BoundaryValue Problems in Electrostatics II
Reading: Jackson 3.1 through 3.3, 3.5 through 3.10Legendre Polynomials
These functions appear in the solution of Laplace's eqn in cases with azimuthal symmetry. Consider a point charge q located at (x, y, z) = (0, 0, a). x y z a dr Potential at point (r, , )
1
where is the “generating
function” for Legendre polynomials. then g(t, x) can be expanded in a binomial series.
To derive the binomial expansion, start with Maclaurin's Thm:
, etc.
e.g., n = 5:
Binomial Thm:
We would like to express this as a power series in t, with coeffs that depend on x :
To this end, the following theorem is useful:
Proof: Start with
A few examples:
=>
Since this vanishes for all values of t, each power of t must vanish separately
(recurrence relation)
This can be used to find higher order Legendre polynomials. For example, given P0(x) = 1 and P1( x) = x, we find (with n = 1)
, as we found with the explicit formula.
With repeated
application, we find:
Note that
Pn(x =1) = 1
Differentiating recurrence relation wrt x :
=
(“Legendre's differential eqn”)
Legendre polynomials satisfy Legendre's eqn (hence the name). Legendre's eqn may also be written as:
(interchanging m and n)
Subtract eqns and integrate from x = 1 to 1:
=> Legendre polynomials are orthogonal on interval [1, 1].
What about n = m ?
Legendre polynomials are also complete on [1, 1].
Legendre series:
with
Next, we'll derive a useful alternative formula for computing Legendre polynomials, called “Rodrigues' formula”:
(as derived earlier) (1)
(2) (3)
(1) Differentiating x2n2r n times yields
(2) The sum is extended from [n/2] to n. In each of these terms the
exponent of x is < n => n differentiations yields zero. So, we're just adding zero.
Laplace eqn in spherical coords:
Separation of variables:
If the region under consideration includes the full range of azimuth (0 ≤ < 2), then Q() must be periodic (with period 2).
=> const must be negative: with m an
integer
Thus,
Eqn for P():
(“generalized Legendre eqn”)
When m = 0 (as for cases with azimuthal symmetry, i.e., quantities do not depend on the azimuthal angle ), this reduces to the Legendre eqn.
We know that Legendre polynomials satisfy Legendre's eqn for nonnegative integer values of ℓ. Other values of ℓ are excluded on physical grounds,
since in these cases the soln diverges at x = +1 or 1 ( = 0 or ). The same is
true of the 2nd linearly independent soln (Legendre's eqn is a 2nd order diff
eqn) for cases with ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ... For example, the 2nd soln for ℓ = 0 is
ln(tan /2).
So, the general soln of the Laplace eqn in spherical coords for cases with azimuthal symmetry is
18
So, only the terms with s = m+1, m, m 1 are nonzero.
Define
This is the generalized Legendre eqn, or, “associated Legendre eqn”.
So, solns are
The “associated Legendre functions” are defined as
Note: Not all texts include the factor (1)m.
Since the highest power of x in Pl(x) is xl, we must have m ≤ l;
We can use Rodrigues' formula to define associated Legendre fcns with negative m.
Recall Rodrigues' formula:
(also valid for negative m, if |m| ≤ l)
Next, we'll show that
Apply Leibnitz's formula to
Both s and l+ms must be ≤ l; otherwise, one of the derivatives is zero.
Thus, for m ≥ 0, the sum runs from s = m to l.
m < 0, s = 0 to l+m = l |m|
So,
s = s' + m
satisfy the generalized Legendre eqn for integer values of l, m with l ≥ 0 and l ≤ m ≤ l. As with azimuthally symmetric Laplace eqn and Legendre polynomials, other values of l and m, as well as other solns, are unphysical.
For fixed m and l ≥ |m|, are orthogonal over 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
The proof is straightforward (using Rodrigues' formula and integrating by parts) but cumbersome, so we'll omit it.
Summary of angular functions:
When the region of interest includes ∈ [0, ],
(orthonormal)
When the region of interest includes ∈ [0, 2),
with m an integer and m ≥ 0
with m any integer
Recall: the orthogonal functions in a Fourier series can be expressed as
With a = 2, the functions are eimx. So, Q() are orthogonal.
Normalization:
(orthonormal)
Define “spherical harmonics”
These fcns are orthonormal and complete over the unit sphere: 0 ≤ ≤ and 0 ≤ < 2.
Orthonormality:
or:
Completeness:
Note: for m = 0,
Expansion of a function in spherical harmonics:
As a special case, consider = 0 (cos = 1):
General soln of Laplace's eqn (when region of interest includes 0 ≤ < 2 and 0 ≤ ≤ ):
Consider the Green function
From sample problem 3.3,
where r< (r>) is the smaller (larger) of r, r' and is the angle btwn
Since G is a soln of the Laplace eqn everywhere except
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Since we require G 0 as r ∞ and G remains finite as r 0,
G is continuous at r = r' =>
radial part of
;
(1) is automatically satisfied and (2) becomes
Using the completeness relation,
Comparing this with the expansion in Legendre polynomials yields
(“Addition thm for spherical harmonics”)
Recall (Topic 2 notes, p. 19):
Next, let's find an analogous expression for for the region outside a sphere with radius a. From the method of images (Topic 2, p 16):
Since r'' < a, r< = r'' and r> = r in this case.
