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The relationship between travel constraints
and destination image: A case study of Brunei
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The relationship between travel constraints and destination image:
A case study of Brunei
Huei-Ju Chen
a,*, Po-Ju Chen
b,1, Fevzi Okumus
b,1aLeisure, Recreation and Tourism Department, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, No. 1, Sung-Ho Rd., Shiao-Kang, Kaohsiung 700, Taiwan, ROC bHospitality Services Department, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
h i g h l i g h t s
< Assessed the relationship between travel constraints and destination image of Brunei from the young travelers’ perspective. < Findings contribute to four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions of perceived destination image.
< Confirmed the significant relationship between travel constraints and destination during the early decision-making process. < Concluded travel constraints impact the formation of destination image during the early decision-making process.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 4 January 2012 Accepted 16 July 2012 Keywords: Travel constraints Destination image Muslim destination Unfamiliar culture Youth travelers Bruneia b s t r a c t
This study evaluated the relationship between travel constraints and destination image of young trav-elers to Brunei. This study found a significant relationship between destination image and travel constraints during the early decision-making process. This study concluded travel constraints impact on the formation of destination image during the early decision-making process. Study results contribute to the body of knowledge in two areas. First, four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions of perceived destination image were identified. In addition to the 3-dimension hierarchal constraints (structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal), a new constraint dimension (unfamiliar cultural constraints) was revealed. Second, this study confirmed the relationship between travel constraints and destination image. Relatively few studies address the role of travel constraints to the formation of destination image. This is thefirst study providing empirical evidence demonstrating Brunei’s destina-tion image and travel constraints impact young travelers during the early decision-making process.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The youth tourism market is considered to have great appeal for many destinations. Previous studies found young, well-educated travelers are more likely to travel to destinations with different cultures (Deforges, 2000;Jang, Bai, & Hong, 2004). Young travelers not only represent a significant segment of the travel market, but also possess significant spending power. Previous studies indicate young tourists usually travel longer and more frequently than members of other market segments (Richards & Wilson, 2003,
2006). AsChen and Kerstetter (1999, p. 256)reported,“educated travelers (e.g., college students including graduate students) usually
appreciate change in their environments and are more willing to take chances and explore new things. In addition, youth have a greater amount of disposable time, a relative absence of respon-sibility, and, typically, a lack of mental and physical constraints (Josiam, Clements, & Hobson 1994).” Warnick, Bojanic, and Siriangkul (2005)state young, educated travelers represent about 20% of international tourists and this figure has been steadily increasing over the past few decades.
The youth travel market has recently gained more attention from researchers. For example,Kim, Oh, and Jogaratnam (2007) identi-fied seven unique push motivations for international and U.S. college student travelers. Richards and Wilson (2003, 2006) surveyed 2300 young people and students from Canada, the Czech Republic, Hong Kong, Mexico, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, and the UK, and concluded destination selection can be an important factor when examining youth travel market behaviors. Other studies indicated perceived benefits and constraints significantly influence the decision-making process related to travel (Carneiro &
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ886 7 8060505x2951; fax: þ886 7 8060587. E-mail addresses:hjuchen@mail.nkuht.edu.tw(H.-J. Chen),Po-Ju.Chen@ucf.edu
(P.-J. Chen),Fevzi.Okumus@ucf.edu(F. Okumus).
1 Tel.:þ1 407 903 8029; fax: þ1 407 903 8105.
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Crompton, 2010; Chen, Kerstetter, & Caldwell, 2001; Nyaupane & Andereck, 2008). However, constraint factors are also likely to be deterministic rather than attributes of benefits (Um & Crompton, 1999). Constraints are the factors that restrict development of tourism market and limit the potential of tourism destination development. Because understanding these constraints is critical to tourism planning and marketing, tourism destinations should develop and implement strategies to overcome perceived constraints. Once perceived constraints are removed, individuals are more likely to consider the destination in their travel decision-making process and ultimately travel to that destination. Strate-gies designed to remove perceived constraints would enhance the competitiveness of tourism destinations. Furthermore, deciding where to travel might depend heavily on the image of the desti-nation (Cronch, 2011;Stepchenkova & Eales, 2011; Tasci & Gartner, 2007). This is because destination image influences several aspects of the decision-making process of tourists, including information search, evaluation of alternatives, and travel desti-nation selection.Shani, Chen, Wang, and Hua (2010, p. 385)found “the relationship between past travel experience and intention to travel” mediates the destination image of young, well-educated American travelers.
Despite the importance of these issues, few studies have focused on well-educated, young traveler destination image perceptions and travel constraints. Even fewer studies have focused on constraints and future intentions of young, well-educated travelers to exotic/ unfamiliar destinations. In the context of this paper,“exotic” refers to destinations where major cultural and religious differences exist between the traveler’s home country and the destination. Given the significant impact of behavior on selecting destinations, further investigation of destination perceptions and related constructs (e.g., constraints) of young, well-educated travelers is warranted. Thus, the objectives of this study are to: (1) investigate perceptions and perceived travel constraints of young travelers from Taiwan to Brunei Darussalam (hereafter referred to simply as Brunei), and (2) examine the relationships between travel constraints and perceived destination images. Brunei was chosen for this study as a destination because of the distinct cultural and religious differences compared to Taiwan. Taiwan was selected because of their relatively high numbers of young, well-educated travelers. Taiwan has approxi-matelyfive million citizens under the age of 30, and over 600,000 young Taiwanese citizens traveled internationally in 2010 (National Statistics, 2011).
2. Literature review 2.1. Travel constraints
Past research has shown participation in leisure activity, including travel, might be inhibited by constraints (Jackson, 1988, 1991). Leisure constraints and the benefits of leisure are the two basic factors that influence the travel decision-making process. The major constraints affecting travel are social, political, physical, financial, time, health, family stage, lack of interest, fear and safety, lack of transportation, companionship, overcrowding, distance, and limited information about potential destinations (Carneiro & Crompton, 2010; Jackson, 1988). As such, leisure constraints have been shown to prohibit participation in tourism activities (Um & Crompton, 1999).
Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991) proposed a hierarchical constraints model, which includes three categories of constraints: structural constraints (family life-cycle stage, financial resources, season, climate, work scheduling, etc.), intrapersonal constraints (stress, depression, anxiety, etc.), and interpersonal constraints (e.g., finding a suitable traveling partner). They argued these
constraints occur hierarchically. According to their proposed model, an individual is“heavily dependent on negotiating through an align-ment of multiple factors, arranged sequentially, that must be over-come to maintain an individual’s impetus through these systemic levels” (Crawford et al., 1991, p. 314). In this model, constraints are encountered hierarchically in the sense that potential touristsfirst encounter intrapersonal barriers, then interpersonal barriers, and finally structural barriers. This proposed model was empirically tested byRaymore, Godbey, Crawford, and von Eye (1993), and again later by
Hawkins, Peng, Hsieh, and Eklund (1999). Both studies“verified that the constraint categories can be replicated and extended with subtle distinctions” (Chen et al., 2001, p. 90). The most commonly used conceptual constraints are“internal” (attributes of the individual) and “external” (characteristics of the physical and social environments) (Jackson, 1988). However,Chen et al. (2001)surveyed 1378 visitors and found,“The most constraining factors are structural in nature. Intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints were the least con-straining” (p. 92). According to Kerstetter, Zinn, Graefe, and Chen (2002, p. 62)“researchers did not recognize that leisure participa-tion may be dependent on individuals’ ability to negotiate through constraints . nor did they recognize that constraints may be addressed in a hierarchical fashion.”
Other studies have shown individuals can overcome (negotiate) some travel constraints, such as costs, if the desire to visit the destination is strong enough. Still other research indicates people with high levels of certain constraints (e.g., poor health) continue to participate in leisure activities through successful constraint negotiations (Um & Crompton, 1999). Constraint negotiation has been referred to as“the successful navigation of those obstacles” and the majority of research on leisure constraints “portrays constraint negotiation as the navigation of static obstacles” (Samdahl, Hutchinson, & Jacobson, 1999, p. 1). In other words, the final decision regarding travel destination might not be based on the absence of constraints, but rather on the successful negotiation of most perceived or real constraints (Crawford et al., 1991; Um & Crompton, 1999).
In recent years, considering all constraint and image attributes, safety and security have become one of the most perceived inhibitors preventing potential tourists from traveling to their preferred destinations (Kim & Chalip, 2004; Pizam, 1999). For example, tourist arrival statistics in the People’s Republic of China showed a dramatic drop after the 1989 Tiananmen Square inci-dent (Gartner & Shen, 1992). Events such as the September 1972 Munich, Germany, massacre, the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center destruction by terrorists, and the November 26, 2008 terrorist attack on India’s financial capital, Mumbai, all signifi-cantly inhibited travel (cf. Toohey & Taylor, 2008). Past travel experiences also affect tourists’ risk and safety concerns, as well as their intention to revisit (Kim & Chalip, 2004). For example,
Sönmez and Graefe (1998, p. 171)noted“past travel experience to specific regions both increases the intention to travel there again and decreases the intention to avoid areas, particularly risky areas.”
Cultural and racial factors also have become prevalent in travel constraint studies (e.g., Ng, Lee, & Soutar, 2007). Oh, Oh, and Caldwell (2002)found similarities in perceived leisure constraints among people from different cultural backgrounds.Shinew, Floyd, and Parry (2004)examined leisure constraints and preferences of African-Americans and Caucasians. Theirfindings indicate African-Americans are not as constrained as Caucasians, supporting the view that these two racial groups have distinct leisure preferences. Previous constraint-related studies have demonstrated leisure and travel constraints operate differently in different cultural contexts. For example,Chick and Dong (2003)found people with different cultural backgrounds perceived constraints differently from
North Americans and suggest leisure constraint categories must be refined.Shinew et al. (2004)stated further examination of racial and ethnic populations would contribute to better understandings of constraints. Moreover, these studies indicated understanding the relationship between race and leisure constraints is necessary for understanding the complex relationship between culture and constraints.
The role of travel constraints to the decision-making process was rarely addressed in the tourism literature.Tasci and Gartner (2007)identified critical factors related to the formation of desti-nation image on the travel supply and demand sides. Among those, they indicated various situational or external factors could be perceived as constraints that influence the travel decision-making process in the pre-trip stage.
2.2. Destination image
Destination and image formation are complex concepts that play an important role in tourists’ decisions; consequently, they have been examined extensively in the tourism literature (Pike, 2002;2010). Cronch (2011)indicated it is critical to identify key attributes of a destination such as destination image and reputation in the tourism market in terms of enhancing its competitiveness. Previous studies have shown that holistic destination images and specific destination attributes “influence consumer behavior vari-ables before, during, and after visiting a destination (Chen & Hsu, 2000;Chen & Kerstetter, 1999;Court & Lupton, 1997;Ross, 1993;
Schroeder, 1996)” (cited inTasci & Gartner, 2007, p. 413). For the past three decades, destination image studies have been an important topic in thefield of travel and tourism. Scholars, using various approaches, have attempted to develop a conceptual framework of the image formation process to examine this construct (e.g., Beerli & Martin, 2004; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993, 2003; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993;Gunn, 1972;Pike, 2002; 2010; Stepchenkova & Mills, 2010; Tasci, Gartner, & Cavusgil, 2007).
