforcement schedule are fixed and variable categories. In an intermittent schedule, not every instance of the desirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to make the behavior worth repeating. The

intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form.

Understanding the Behavior modification and its organizational application. The typical OB Modification program follows a five-step problem-solving model:

Identifying critical behaviors Developing baseline data

Identifying behavior consequences

Developing and implementing an intervention strategy Evaluating performance improvement

Critical behaviors make a significant impact on the employee‘s job performance; Developing baseline data determines the number of times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions.

Identifying behavioral consequences tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it.

Developing and implementing an intervention strategy will entail changing some elements of the performance-reward linkage-structure, processes, technology, groups, or the task—with the goal of making high-level performance more rewarding.

Evaluating performance improvement is important to demonstrate that a change took place as a result of the intervention strategy.

OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee productivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward customers.

Specific organizational application

Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism

For example, Continental Airlines has created a lottery that rewards its 40,000 employees for attendance. Twice a year, Continental holds a raffle and gives away eight new sport utility vehicles. Only employees who have not missed a day of work during the previous six months are eligible. This lottery system thus, follows a variable-ratio schedule where management credits the lottery with significantly reducing the company‘s absence rate (Robbins, 2003).

Well pay vs. sick pay

Organizations with paid sick leave programs experience almost twice the absenteeism of organizations without such programs. One of the Midwest organizations in USA implemented a well-pay program. It paid a bonus to employees who had no absence for any given four-week period and then paid for sick leave only after the first eight hours of absence. The well-pay program produced increased savings to the organization, reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, and improved employee satisfaction. Forbes magazine used the same approach to cut its health care costs. It rewarded employees who stayed healthy and did not file medical claims by paying them the difference between

$500 and their medical claims, then doubling the amount. By doing this, Forbes cut its major medical and dental claims by over 30 percent (Robbins, 2003).

Employee discipline

a. Every manager will, at some time, have to deal with problem behaviors in his/her organization.

b. Managers will respond with disciplinary actions such as oral reprimands, written warnings, and temporary suspensions. However, the use of discipline carries costs. It may provide only a short-term solution and result in serious side effects.

c. Disciplining employees for undesirable behaviors gives them a message to what not to do. However, it does not tell them what alternative behaviors are preferred.

d. Discipline does have a place in organizations.

e. In practice, it tends to be widely used because of its ability to produce fast results in the short run.

f. Developing training programs

g. Most organizations have some kind of systematic training program.

h. In one recent year, U.S. corporations with 100 or more employees spent in excess of $58 billion on formal training for 47.3 million workers (Robbins, 2003).

Social-learning theory suggests that training should

a. Offer a model to grab the trainee‘s attention. b. Provide motivational properties

c. Help the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use and provide opportunities to practice new behaviors.

d. Offer positive rewards for accomplishments.

e. If the training has taken place off the job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer what he/she learned to the job.

. Self-management

1. Organizational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allow individuals to manage their own behavior.

2. Self-management requires an individual to deliberately manipulate stimuli, internal processes, and responses to achieve personal behavioral outcomes.

The basic processes involve observing one‘s own behavior, comparing the behavior with a standard, and rewarding oneself if the behavior meets the standard.

Emotions

Introduction

In general, the term ‗emotion‘ is used to designate ―a state of consciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings (Webster‘s New World Dictionary).‖ It is ―distinguished from other mental states, from cognition, volition, and awareness of physical sensation.‖ Feeling refers to ―any of the subjective reactions, pleasant or unpleasant‖ that one may experience in a situation.

Theories of Emotion:

There are many theories of emotion:

I. James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Subjective emotional responses are the result of physiological changes within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor, autonomic and endocrine responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological behaviors precede the emotion.

II. Cannon-Bard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Emotion-provoking events induce the subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through experiences, individuals begin to acquire certain expectations for every given situation. These expectations provide a filter and every situation is processed through this filter. During this process, brain produces the emotion and corresponding physiological behaviors at the same time.

III. Schachter-Singer theory (1962): Both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral response will determine the emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional response depending on what we think is causing the response. For example, when someone interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted to a particular emotion. It can be fear, surprise, excitement, and astonishment depending on how the arousal is labeled.

IV. Lazarus’ appraisal theory (1980): An individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary; and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling.

V. Weiner’s attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are the basic emotions? Ortony and Turner

(1990) collated a wide range of research as to what basic emotions are and the basis of including them as basic emotions and proposed a comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion

Parrot’s classification of emotions

Source: Parrott, W. (2001), Emotions in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, Philadelphia

Felt emotions are an individual‘s actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings.

Culture and emotion

There are two Views of Culture and Emotion:

Universality - Emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures universally the

same set of basic emotions. Based on his cross-cultural research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which are universally recognized and applicable. They are:

Anger Fear Sadness Happiness Disgust Surprise.

Cultural specificity – Human beings are like a tabula rasa (clean tablet) on which

society writes its script. In other words, culture and traditions, normative patterns and value-orientations are responsible for not only our personality development, but also appropriate social and emotional development. This makes us functional entities in society. Each culture has a unique set of emotions and emotional responses; the emotions shown in a particular culture reflects the norms, values, practices, and language of that culture .

Alexithymia – emotional disorder

Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding the emotions of others. Psychologists call this alexithymia. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to discriminate among their different emotions. People, suffering from alexithymia, may be effective performers in jobs where little or no emotional labor. Alexithymic symptoms may be seen in people who experience:

1. Post-traumatic stress disorder 2. Certain brain injuries

3. Eating disorders (i.e., bulimia, anorexia, or binge-eating disorder) 4. Substance use dependence

5. Depression

Relationship of gender with emotion

A number of research findings supports the view that women are more emotional than men (e.g., Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Widiger & Settle, 1987). Women are assumed to experience more frequent and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences. However, researchers have argued that the stereotype of men as unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to control their emotions as they get older (Fabes and Martin, 1991). Likewise, women and men may experience happiness in a similar way, but women have been taught that they can strongly express the emotion of happiness, whereas men have been taught to control it. The impact of socialization practices accumulate over time, and, thus, these stereotypes are likely to apply more strongly to adult populations (Geer and Shields, 1996).

Emotional Intelligence

The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions and achieving success in life was well-accepted in ancient India. A concept of “Sthitha-prajna” (emotional stability), similar to the concept of emotional intelligence, can be traced in the second chapter of ‗Srimad Bhagavad-Gita‟ . Bhagavad Gita is a specific conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna (third Pandava prince) in a specific situation of

Kurukshetra battlefield. Pandavas were fighting against the Kauravas, the cousin

brothers to restore their kingdom from Kauravas in Kurukshetra. Before the battle started, Arjuna, with deep sorrow and pity, found his close relatives, friends and respected ‗gurus‗ in enemy‘s side. To win the battle he was supposed to kill those beloved ones. He got confused about his rightful duty. Due to this hriday-durbalata (heart-non-strength), he refused to join the battle. In this context, Lord Krishna who played the role as the driver of Arjuna‟s chariot, enlightened him about the eternal truth of life. According to Lord Krishna, as mentioned in Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna suffered from indecisiveness resulting from confusion and a false sense of

insecurity. Lord Krishna advised Arjuna to become „Sthitha-prajna‟ (the steady minded person). He also told that an individual achieved his/her goal only when the mind became steady, poised and balanced. Evidently, the concept of ―Sthitha-prajna‖ (the steady-minded person) talked about a unique interdependence between emotion and intelligence for effective decision-making which was most essential in excelling in every sphere of life. Gita, as a whole, advises all to balance between intelligence and emotion.

Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for achieving a balanced personality in different stages of life on an inter-generational basis has been depicted in the Vedas. In particular, Dr. Radhakrishnan, in his book , ‗The Hindu View of Life‘ (1927) opined that the attitude of the Vedas is one of trust tempered by criticism. ‗Trust, because, whatever the older generation hold, may be true, and criticism because, however, plausible the testimonies of the old views may be, it cannot deny the present of its right to enquire and sift the evidence‘. This view aptly points out the need for emotional intelligence in everyday life to become more emotionally balanced and functional individuals in society.

‗Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals‘ cognition of own and others‘ emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate the consequence which in turn result in superior performance and better human relationship‘ (Bhattacharya, 2003). Emotional intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes use of his/ her reasoning in the process of emotional responses (both positive and negative) in a given situation. So having high emotional intelligence doesn‘t mean that the person never panics or loses his/ her temper. It does mean that he / she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive behaviors. The ability to bring out-of-control emotions back into line results in what earlier generations called emotional maturity.

The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences. Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships.

Personal competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation. Self-awareness is the ability of an individual to observe him/herself and to recognize ‗a feeling as it happens‘ (Goleman, 1995). The hallmarks of this ability are self-confidence, self- assessment and openness to positive criticism. Self-regulation is the ability to control emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Trustworthiness, integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and attitude to accept change are some characteristics of this ability. Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control and by moderating impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people who have this ability are optimistic and committed towards organizational as well as individual goals.

Social competence: It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills. Empathy is the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and to treat people according to their emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in generating and motivating others. Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with people. People having this skill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. ‗Social skill‘ is the culmination of all other components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively manage social and work relationships only when they can understand and control their own emotion and can emphasize with the feelings of others.

Attitudes

Introduction

Attitude is a bent of mind or predisposition to certain actions. It is a process by which the individual learn as a result of experience to orient themselves towards objectives and goals. Attitude is a detailed direction of human behaviour.

A person can have thousands of attitudes but organizational behaviour focused on very limited number of jobs related to attitudes. These include job-satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment.

A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitude towards job, while a person who dissatisfied with his job holds negative attitude towards the job.

Definitions of attitude

― Attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness organized through

experience, extering a dynamic influence upon the individual response to all situations and objects with which it is related‖ -Allport

― Attitude are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something‖- Robbins Characteristics of attitudes

Attitudes are evaluated statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects , people or events

Attitudes are learned predispositions toward aspects of our environment Attitudes is a bent of mind or predisposition to certain actions

Attitude is a detailed direction of human behaviour

Attitude are the feeling and believe that largely determine how employees will perceive their environment.

Attitude is important because it is the mechanism through which most people express their feelings

Attitude is expression of inner feelings towards an object or subject

Attitudes are generally hidden in the mind and heart of people which may be expressed or inferred in some situations

Attitudes are acquired through learning over a period of time.

Attitudes are subject to change . a person having a negative attitude toward his may due in course of time start developing a positive attitude towards its. All individuals hold attitudes irrespective of their age, gender, social status, etc Physical environment and culture are responsible for the formation of common

attitudes

Attitude formation:

Attitude are a result of beliefs. If the employees believe that their current job will provide them with the experience and training necessary to be promoted.

1. Past experience:

People come to believe or not believe things on the basis of what they have experienced in the past. If everyone who has held job A has been promoted within six months

2. Generalization

These come from similar events or situation. If no one has hold closely related job B has ever been promoted, this may lead job A holders to believe that they will not be promoted either.

3. Association

people are highly influenced by the major groups or associations to which they belong. Our religion , educational background, race, gender, age and income class, are strongly influence our attitudes.

4. Family

Family experts influence on the initial core at attitudes held by an individual. Individuals develop certain attitudes from the family members, parents, brothers, sisters, etc. some investigation has found a high degree of relationship between parents and children in

attitudes than they found between children and their peers.

5. Peer groups

As people of adulthood they increasingly rely on their peer groups for approval attitude. How others judge an individual largely determines his self image and approval seeking behaviour . we often seek out others who share attitudes similar to our own or else we change our attitudes to conform the attitudes of those in the group whose approval is important to us.

6. Society

Social class and religious affiliation also play a vital role in forming attitudes of an individual. The culture, language and the structure of society, all provides an individual with the boundaries of his initial attitudes. At the very early age an individual is taught that certain attitudes are acceptable and certain others are non acceptable in the society.

Components of attitude: Affective component Cognitive component Intentional component

The affective component of an attitude reflects ‗ feelings and emotions ‗ that an individual has towards a situation

The cognitive component of an attitude derived from knowledge that an individual has

about a situation.

The intentional component of an attitude reflects how an individual expects to behave towards or in situation.

Types of attitudes:

Organizational behaviour has been concerned with three attitudes job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment.

Job satisfaction:

The term job satisfaction refers to an individual‘s general attitude toward his job. When people speak of employee attitudes more often than not they mean job satisfaction. Infact the two are frequently used interchangeably.

Job involvement:

It measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his job and considers his perceived performance level important to his self worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do on their job. High level of job involvement have been found to be related to fewer absence and low resignation rates

Organizational commitment:

It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintains membership in the organization. Studies show that as individuals level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than for more frequently used job satisfaction predictor.

Functions of attitudes

Attitudes help people adopt to their work environment. Katz has noted that attitudes serve four important functions in this process.

The adjustment function:

When employees are well treated by the boss, they are likely to develop a positive attitude towards supervision and the organization when employees are been berated and given minimum salary, they are likely to develop a negative attitude towards supervision and the organization. These attitudes help employees to their environment and are a basis for future behaviour.

The ego defensive function

Attitudes help to defend their self image. Sometimes an individual may develop certain attitudes to satisfy his ego . for example, there is feeling among most senior employees that the new recruits may not work efficiently. The reason for holding such as attitude is in view it fear that the new recruits are better qualified and have been exposure to the modern work methods.