Dirichlet Green function for the region between 2 spherical shells, with radii a and b (a < b):
So,
G is continuous at r' =>
As before,
=>
Soln of (1) and (2):
Bessel functions
These appear in the soln of Laplace's eqn in cylindrical coords.
First, recall the Gamma function:
=> 39
Integrate by parts:
0
“recursion formula” ; used to define (z) for z < 0
etc.
Bessel's equation:
Try with c
0 ≠ 0 (fully general; if c0 were 0, just
increment s)
Must be true for any x => term in each power of x must vanish
higher powers of x :
etc.
For the special case = ± ½ :
(s = ± when = ∓ ½ )
etc.
=> even terms yield
For the odd terms:
etc.
=> soln when = ± ½ is
Check:
For the general case that ≠ ± ½ , c
1 = 0 => only the even terms remain.
Take ≥ 0 (fully general, since we have solns with ±). If ≠ integer,
then we have 2 linearly independent solns to our 2nd order differential eqn.
If is an integer, then the terms in the series with j ≥ have a term
( ) = 0 in the denominator => the series diverges. We need to find a
2nd soln in this case (more later...). For the + soln:
Absorbing the 2 (+1) into the constant, we find solns of the form
(“Bessel function of the first kind”)
For ≠ integer,
is also a soln of Bessel's eqn.
It can be shown that J(x) and J(x) are linearly independent. When = integer, define J
(x) using the above eqn.
=> terms with j = 0 to j = 1 vanish
Substitute k = j :
So, J(x) and J(x) are NOT linearly independent for = integer.
Define the Neumann function (or, Bessel fcn of the 2nd kind) by
J(x) and N(x) are linearly independent for ≠ integer (since J
and J are). For = integer, N
(x) = 0/0. But, for n an integer,
is defined and linearly independent of Jn(x).
Note that some authors denote Neumann fcns as Y(x) rather than N(x). Note that J0(0) = 1 and J(0) = 0 ( > 0) (easily obtained from the series).
The Neumann fcns diverge at x = 0.
Define the Hankel functions
(or, Bessel fcns of the 3rd kind) by:
These are more convenient for some problems, and are also linearly independent.
all satisfy the following recursion relations, as can be verified from the series representation:
Asymptotic forms: For x ≪ 1,
where ≈ 0.57721566 is the
EulerMascheroni constant
For x ≫ 1,
The transition between the limiting forms occurs when x ~ .
The asymptotic forms reveal that each Bessel fcn has an infinite number of roots. Denoting the nth root of J
by xn:
(accurate to at least 3 figures)
Orthogonality:
Consider fixed ≥ 0 and roots x
n, n = 1, 2, ...
(proof on pp. 114115 of Jackson)
The set of Bessel fcns J(xnr/a) is also complete => an arbitrary fcn f (r) can be expanded in a Bessel series (also called a FourierBessel or Bessel Fourier series):
(works for all ≥ 1)
Return to Bessel's eqn:
Replace x = iu (u = ix). Solns are J(x) = J( iu), N(iu), etc.
Bessel's eqn becomes:
Solns are J(iu), N(iu), etc.
is called the modified Bessel eqn. The linearly independent solns are taken as
These are realvalued for real x and and
are called modified Bessel fcns.
I(x) diverges as x ∞ and K
(x) diverges as x 0.
Laplace eqn in cylindrical coords (r, , z):
=>
Separation of variables:
(sign must be negative if full range of azimuth is allowed; so = 0, 2 yield the same Q)
Replacing x = kr, (3) becomes
This is the Bessel eqn (+ sign) or the modified Bessel eqn ( sign).
Assuming the full range of azimuth is allowed, the solns are:
[ = m (integer), so that Q(2) = Q(0)]
Soln for +k2 :
Soln for k2 :
So, the general soln is
Boundary conditions will restrict the values of k1 and k2 and in typical applications will force many of the coeffs to vanish.
Example: cylinder with length L and radius a; zaxis is the symmetry axis.
= 0 for z = 0 (bottom face), = VL(r, ) for z = L (top face), and = Va(, z) for r = a (curved face).
Find everywhere inside the cylinder.
Consider 2 separate problems:
solves the Laplace eqn and satisfies the full set of
boundary conditions. In both cases, Nm( k1r) and Km( k2r) do not contribute, since they diverge at r = 0.
1) = 0 for z = 0 and z = L
do not contribute, since no linear combination of these can vanish at 2 different points. Also, cos k2z cannot contribute (≠ 0 at z = 0).
At r = a,
This is a 2D Fourier series (a “standard” Fourier series for and a
Fourier sine series for z).
except m = 0:
2) = 0 for z = 0 and r = a
Since Im(k2r) has no zeros besides r = 0, these terms cannot contribute. This leaves only Jm(k1r) among the radial fcns.
[xmn is the nth root of J
m(x)]
Exponentials in z must combine to yield zero at z = 0
Thus,
At z = L,
This is a 2D expansion: Fourier × Bessel series.
except m = 0: