Scaling down bread production for quality assessment using a breadmaker: Are results from a breadmaker representative of other breadmaking methods?

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ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Food

and

Bioproducts

Processing

jo u r n al ho m e p a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / f b p

Scaling

down

bread

production

for

quality

assessment

using

a

breadmaker:

Are

results

from

a

breadmaker

representative

of

other

breadmaking

methods?

L. Trinh,

G.M.

Campbell

1

_,

_P.J.

_Martin

∗

TheUniversityofManchester,SchoolofChemicalEngineeringandAnalyticalScience,ManchesterM139PL, UnitedKingdom

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory:

Received21October2015

Receivedinrevisedform4May2016

Accepted18June2016

Availableonline24June2016

Keywords: Bread Breadmaker Scale Dough Mixing Crumb

a

b

s

t

r

a

c

t

Industrialbreadmakingequipment typicallyprocessesbatches of200kgor moreofraw

ingredients,whilescaleddownversionsarewidelyusedforresearchanddevelopment

stud-ies.Aliteraturereviewshowsthattheuseofdomesticbreadmakershasbecomeroutine

toenablecheaperandmoreconvenientsmallbatchproductionofbreadwhichfacilitates

assessmentofnewingredientsandformulations,andforotherstudiesonbreadandthe

breadmakingprocess.However,whilstrecipeformulationscanbescaleddown,theprocess

inabreadmakermaynotbeanaccuraterepresentationofindustrialprocesses,leadingto

differencesinaspectsofbreadqualityandthenatureanddirectionofingredienteffects.

Thisshortcommunicationassesseswhetherbreadmaker-producedbreadisrepresentative

ofbreadproducedusingindustrialmethods,andthereforeiftheresultsofstudies

con-ductedonbreadmaker-producedbreadsarerepresentativeofthosethatwouldbeobtained

onindustrialequipment.A study ofsomequalityparametersin breadsmadeusing a

householdbreadmakerversusscaleddownindustrialbreadmakingequipmentshowedan

opposingtrendfortherelationshipbetweensugarcontentandspeciﬁcvolume,andbetween

sugarcontentandcrumbﬁrmness,inloavesmadefrombothmethods.Thedifferingquality

parametersofbreadmaker-producedloavescomparedtoloavesproducedinscaleddown

industrialbreadmakingequipmentsuggestedthatbreadmaker-producedbreadscangive

misleadingindicationsoflikelyingredienteffectsatindustrialscale.

Engineers.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBYlicense(http://creativecommons.

org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Breadisversatileandﬁlling,andanaffordableworldwide

sta-ple.Traditionalhomebreadmakinginvolveskneadingbread

dough,provingit,knockingitback,andshapingthedoughfor

aﬁnalproofbeforebakingtotransformitintobread.

House-hold breadmakers ﬁrst became available in Japan in 1987

∗ _{Corresponding}_author._Tel.:₊₄₄₁₆₁₃₀₆_4388.

E-mailaddress:[email protected](P.J.Martin).

1 _Current_address:_University_of_{Huddersﬁeld,}_School_of_Applied_Sciences,_Queensgate,_{Huddersﬁeld}_HD1_3DH,_United_Kingdom.

and havebecome commonplace inmany countries

world-wide (Hironaka, 2000); they representa majorcontribution

thismainlyrice-eatingnationhasmadetothepracticeand

consumptionofbread(Campbell,2002).

Householdbreadmakersrequiresmallquantitiesof

ingre-dients, typically based on around 500gﬂour, compared to

industrialbreadmakingandcommercialtestbaking.Fortest

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2016.06.004

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bake work,which requires considerable skill and complex

equipment,the attractionsof producing bread in a

bread-makerincludetherelativesimplicityanduniformity ofthe

processthatcanbeimparted.

However,breadmakermodelsdifferfromoneanotherin

manywayssuchasthesizeandshapeoftheirloaftins,times

andtemperaturesofeachoperationandimpellershapeand

mixingaction.FrenchandPerchonok(2004)investigatedthe

breadmakingprocessinfourdifferentbreadmakersandfound

signiﬁcantdifferencesinthevolumeandtextureoftheloaves

produced.