Destination images and associated specific destination attri-butes are the most influential factors in travelers’ decision-making and, therefore, affect tourists’ behavior (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003; Elliot, Papadopoulos, & Kim, 2011). According to Echtner and Ritchie’s (1993)conceptualization, a destination image consists of attribute-based and holistic-based components. Each of these components contains tangible ‘functional’ and abstract ‘psycho-logical’ characteristics. Furthermore, the image varies from common functional and psychological characteristics to unique holistic features.
Three formation processes produce destination images: organic image, induced image, and complex image. An organic image is formed by daily exposure to mass media (e.g., television). Exposure to promotional materials, such as advertisements, can transform an organic image into an induced image. The induced image may or may not be the same as the organic image (Gunn, 1972). In the absence of actual visitation, destination images are formed through induced agents.Goodrich (1978)argues that induced images are a secondary source formed by information received from external sources. After an individual visits a destination, the induced images (perceived image) become complex images (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991). However,Gartner (1989, p. 16) suggested“vacation travel to a distant destination will usually be undertaken only after an extensive information search” conditioned by financial and time limits.
Destination images have also been classified using three hier-archically interrelated components. According toGartner (1993), these three hierarchical and distinct components are cognitive, affective, and conative. Individuals’ knowledge and beliefs about
a destination are the cognitive components. Individuals’ emotional responses toward destination attributes are the affective compo-nents. The evolved cognitive and affective components of the image are the conative components and are behavioral in nature. These three types of image components are formed hierarchically: first the cognitive components, then the affective components, and last the conative components. Furthermore, past travel experiences influence the cognitive component of destination images; travelers’ motivations influence the affective components of destination images; and the individuals’ socio-demographic char-acteristics (e.g., young, well-educated travelers) influence the cognitive and affective assessment of image (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Gartner, 1993).
Weaver and McCleary (1984)found age was a significant vari-able in interpretation of travel advertisements. More specifically, “people with different motives may assess a destination in similar ways if its perception satisfies their needs” (Dadgostar & Isotalo, 1992, p. 662). During the travel decision-making process, individ-uals evaluate both positive and negative destination images (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003). When“the positive image exceeds the weight of the negative image,” the potential travelers will then “make the destination choice decision (McLellan & Foushee, 1983)” (Chen & Kerstetter, 1999, p. 257). However it is important to note that images tend to be stable over time. In fact, as Fakeye and Crompton (1991) suggested that an image may continue long after the factors that shaped it have changed. Images may have stability over time even if there are dramatic changes in destination attributes.
Additionally, Stabler (1988) divided factors influencing formation of a consumer’s destination image into supply and demand. Demand factors are similar to push factors such as motivation, perception, and individual characteristics; whereas, supply factors are similar to pull factors corresponding to induced image formation (Gunn, 1972). Since Stabler’s contribution, influence factors have been re-characterized as external and internal factors such as stimulus factors and personal factors (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). External stimulus factors are typically defined as the physical object and previous experience; whereas personal factors consist of the internal social and psychological characteristics of the perceiver. Baloglu and McCleary further argued information sources and personal factors would affect destination image formation. Based on contributions from
Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Beerli and Martin (2004)developed a model explaining the different factors forming a destination’s post-visit image.
Relatively few studies examined the relationship between destination image and Islamic culture. Islam is one of the most widely practiced monotheistic religions in the world, with adher-ents called Muslims. Despite geo-political tensions resulting from religious extremism over the last few decades, Islam itself is not hostile toward tourism (Aziz, 1995). Some extremists perceive tourism as a threat to their religion and culture, and believe tourism represents unequal socio-economic development, as well as inviting habits and practices viewed as an affront to Islamic tradi-tions and beliefs (e.g., consumption of alcohol and pork, gambling, prostitution, immodest dress codes and behavior, etc.) (Aziz, 1995). These perceptions have led to a degree of xenophobia by some of the more reverent, which has resulted in a sense of some type of hostility toward non-Muslims. Moreover, tourists are perceived as tangible representatives of the wealthy “have” societies which challenge the moral, religious, and social values of the “want” society (Aziz, 1995). These views may conflict with the views that tourism represents a powerful force for improved relations among people and nations that tourism emphasizes a sharing and appreciation of cultures rather than a lack of trust and isolation
(D’Amore, 1988). As a result of perceived social, political, and reli-gious differences,“several middle-Eastern countries have shunned Western-style international tourism, deemed the differences to be incompatible with Islam (Burton, 1995). Brunei is an interesting example of this strategy as a‘reluctant tourist destination’ with no real economic incentive to encourage international tourism, thereby protects citizens from the‘worst excesses’ (Baum & Conlin, 1997, p. 91)” (cited inHenderson, 2003, p. 449).
During the last three decades, tourism development in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Morocco, and Turkey, has offered international tourists unique multi-ethnic oriented cultural experiences (Battour, Ismail, & Battor, 2011;Din, 1989; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). Even though the tourism industry in these countries has grown slowly during the last few decades and is still in its infancy phase, tourism is consid-ered one of the major contributors to the economies of these countries (Akhtar, 2011; Mansfield & Winckler, 2008). For example, tourism has been an important contributor to employment gener-ation in Egypt (11%) and Tunisia (15%) in 2010 (Akhtar, 2011), and is projected to contribute to a 6.7% increase in 2011 for Malaysia (WTTC, 2011). Despite the economic benefits, Islam “has a poten-tially difficult relationship with international tourism and has become a sensitive issue for the industry due to wider political developments” (Henderson, 2008, p. 135). For example, in many countries where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominant religions,“host behaviors are always guided by Islamic doctrine . such doctrine is often subject to cultural or political interpretations and different societies adhere to religious doctrine to varying degrees” (Sönmez, 2001, p. 128). The contemporary image of destinations in countries where Islam is the main religion is still closely associated with differences between traditional Islamic behavioral norms and those of Western society (Henderson, 2006;
Tasci, Meydan, & Cavusgil, 2006), as demonstrated byMansfield and Winckler’s (2008)case study of Bahrain, an Islamic tourism desti-nation. Their study concluded that potential tourists might perceive these destinations negatively due to religious behavior and strict Islamic codes of conduct. While international tourists harbor concerns about Islamic traditions (Henderson, 2006, 2008), tourism in such countries continues to grow (Akhtar, 2011; Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010; WTTC, 2011).
2.3. Brunei
Brunei is located in South Asia on the Island of Borneo, bordering Indonesia and Malaysia. Due to its proximity to the booming tourist attractions of China, Japan, and Taiwan, Brunei has the potential to attract more Asian tourists than many other neighboring destinations. Culture is often considered the main tourism attraction of Brunei. Brunei differs from other Islamic countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Yemen, wherein“tourism is likely to be in the form of escorted tours which demand trained personnel in the form of guides and couriers” (Burns & Cooper, 1997, p. 560). Although Islamic norms and values have been firmly rooted in Brunei since the 16th century, and while most of Brunei’s cultural practices and customs are intrinsically linked with Islam, the country is open to other faiths and cultures (Brunei Tourism, 2011), and includes a mix of Asiatic people and culture. Many tourists are attracted to Brunei by its unique attractions and cultural sites, often noted by tourists seeking novelty and exclu-sivity. For example, Brunei attractions include the “Istana Nurul Iman Palace” (Palace of the Light of Faith) and “Kampong Ayer” (the Water Village). Istana Nurul Iman Palace is the largest resi-dential palace in the world (larger than Buckingham Palace and the Royal Palace of Madrid). Kampong Ayer, estimated to be over 1000 years old, was characterized as the“Venice of the East” by Antonio
Pigafetta in 1521. Often described as reflecting the nation’s quaint Asian charm, this water village is the largest of its kind in the world with over 30,000 residents and over 100,000 feet of linked foot bridges, boardwalks, houses, shops, and hospitals, all built on stilts over a lagoon.
Despite these cultural attractions, Brunei’s economy is heavily dependent on the oil and natural gas industry. Since 1929, crude oil and natural gas have been the major contributors to the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP) estimated to be roughly 7 billion USD (Prime Minister’s Office, 2009). Despite the prosperity natural gas and oil have brought to this island nation, Brunei is implementing an economic diversification strategy as they anticipate the inevi-table depletion of their fossil fuel resources in future decades (Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010; Minnis, 2000). This diversification strategy envisions Brunei becoming a major tourist destination in Asia, especially in the niche markets of ecotourism and Islamic culture (Government of Brunei, 1996). Tourism has been heavily promoted by the Brunei Economic Council established under the chairmanship of the Deputy Sultan (head of state) with the goal of overseeing economic reforms intended to ensure economic sustainability over the long term. Brunei’s government designated 2001 as“Visit Brunei Year,” hoping a year-long focus on the country would boost tourism (Anaman & Looi, 2000).
The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) and Oxford Economic Forecasting (OEF) reported visitor exports grew by 5.9% per annum from 2001 through 2006. A majority of visitors to Brunei are Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members with almost 50% of tourists originating from Malaysia, followed by 10% from the United Kingdom. As Brunei expects travel-and-tourism-related employment to increase to 16.1% of total employment by 2016 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2009), it is clear that tourism is rapidly becoming a major part of Brunei’s economy.
Although Brunei is considered a wealthy country with more than 27% of Brunei’s population consists of migrant workers. However, as many as 4.9% of Brunei nationals have been unemployed (Tasie, 2009). As such, promotion of tourism is becoming an important long term strategy. In January 2010, tourism ministers from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines launched the 29th ASEAN Tourism Forum (ATF). The forum announced “Equator Asia” as a“single tourism destination” emphasizing ecological preservation and promoting the heritage and diversity of the Indo-Malay race. This “integrated region” tourism approach could be an effective strategy to ease the perceived “unfamiliar cultural constraints” of international travelers and promote the long term growth of Brunei’s tourism industry.
3. Methodology 3.1. Study instrument
The study instrument used in this study was constructed in three phases. Thefirst phase consisted of an in-depth literature review of both destination image and travel constraints. The in-depth literature review resulted in a list of attributes of destina-tion image and travel constraints. The list was further refined based on most recent literature (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Henderson, 2008; Nyaupane & Andereck, 2008; Shani et al., 2010; Tasci & Gartner, 2007;Tasci et al., 2006). The second phase consisted of conduct-ing four focus groups to verify the refined lists and to identify additional attributes. Each focus group consisted of eight to eleven young Taiwanese travelers. Some of the focus group participants had previously traveled to other destinations in Asia (e.g., Indonesia and Malaysia) and Africa (e.g., Egypt and Morocco). Each of the four focus group meetings ranged from one to 2 h in duration. Discus-sions focused on the image and constraint attributes contained in
the master list and participant perceptions and preferences; both generically, as they apply to certain Asian destination images or Islamic countries images and travel constraints, and specifically, as they apply to Brunei. These focus group meetings were used to finalize attributes through modification and elimination, and resulted in afinal list containing 19 destination image and 20 travel constrain attributes that specifically apply to Brunei as a destina-tion. All attributes were measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
In the third phase, the survey questionnaire was developed using the three-phase cross translation process. The questionnaire, containing destination image, travel constraints, international travel experience, and other related socio-demographic variables, wasfirst developed in English, and then translated into Mandarin by three Taiwanese international students who were studying in the United States. The Mandarin version was further verified by a tourism scholar from Taiwan. To ensure accuracy of the trans-lation, the Mandarin version was translated back to English byfive other international students from Taiwan. These reverse trans-lations were also reviewed by two tourism scholarsfluent in both English and Mandarin. Once the validity of the study instrument was established, it was used to collect data from representative samples of young Taiwanese travelers.
As there is no single internationally accepted definition of “young international traveler,” the following institutional criteria were reviewed and considered for this study: (1) those possessing International Student Identity Cards (ISIC), issued by the Interna-tional Student Travel Confederation (ISTC), who are actively engaged in academic studies; (2) those possessing an International Youth Travel Card (IYTC) issued to travelers under 26 year old; (3) those who met the Intrepid Connections Adventure community (Connections Adventures, 2011; Intrepid Connections was honored at the 2009 Qantas Australian Tourism Awards) definition of young travelers under 35 years old; (4) those under 35 years old who traveled internationally and fell within the Contiki community (a youth travelers online forums to reconnect/block with fellow young travelers and share travel experiences) traveler definition (Contiki vacations for 18e35, 2011).
3.2. Data collection
The intent of this study was to examine the perceived travel constraints and destination image of an unfamiliar destination in the early travel decision-making process. Thus, this study adopted a“soft definition” formed by combining overlapping criteria from several definitions to consider young travelers within the research target of age 18e35 (i.e., students less than 18 years of age were excluded as 18 is typically considered the age when an individual becomes an adult and can travel independent of parental consent).
3.3. Data analysis
As one objective of this study was to identify the perceived destination image and travel constraints of Brunei, the sample frame was restricted to young travelers with travel experience. The criteria sampling method was applied to recruit young travelers consisting of students 18e35 years old who had not previously traveled to Brunei and were at the early stage of the travel decision-making process. Using this sampling criterion, 450 young individ-uals from a university in Taiwan were invited to participate in this study. Of those invited, 328 usable samples were returned (an 88% of response rate) and were deemed acceptable for this study. Among those, 82% were female with average age of 21. Majority of the respondents had never traveled to Brunei.
4. Results
4.1. Travel constraints to Brunei
The objectives of this study were to investigate perceived travel constraints and perceived image of Brunei as a travel destination. Frequency analysis was performed to identify the salient aspects of travel constraints to Brunei as well as destination image as perceived by study participants. Exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation was then applied. All variables were examined to ensure the basic assumptions of normal distribution, homosce-dasticity, and no multicollinearity. All bivariate correlation coef fi-cients were less than .7; VIF< 2. Q-Q box plot of each variable and the skewness and Kurtosis were examined and concluded that the normal distribution assumptions were not violet. Thus, the variables identified met assumptions for the procedure. Before indicating the factors of both destination image and travel constraints by using factor analysis, two tests were employed to ensure assumption were met. They are the KaisereMeyereOlkin (KMO) measure of sample adequacy and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were performed. These two sets of indicators ensure that both sets of variables meet the assumption of carrying out the exploratory factor analysis for both destination image and travel constraints. The underlying dimensions of destination image and travel constraints to Brunei were then identified.
Principal Component Factor Analysis with Varimax rotation was used to identify the 20 attributes of travel constraints. The procedure resulted in four dimensions of travel constraints to Brunei (KMO ¼ .89; the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity chi-square ¼ 3329.729***, df ¼ 171, significant at .001 level; 61.46% variance explained). They are: unfamiliar cultural constraints, interpersonal travel constraints, structural travel constraints, and intrapersonal travel constraints. Cronbach alpha, used to measure the internal consis-tency of each of these four dimensions, ranged from .72 to .91 and was deemed appropriate. Unfamiliar cultural constraints included attributes such as,“The extreme culture makes me feel not inter-ested in visiting this destination,” and “I feel uncomfortable due to the religion.” Interpersonal travel constraints consisted of items including,“My family and friends discourage me from traveling to this type of destination,” and “My family and friends do not want to travel to this type of destination.” Structural travel constraints referred to those items such as,“I do not have enough money to travel to this type of destination,” and “Language is a major problem for me to have a vacation to this destination.” Intrapersonal travel constraints included,“My health is a concern for traveling to this type of destination” and “My work and family obligation keep me from visiting this destination.” The findings showed young travelers perceived travel constraints on two dimensions: structural travel constraints (mean ¼ 3.54; SD ¼ 1.05) and intrapersonal travel constraints (mean¼ 3.8; SD ¼ 1.05). However, young travelers dis-agreed with unfamiliar cultural constraints (mean¼ 2.88; SD ¼ 1.28) and interpersonal travel constraints (mean ¼ 3.17; SD ¼ 1.25). Thefindings are shown inTable 1.
4.2. Brunei destination image
Among the 19 attributes describing Brunei’s destination image, “variety of unique cultural attractions,” “unique heritage,” and “diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture” were ranked highly. However, “modern,” “appealing local food and beverage,” and “high-tech” destination image attributes ranked lower. This process revealed a three-dimension destination image of Brunei (KMO ¼ .904; the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity chi-square ¼ 3430.053***, df¼ 191, significant at .001 level; 59.86% of variance explained by the solution). The three dimensions of Brunei
destination image are: tourism infrastructure (Cronbach
a
¼ .90; mean¼ 4.27; SD ¼ .97), hospitality atmosphere (Cronbacha
¼ .85; mean¼ 4.91; SD ¼ 1.06), and unique cultural attraction (Cronbacha
¼ .82; mean ¼ 5.47; SD ¼ .91) (seeTable 2). Destination image attributes in the tourism infrastructure included attributes such as“high-tech” and “adequate tourism infrastructure.” Hospitality atmosphere included attributes such as“friendly local people” and “refreshing/relaxing atmosphere.” Destination image attributes related to unique cultural attraction included“variety of cultural attraction” and “unique heritage.” The Cronbach alpha of each of
Table 1
Factor analysis of travel constraints to Brunei.
Factors Factor loading Composite mean (SDa) Eigen value Explained variance (%)
Factor 1: unfamiliar cultural constraints (a¼ .91) 2.88 (1.28) 7.61 38.07%
The extreme culture make me feel not interested in visiting this destination .852
I feel uncomfortable due to the religion .823
Unwelcome atmosphere due to the religion. .811
The extreme culture makes me feel uncomfortable to travel to this destination. .779
I am not interested in visiting this destination. .591
Factor 2: interpersonal travel constraints (a¼ .87) 3.17 (1.25) 2.09 10.47%
My family and friends discourage me from traveling to this type of destination. .767 My family and friends do not want to travel to this type of destination. .763 My family and friends are not interested in visiting this destination. .754 My family and friends do not want to travel with me to this type of destination. .746
It is not safe to travel to this destination. .578
Factor 3: structural travel constraints (a¼ .72) 3.54 (1.05) 1.33 6.62%
I do not have enough money to travel to this type of destination. .790 Language is a major problem for me to have a vacation to this destination. .702
It is too far away. .614
It looks expensive to travel to this destination. .521
I don’t have time to visit this destination. .490
I do not know much about this destination for vacation. .458
It is not fun to travel to this destination by myself. .434
Factor 4: intrapersonal travel constraints (a¼ .76) 3.80 (1.27) 1.26 6.31%
My health is a concern for traveling to this type of destination. .919
This destination is a muslin country .887
My work and family obligation keep me from visiting this destination. .886 Total variance explained: 61.46%
Note: values are the mean of reported scores on a 7-point scale (1¼ strongly disagree, 7 ¼ strongly agree).
aStandard deviation.
Table 2
Factor analysis of Islamic country destination image.
Factors Factor loading Composite mean (SDa) Eigen value Explained variance (%)
Factor 1: tourism infrastructure (a¼ .90) 4.27 (.97) 8.00 42.11%
High-tech .732
Adequate tourism infrastructure (airport, highway, hotels, shopping, etc.) .714
Safe .643
Appealing local food and beverage .634
Various recreational opportunities .619
Socially and politically stable .603
Modern .574
Suitable accommodations (hotels, resorts, etc.) .537
Good value for money .498
Advanced tourism industry .493
Inexpensive travel .405
Factor 2: hospitality atmosphere (a¼ .85) 4.91 (1.06) 2.09 10.98%
Friendly local people .812
Pleasant weather .744
Refreshing/relaxing atmosphere .708
Open and welcoming .657
Factor 3: unique cultural attraction (a¼ .82) 5.47 (.91) 1.29 6.78%
Variety of unique cultural attractions .859
Unique heritage .772
Diverse and unique ethnic groups and cultures .762
Unique natural attractions .619
Total variance explained: 59.86%
Note: values are the mean of reported scores on a 7-point scale (1¼ strongly disagree, 7 ¼ strongly agree).
these three dimensions was .90, .85, and .82, respectively, which are deemed as excellent to good.
4.3. Travel constraints and destination image relationships
The second objective of this study was to identify the relation-ship, if any, between travel constraints and destination image. Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) procedures were performed to empirically test the nature and magnitude of the relationship. The relationship test model is depicted inFig. 1.
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 14.0) MANOVA procedure was utilized for the canonical analysis. The study revealed only one canonical correlation was significant at the .001 level.Table 3 lists the p-value as .006, which indicates a possible canonical relationship exists between travel constraints and destination image. Multivariate test statistics including Wilks’ lambda (Wilks’ lambda ¼ .912, p < .001) also supported the conclusion that this function solution was appropriate.
A Canonical Redundancy Index measures the ability of a set of left-hand side variables (e.g. travel constraints) to account for variation in a set of right-hand side variables (e.g. destination image). It is important to interpret the canonical function that explains a large portion of the right-hand side variables (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2006). The Canonical Redun-dancy Index analysis is shown in Table 3. The resulting total redundancy was .03 (meaning 3 per cent of the variance in the image set was explained). More specifically, the first canonical function, which explained 47 per cent of the total redundancy, contributed the most to the total redundancy. The results based on both the redundancy analysis and the statistical significance tests implied that thefirst canonical function (e.g., variate) should be interpreted as the sole solution.
In order to determine the most important variables in a given pair of canonical variants, the correlation between each variable
and canonical variate (standardized canonical coefficients and/or canonical loadings) are used. According toHair et al. (2006)the canonical loadings could be used, in most cases, to interpret the meanings of the canonical variate. Furthermore, canonical loadings are used to discern the relationship between pairs of variates in order to avoid multicollinearity problems. According toHair et al. (2006), correlations with positively correlated loadings greater than .45 should be included in the interpretation. Canonical load-ings between individual variables and their corresponding canon-ical functions are presented inTable 4. These results indicate the destination image of Brunei held by young travelers is statistically significant and negatively related to travel constraints. Thus, the correlation function (correlations with loadings greater than .45) revealed that unfamiliar culture, interpersonal travel constraints, and intrapersonal travel constraints significantly and positively correlated with travel constraints. Moreover, young travelers’ perceived Brunei’s “tourism infrastructure,” “culture attraction,” and“hospitality atmosphere” have a significant negative correla-tion with Brunei’s destination image. Additionally, the young travelers perceived significant travel constraints to Brunei in four aspects: unfamiliar cultural, interpersonal, structural, and intraper-sonal travel constraints. Theoretically, thesefindings might imply perceived travel constraints and destination image have a signi fi-cant relationship.
5. Discussion and conclusions
This study contributes to the body of knowledge in two areas. First, four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions of destination image induced by the Brunei tourism promotion information perceived by young travelers were identified. A new constraint dimension (unfamiliar cultural constraints) was revealed. Second, this study confirmed the relationship between travel constraints and destination image. Relatively few studies address the
role of travel constraints to the formation of destination image (Botha, Crompton, & Kim, 1999; Tasci & Gartner, 2007). This study found a significant relationship between destination image and travel constraints during the early decision-making process. Study results also support the conceptual model presented byTasci and Gartner (2007), which indicated travel constraints affect pre-trip decision. This study concluded travel constraints impact the formation of destination image at the early decision-making process. The four underlying travel constraints to Brunei are: unfamiliar cultural constraints, interpersonal travel constraints, structural travel constraints, and intrapersonal travel constraints. Among those, the study findings show that structural and intrapersonal travel constraints were salient at the early stage of the decision-making process. The destination image dimensions are tourism infrastruc-ture, unique cultural attraction, and hospitality atmosphere.
This study revealed a new dimension of travel constraints: unfamiliar cultural constraints. This provides an additional facet not previously identified by researchers such asCrawford et al. (1991)
who proposed a leisure constraints model with three dimensions of hierarchal constraints: structural, intrapersonal, and interper-sonal constraints. In addition to the empirical investigation and verification of their leisure constraints model by Raymore et al. (1993), andHawkins et al. (1999), this study confirmedCrawford et al.’s (1991)model also applies to travel and tourism. Further-more, this study also identified “unfamiliar cultural constraints” as a previously overlooked fourth dimension. Contrary toChick and Dong (2003)who discovered that both intrapersonal and interper-sonal constraints were subordinate to culture, this study suggests culture is a stand-alone constraint construct in a travel context.
Of these four constraints dimensions, unfamiliar cultural constraints had the highest absolute value of standardized canon-ical coefficients. That is, unfamiliar cultural constraints could be the most significant construct explaining travel constraints. Unfamiliar cultural constraints might be formed by a lack of knowledge and experience with Brunei’s cultural heritage and religion (Islam). This may be the result of unfamiliar culture, a lack of interactions with Muslims, limited knowledge of Islam and/or other destinations
where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominant religions, and limited understanding of geo-political situations (e.g., impli-cations resulting from the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States). In other words, cultural unfamiliarity might not create barriers to travel. The unfamiliar cultural constraints construct analysis (mean ¼ 2.88; standard deviation ¼ 1.28) showed that young Taiwanese travelers do not agree that Brunei culture, an unfamiliar religion, and heritage are major travel constraints. This implies young Taiwanese travelers are relatively insensitive to the concerns of other segments of the travel market (such as Westerners, elderly travelers, etc.).
In this study, the culture attraction image dimension had the lowest canonical loading correlation with destination image. This may imply that, from the perspective of Taiwanese youth, unfa-miliar culture and religion may have a pull effect, thus enhancing Brunei’s destination image. However, improvements in tourism infrastructure, unique cultural attraction, and hospitality atmo-sphere attributes would lead to less negative destination images. This finding differs from previous image construct research (e.g.,Pike, 2010) in that the“culture attraction” construct was used to further understand the interrelated influences of image and constraint.
Many countries where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominant religions promote tourism development because of the potential economic contribution (Henderson, 2001, 2003; Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010). Therefore, recognizing the signi fi-cance of unfamiliar cultural constraints is a critical factor when developing youth travel market strategiese particularly for desti-nations possessing significant cultural and religious differences compared to their potential target markets. This can be a significant challenge for countries where Islam is the dominant religion or one of the main religions (cf.Mansfield & Winckler, 2008). Non-Muslim international tourists might consider some Islamic countries to be unattractive destinations due to perceived religious stereotypes. Additionally, some Islamic countries project“well-known problems with religious fundamentalism and conservatism, political conflict, sporadic wars, and terrorism” and “persistent media reports of political conflict and terrorism in the region, powerful media images of covered women and often repressed citizens have fueled an overall negative image” (Sönmez, 2001, p. 113). Some Islamic countries also have restrictive and complicated entry requirements (Henderson, 2003, 2008). These factors deter not just young trav-elers, but other travelers as well. Furthermore, terrorism and political instability have added to the fear, particularly among Western tourists (Hashim, Murphy, & Hashim, 2007). However these are not as significant for young Taiwanese travelers who are less sensitive to these stereotypes and are more culturally curious. Thisfinding provides an opportunity for Islamic countries to reach out to this type of travel market.
Furthermore, this study found Brunei destination image attri-butes such as “variety of unique cultural attractions”, “unique heritage,” and “diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture” ranked among the most favored destination image attributes, while
Table 3
Overall results of canonical correlation analysis. Canonical correlation
function (variate)
Eigen value Canonical coefficient (r)
Wilks’ lambda Chi-sq df Sig. Variance extracted in image Canonical R2 Redundancy index % of Redundancy 1 .080 .272 .912 27.591 12 .006** .370 .0739 .027 47% 2 .013 .111 .985 4.515 6 .607 .262 .0123 .003 5% 3 .003 .051 .997 .769 2 .681 .121 .0026 .000 0%
Note: **correlation is significant at the .01 level.
(1) Redundancy index was calculated as variance extracted canonical R2.
(2) Redundancy index means variance of the image set explained by the constraint set.
Table 4
Canonical loadings for travel constraints and destination image.
Variables Standardized canonical
coefficients
Canonical correlation loadings
Travel constraints
Unfamiliar cultural constraints .071* .572*
Interpersonal constraints .862* .857*
Structural constraints .431* .018
Intrapersonal constraints .479* .645*
Destination image
Tourism infrastructure 1.042* .992*
Unique cultural attraction .104* .566*
Hospitality atmosphere .164 .567*
Note: **correlation is significant at the .01 level.
“safe,” “appealing local food and beverage,” and “modern” ranked among the least favored destination image attributes. Although many participants expressed great concern about travel safety, most participants were interested in Brunei’s “unique cultural attractions” (e.g., unique heritage, diverse and unique ethnic groups, and culture). The infrastructure dimension of Brunei’s destination image shared the common factors of previous desti-nation image factors, also known as“functional characteristics” (cf.Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Milman & Pizam, 1995; Stepchenkova & Eales, 2011). Although culture image studies are not new (e.g.,
Ritchie and Zins (1978) described “culture” attributes in their study),“culture” image has been more frequently studied in the U.S. and Europe (e.g.,MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000). Although the Brunei image attributes of“culture” and “hospitality” could be categorized as the“product” factor described byMilman and Pizam (1995), or the“environment” factor addressed byChen and Kerstetter (1999), the Islamic“culture” image attribute is a unique travel attraction in South Eastern Asia. Given thesefindings, this study suggests that countries with strong Islamic norms and values can be successfully promoted as travel destinations to those travelers attracted to unique culture and hospitality.
This study suggests unfamiliar culture was viewed as both a salient image as well as an inhibitor. The unfamiliar cultural constraints dimension is unique in the travel and tourism context, especially as it applies to the early travel decision-making process. Therefore, the findings confirm the ‘travel constraint model’ is different from the‘leisure constraint model.’ In addition to the three hierarchical constraints, destination-specific factors (i.e., unfamiliar culture and religion) were viewed as significant constraints which inhibit travel. Local culture, lifestyle, and heritage are important image attributes which have a pull effect and attract the youth market. However, this study found unfamiliar culture was not perceived as an inhibitor from the perspective of young Taiwanese travelers. Thisfinding suggests destination marketing professionals must carefully manage culture-related attributes by calibrating marketing strategies to the target market.
The second majorfinding of this study is identification of the relationship between constraints and destination images. Previous research of destination image and its related constructs is well established (Pike, 2002, 2010; Stepchenkova & Mills, 2010). However, the relationship between destination image and travel constraints has not been significantly addressed by previous studies. This study found a significant relationship between destination image and travel constraints during the early decision-making process. Young travelers are more likely to be influenced by travel constraints (i.e., structural and intrapersonal constraints) which often lead to negative destination image at the early stage of the travel decision-making process. Furthermore, this study also iden-tified favorable destination image could be a pull effect to overcome travel constraints (i.e., unfamiliar cultural constraints).
This study found young travelers disagreed with unfamiliar cultural constraints due to positive destination images. That is, curiosity about unknown destinations (e.g., Brunei) can be positively influenced by tourism promotion portraying a positive image, thus overcoming travel constraints (i.e., unfamiliar cultural constraints). The contemporary image of many Islamic destinations is closely associated with behavioral differences from those of Western society (Henderson, 2006; Mansfield & Winckler, 2008;Tasci et al., 2006). Therefore, it is critical for destinations with strong Islamic culture to positively influence young travelers.
Effective marketing campaigns must not only positively in flu-ence youth markets, but must also appeal to related groups and information sources. For example, families, schools, hostels, travel agencies, and social networking services can be a means to disseminate positive information. In addition, since information acts
as a stimulus and image-forming agent that forms destination perceptions and choices (Hashim et al., 2007), the Internet and social media such as Facebook, Backpacker, Couchsurfing, Twitter etc. can also be used as an effective means for market promotion. In recent years, the Internet has provided travelers with key infor-mation for international travelers. Websites with multimedia resources (e.g., quality images and videos) may help travelers “re-shape” their negative perceptions about unfamiliar cultures. One specific example is illustrated by a Malaysian tourism organi-zation where promotional material avoids controversial areas such as religion and focuses on multicultural society aspects (Henderson, 2003). Another example from Malaysia is provided by a tourism website which includes quotes and videos of tourist discoveries intended to change potential tourist perceptions of destinations. These promotional images and short videos are effective because “tourism is experiential, and it is difficult for tourists to form a clear destination image without actual experience (Govers & Go, 2003)” (cited inHashim et al., 2007, p. 1088). Following this type of strategy, Brunei tourism could emphasize that the country has taken a moderate approach to Islam (i.e., religious tolerance) similar to other countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and Turkey.
There are limitations associated with this study. This study focused on travelers in the early stage of the travel decision-making process. Other stages of the decision-making process should also be examined to determine if information sources and other personal factors influence the negative perceptions found in this study. Future study might also focus on post-visit evaluations to identify destination image and travel constraints and their relationships (if any). Study of post-visit measurements to identify factors which could be used to overcome initial travel constraints is warranted. Therefore, arguably, useful information for effective marketing and management strategies could be identified. Travel experience is critical in examining the travel image and constraint relationship. Further analysis assessing the impact of different level of travel experience to the relationship is recommended. At last, this study only held on one University in Taiwan. So, additional research will be needed to test the results with other students and youngsters in Taiwan to provide more validity of the research result.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, atdoi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.004.
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Dr. Huei-Ju Chen is currently an Associate Professor at Leisure and Recreation Management Department, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, Kaoh-siung, Taiwan. She received Ph.D. degree in Management Science from Ming Chuan University, Taiwan in 2004 and M.S. of Park & Recreation Resources at Michigan State University, US in 1993. Her teaching and research interests are leisure behavior, interpretation for leisure and
recreation, leisure and recreation recourses management, and leisure and recreation programming.
Dr. Po-Ju Chen, a U.S. Fulbright Scholar to Denmark, earned her Ph.D. in Leisure Studies and Hospitality, Restaurant and Institutional Management from the Penn-sylvania State University. She possesses a Six Sigma certi-fication, specializes in research design, guest service management, hospitality human resources management, communication, and tourism management. Dr. Chen has both led and participated in hospitality projects with industry and received several research awards. She is also a UCF-Walt Disney World continuing education joint program instructor.
Dr. Fevzi Okumus is the Chair of the Hospitality Services Department at the Rosen College, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA. Dr. Fevzi Okumus completed his PhD in strategic hotel management at Oxford Brookes University, UK. His research areas include strategy imple-mentation, competitive advantage, knowledge manage-ment, crisis managemanage-ment, cross-cultural managemanage-ment, experience marketing and destination marketing. He has published articles in leading journals, including Tourism Management, Annals of Tourism Research, International Journal of Hospitality Management and International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. Since 2007, he has been the editor of the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. He also serves on the editorial board of 12 international journals.