Industrial breadmaking equipment typically processes

batches ofat least200kg ofraw ingredients. Thisscale is

costlyandinconvenientforresearchanddevelopment

stud-ies.Scaleddownversionsofindustrialequipmentarewidely

usedforthese.Forexample,intheUKtheChorleywoodbread

process(CBP)isusedtoproducethemajorityofplantbread.

5kgbatchescanbeproducedusingtheTweedy10mixerwhich

isascaleddownversionofthemixersusedintheCBPand

gives loavesthat are representative of that process atthe

industrialscale.

However,whencomparingindustrialbreadmakingto

pro-ducing bread in a breadmaker, the breadmaking process

differs.IndustrialCBPbreadmakingbeginswithpressurised

high speed mixing beforemixing undera partial vacuum,

whereasbreadmakersoperateatatmosphericpressureand

mixingoccursatalowerspeedoveralongertime.Inindustry

provingoccursatcontrolledtemperaturesandhumidity,and

theduration dependsonthe formulation.In abreadmaker

onlythetemperatureiscontrolledandprovingtimesdepend

ontheprogrammeselected.Industrialbreadloavesarebaked

ina steam oven. More heated air surrounds the loaves in

industrial sized ovens compared to loaves in a compact

breadmaker.Itcanthereforebeexpectedthat

breadmaker-producedbreadswilldiffertoindustrially-producedbreadsof

thesameformulation.

Studies ofbread dough mixingand baking haveshown

thatfollowingthesameprocessandmaintaininggeometrical

similarityofmixerdesignarenotsufﬁcienttoreplicatefull

scaleproductionprocessconditionsandachieve

representa-tivebreadproducts.Wilsonetal.(1997)foundthatcompared

todoughsmadeinalaboratoryscalemixer,doughsmadein

afullscaleindustrialmechanicaldoughdevelopmentmixer

requiredagreaterworkinputfordevelopment.Martinetal.

(2004)foundincreasedaerationonscale-upwhenscaling-up

mixingfrom laboratoryto pilotplantscale.Sommieretal.

(2011)investigatedhowtheairandradiativetemperatureof

the heatingelements ina laboratoryscale oven had to be

adjustedtoobtaincomparableconvectiveand thermalﬂux

sothatlaboratoryscaleovenswouldmimicindustrialovens

forbakedcerealproducts.

Breadtypicallycontains70–80%airbyvolume,contained

withinthegascellsintheproduct.Theseareresponsiblefor

anumber ofqualityparameters inbread, suchasthe

tex-tureandbrightnessofthecrumb,absorbanceofsauces,and

loaf volume.Softer products are perceived asfresher than

theirﬁrmcounterpartswhicharegenerallyperceivedasstale.

Factorsthat determine how ﬁrmthe crumb is includethe

densityofthecrumbandthequantity,volumeand

distribu-tionofgascellswithinthecrumb.Brightnessisparticularly

importantinwhitebreadandthewhiterthebread,thehigher

itsperceivedquality.Loafvolumeisoftenperceivedby

con-sumers as indicative of its value for money with a more

aeratedloafperceivedasbettervalue.Theseareamongstthe

reasons why aerationduring breadmaking isanimportant

qualityparameterandwhydoughvoidageandcellsize

distri-butionhavebeenwidelystudied.Densitymeasurementhas

been used formeasuringvoidage dueto itslow cost, ease

andconvenienceofthetechnique(Campbelletal.,2001;Chin

etal.,2004).Additionaltechniquesutilisedforvoidage

mea-surementinbreadmakingstudiesincludeultrasound(Leroy

et al.,2008and X-raycomputerisedtomography(X-ray CT)

(Bellidoetal.,2006;Turbin-Orgeretal.,2012;Trinhetal.,2013,

2015),whilstalsomeasuringcellsizedistribution.Ultrasound

hasthedisadvantageofpoorresolutionandsmallcells

obscur-ingmeasurements.Microscopyhasalsobeenusedtoprobe

intothecellsizedistributioninbreaddough(Campbelletal.,

1991;Martinetal.,2004).However,microscopyislaboriousin

itspreparation,andgenerates2Dimageswithahigh

proba-bilityofartefacts.

This short communication presents a literature review

of the use of domestic breadmakers in the research

liter-ature. It then investigates whether using abreadmaker to

assesschangesinformulationisrepresentativeofindustrial

breadmaking processes. Bread was produced using both a

breadmakerandaTweedy-typemixer,ascaleddownversion

of high speed industrial mixers, designed tomix

approxi-mately 0.45kgof dough(about 1pound, hence referredto

as the Tweedy 1). Quality parameters (speciﬁc volume of

the loaves,crumb ﬁrmnessand cell sizedistribution)were

assessedtodetermineifdifferencesaroseintheproductsfrom

thetwomethods.

2. Literature

review

Areviewoftheuseofdomesticbreadmakersintheresearch

literaturewasconductedandissummarisedinTable1.The

useofbreadmakerscanbesplitintotwocategories.Theﬁrst

istoprovideaconvenientmeansofproducingsmallbatches

ofconsistentbreadforvariouspurposes.Campbelletal.(2003)

producedbreadinabreadmakertomonitorbloodglucose

lev-elsfollowingdifferentdailyregimes.Burtonand Lightowler

(2006)alteredthestructureofbread,throughdifferent

formu-lationsandbymanuallymanipulatingtheprovingtimesina

breadmaker,toassesstherelationshipbetweenbread’s

struc-tureanditseffectsonglycaemicresponseandsatiety.Clark

andJohnson(2006)addedlupinkernelﬁbretothe

formula-tionofseveralproductsincludingbreadmadeinabreadmaker

to assesspanellists’ hedonic responsestothe nutritionally

improvedproduct,whileMuirandWestcott(2000)developed

and assessed amethod forextracting and quantifying the

healthbeneﬁtingﬂaxlignininbreadmaker-producedbreads

andotherbakeryproducts.

Thesecondcategoryiswherebreadmakershavebeenused

toproducesmallbatchesofbreadwhichhavethenbeen

ana-lysedforvariousqualityattributes. For example,theyhave

beenusedtoproducedoughsandbreadstoassessthe

effec-tiveness ofnewingredientsand formulations inimproving

qualityparametersornutritionalvalueofwheat-basedbreads

(Lowetal.,2004;SeguchiandAbe,2004;LovedayandWinger, 2007;Seguchietal.,2007,2009,2010;Curtietal.,2013;Sivam et al., 2013a,b; Hatta et al., 2015)or improving the quality

of gluten-free bread so it more closely resembles

gluten-containingbreads(Kawamura-Konishiaetal.,2013).

This reviewillustrates that domesticbreadmakers have

becomeroutinelyusedinresearchstudies.Theyhavebeen

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Table1–Summaryofresearchliteratureinvolvingbreadmakers. Publication Breadmakerused Formulation

variables

Breadanalysis Others

MuirandWestcott (2000)

RegalK6769C SDGlevels,ﬂaxseed levels

ExtractionefﬁciencyforSDGin comparisontocommercially availablebreads

Campbelletal. (2003)

Notspeciﬁed Breadmakerusedto

producestandardised breadinpostprandial glycemicresponsestudy

Seguchietal.(2003) PanasonicSD-BT6 Wheatﬂourvariety Waterlossfromfrozenproved dough,loafweight,height, volume,visualcrumbgrain evaluation

Lowetal.(2004) Breville’sBaker’sOven BB290

Percentageoforiginal glyphosphateinthedough formulationfollowingvarying provingtimes Frenchand Perchonok(2004) ZojirushiBBCC-V20, BreadmanTR3000, BreadmanTR2200C, BreadyABBready

Soymilklevels, okaralevels,bran size

Loafvolume,crumbhardness

SeguchiandAbe (2004)

PanasonicSD-BT6 Disulphidelevels Loafheight,speciﬁcvolume

ClarkandJohnson (2006)

PanasonicAutomatic BreadmakerSD-200

Lupinkernelﬁbre levels Sensoryanalysis Burtonand Lightowler(2006) RussellHobbs BreadmanPro Breadmakerusedto producedifferent volumebreadsto investigatethe relationshipbetween foodstructure, composition,glycaemic indexandsatietyof bread

Seguchietal.(2007) PanasonicSD-BT6 Celluloseparticle size

Crustcolour,dough microscopicobservation, doughgasproductionduring proof

LovedayandWinger (2007)

BrevilleBreadmaster Doughsugarcontentfollowing varyingprovingtimes

Seguchietal.(2009) PanasonicSD-BT6 Capsicumlevels, capsicumvariety

Crumbcolour,speciﬁcvolume, height

Seguchietal.(2010) PanasonicSD-BT6 Wheatgermination time

Loafheight,speciﬁcvolume, crumbcolour

Kendalletal.(2011) Notspeciﬁed Breadmakerusedto

producebreads containingvarying quantitiesofpistachio. It’seffectonglycaemic indexwascomparedto othercarbohydraterich foods

Curtietal.(2013) SeverinBM3986 Branparticlesize, brancomposition

Wateractivityofcrumb,water activityofcrust,volume, numberofpores,crumbcolour, crumbhardness

Kawamura-Konishia etal.(2013)

PanasonicSD-BT6 Proteaselevels Speciﬁcvolume.,crumb texture,stalingrate,crumb hardness,crustcolour,baking loss

Sivametal.(2013a) SunbeamBakehouse automaticdough+ breadmakerBM3500S

Waterlevels,pectin levels,polyphenol levels

Visuals,microstructure,NMR spectra

Sivametal.(2013b) SunbeamBakehouse automaticdough+ breadmakerBM3500S

Waterlevels,pectin levels,polyphenol levels

Secondaryconformationsand structureofglutenproteins andpolysaccharidesin ﬁnishedbread

Hattaetal.(2015) PanasonicBH103 Bacillolysinlevels, papainlevels, subtilisinlevels

Speciﬁcvolume,crumb hardness,morphological observationofdough

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breadproductatlaboratoryscale.However,tothe authors’

knowledge,therehasbeennopreviousstudyofthecorrelation

ofbread qualityattributesfrom breadmakerswithrelevant

industrialproductionmethods.Theliteraturereportsonbread

qualityattributesbasedondomesticbreadmakerstudies is

notsupportedbyresearchthatreproducestheseeffectsatthe

relevantproductionscale,togiveconﬁdencethatbreadmaker

resultsarerelevanttoindustrialscalebreadmaking.

Thisshortcommunicationconsidersevidenceofwhether

the results of studies conducted on breadmaker-produced

breads are representative of those that would be obtained

on industrialbreadmaking equipment. In this study,sugar

wasusedasthekeyformulationvariableforcomparisonof

breadsmadewithabreadmakerversusindustrial-type

equip-ment,aspartofalargerstudyoftheeffectofsugarondough

aeration(Trinhetal.,2013,2015).Sucrose,usuallyextracted

from sugar beet orcane, isoften added tobread

formula-tionsat1–2%toacceleratetheprocess,generateanattractive

colour,and tenderise the bread, althoughtoo much sugar

hasadverseeffectsonthebread,weakeningthegluten

net-workbycompetingfortheavailablewater(McGee,2004).Trinh

etal.(2015)foundthe steadystatevoidageofbreaddough

decreasedasthesugar contentincreased.Thisdecrease in

breaddoughaerationwasmainlyduetoanincreaseinthe

rateofdisentrainmentduringmixing.Theauthorsalsofound

gas cell size decreased, gas cell number increased, dough

extensibilitydecreasedanddoughstickinessincreasedasthe

sugarcontentincreased.Thislargerstudyonsugareffectsin

breadmakingpresentsaconvenientillustrationofhoweffects

maybedifferentinidenticalbreadformulationsprocessedin

industrial-typeequipmentorinabreadmaker.

3. Materials

and

methods

Anexperimentalprogrammewasdesignedbasedonbaking

a total of 36 loaves of bread. 18 were made in a

bread-makerand18hand-processedfollowingmixingthedoughin

theTweedy1mixer(describedinChinandCampbell,2005).

Table2liststheformulationsusedforthisstudy,comprising

sixdifferentsugarcontentsintherange0–17%basedonthe

ﬂourweight.Thisallowedassessmentofanytrendsassugar

contentincreasedandhowthesedifferedbetweenthetwo

breadmakingmethods.

3.1. BreadmakingusingaTweedymixer

Three loaves of each formulation were made individually

accordingtotheformulationspresentedinTable2.Waterwas

loadedintotheTweedy1mixer,andtheremaining

ingredi-ents withthe yeastcrumbled and vegetable fat brokenup

wereevenlydistributedoverthewater.Theseweremixedin

theTweedy1mixeratanominalspeedof70rads−1forthree

minutes. The water temperature was controlled to ensure

the dough temperature immediately following mixing was

30±2◦C.Onremovalfromthemixer,thedoughsurfacewas

lightlycoatedinvegetablefatandthedoughheldinagreased

mixingbowlandcoveredwithadampteatoweltoprevent

it from drying out.Thiswas held directly abovea bowlof

waterinaGallenkampoven300plusseries(WeissTechnik

UK,Leicestershire,UK)at39◦Cfor60min.Thewaterensureda

humidatmospheretypicalofindustrialbreadmaking.

Follow-ingtheﬁrstproof,500±1gofthedoughwasshaped,placed

intoagreased500gloaftinandcoveredwithadampteatowel.

Thedoughwasreturnedtotheovenwhereitwasheldovera

bowlofwaterfor25minforasecondproof.Itwasthenbaked

at230◦CinaSimonRotaryTestBakingOven(HenrySimon

LTD,Stockport,UK)for25min,immediatelyturnedoutontoa

coolingrackandcooledovernightpriortoassessment.

3.2. Breadmakingusingabreadmaker

Threeloavesofeachformulationweremadeindividuallyin

aHinariHomebaker(Hinari,Oldham,Lancashire,UK)

accord-ingtotheformulationspresentedinTable2.Thewaterwas

putintothebreadmakertin,theyeastcrumbledandvegetable

fatbrokenup,andthesealongsidetheremainingingredients

wereevenlydistributedoverthewater.Themediumsetting

for basicbread wasselected. On completionof theloaf, it

wasimmediatelyturnedoutontoacoolingrackandcooled

overnightpriortoassessment.

3.3. Speciﬁcvolume

Thespeciﬁcvolumeoftheloaveswasdeterminedaccording

totheAACCMethod10-05.01;thevolumeofseedsrequiredto

displacetheloafwasdeterminedastheloafvolume.

3.4. Firmness

Each loaf was sliced transversely to a thickness of 15mm

usingaserratedknife,andthecentralthreeslicesanalysed,

providingnine slicesforeachformulation.Crumbﬁrmness

wasdeterminedonindividualslicesofbreadusingaStable

MicrosystemsTA.XTplusTextureAnalyser(Stable

Microsys-tems,Surrey,UK).Aﬂatendedcylindricalprobeof36mmin

diameterwaspushedintothebreadataspeedof2mms−1to

atotaldistanceof8mm(i.e.alocalengineeringstrainof53%),

andtheforcerecorded.

Table2–FormulationsforTweedymixedandhand-processedandbreadmakerproducedloaves. Ingredient %ﬂourweightofsugar

0%sugar 1.5%sugar 5%sugar 10%sugar 15%sugar 17%sugar

Quantity(%) Flour,11%protein 59.8 59.2 58.0 56.4 54.9 54.1 Vegetablefat 2.99 2.96 2.90 2.82 2.74 2.71 Salt 1.08 1.07 1.04 1.02 0.987 0.975 Ascorbicacid 0.00448 0.00444 0.00435 0.00423 0.00411 0.00406 Water 34.7 34.4 33.7 32.7 31.8 31.4 Sugar 0.00 0.889 2.90 5.64 8.23 9.34 Freshyeast 1.49 1.48 1.45 1.41 1.37 1.35

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3.5. Cellsizedistribution

CellsizesandnumberswereobtainedusingtheC-Cell

digi-talimagingsystem(CalibreControlInternational,Warrington,

UK)onthreecentralbreadslicesfromeachbreadloaf,totalling

nineslicesforeachformulation.

3.6. Anovatests

Singlefactoranalysisofvariancetestsat5%signiﬁcancelevel

wereconductedusingtheinbuiltMicrosoftExcel2013

func-tion.

4. Results

and

discussion

4.1. Speciﬁcvolume

Thevolumeofaloafdependsonthenumberandsizeofair

bubbles withinthe loafand also thedensity of thecrumb

surroundingtheairbubbles.Fig.1(a)presentsthespeciﬁc

vol-umeofdifferentsugarcontentloavesproducedfromthetwo

breadmakingmethods.Clearly,theeffectofsugaronloaf

spe-ciﬁcvolume was differentin the twosystems. For doughs

mixedintheTweedy1mixerandhandprocessed,theeffect

ofincreasedsugarcontentwasadecreaseinthespeciﬁc

vol-ume ofthe loaves.By contrast,for loavesprepared inthe

breadmaker,theeffectofsugarwastoincreaseloafspeciﬁc

volume. Anova tests ata 5% signiﬁcance level found that

boththe negativecorrelationfor theTweedy-mixedbreads

andthepositivecorrelationforthebreadmakerbreadswere

signiﬁcant.

Assugariscommonlyaddedtoindustriallymadebreadsat

0–2%,thedifferenceintrendshownindoughsfromthetwo

methodscontaining0%and1.5%sugararethemost

impor-tant,asbreadscontainingthisquantityofsugararemostlikely

tobeproduced.

4.2. Firmness

Quantiﬁcationofcrumbﬁrmnesswascarriedoutby

determin-ingtheforcetocompressthecrumbby8mm.Themoregas

cellsbetweenthecrumbandthethinnerthecellwalls,the

lessforcerequiredtocompressthecrumb.Fig.1(b)presents

thedifferingamountsofforcerequiredtocompressdifferent

sugarcontentloaves8mminthetwobreadmakingsystems.

The effect of sugar differs in the two systems. For loaves

madeintheTweedy1mixerandhandprocessed,theforce

requiredisgenerallyhigherthaninthebreadmaker-processed

loaves.Incontrasttothebreadmaker-processedloaveswhich

decreaseinﬁrmnesswithincreasedsugarlevels,theseloaves

showanincreaseinﬁrmness.Anovatestsata5%signiﬁcance

levelfoundthatboththenegativecorrelationobservedinthe

breadmakerbreadsandthepositivecorrelationintheTweedy

breadsaresigniﬁcant.

Itwasexpectedthatahigherspeciﬁcvolume,associated

withmoregasand less solidcrumb, wouldresultin lower

forcesrequiredtocompressthebread.Thishypothesisis

sup-ported bythe resultspresented in Fig. 1(a) and (b), which

indicateaninverserelationshipbetweenspeciﬁcvolumeand

compression force for both breadmakerand Tweedy made

loaves.

4.3. Cellsizedistribution

The cell size distribution in bread is the number of cells

presentingroupsofdifferentcellsizes.Fig.1(c)presentsthe

Fig.1–Sugarcontentvs.qualityparameters.Errorbarsareonestandarderrorofmeaneithersideofthemean.(a)Speciﬁc volumeofdifferentsugarcontentbreadmakerandTweedyloaves,(b)forcerequiredtocompressdifferentsugarcontent breadmakerandTweedyloaves8mm.(c)MeancelldiameterofdifferentsugarcontentbreadmakerandTweedyloaves.(d) CelldensityofdifferentsugarcontentbreadmakerandTweedyloaves.

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Fig.2–Celldiameterdistributionindifferentsugarcontentloaves.

meancelldiameterofthecellsinthetwobreadmaking

sys-tems.Itshowsdifferencesinthemeancelldiametersofthe

differentsugarcontentbreadsfromthetwosystems.Changes

inmeancellsizeobservedinthedifferentsystemsasthesugar

contentincreasesarenotproportional.ANOVAidentiﬁedthe

observeddifferencesassigniﬁcant.Themeancelldiameters

rangedfrom1.9to2.3mmandarecommensuratewiththe

range reported in the literature.For example, Ktenioudaki

etal.(2011) reportedmeancell diametersrangingfrom 2.0

to2.5mm,whereasVillarinoetal.(2014)reportedmeancell

diametersrangingfrom1.2to1.8mm.

Fig.1(d)showsthecelldensityofthedifferentsugar

con-tentloavesmadeinthetwosystems.Thecelldensitiesrange

from0.52cellsmm−2to0.67cellsmm−2.Thisislessthanthe

celldensityfoundbyVillarinoetal.(2014)whoinvestigated

breadsmadewithacombinationofwheatﬂourandlupinﬂour

followingdifferentprovingandbakingtimes.Differencesin

theformulationsandﬂourusedespeciallyandthe

method-ology,in particularthe range of provingand baking times

investigatedarelikelytoexplainthelargerrange,from0.77

to1.05cellsmm−2thattheauthorsobservedusingtheC-Cell

comparedtothisstudy.Amorecomparablestudywouldbe

thatbyBaianoetal.(2009),wheretheauthorsuseda

combi-nationofdurumwheatﬂourandtoasteddurumwheatﬂour

atquantitiesupto50%intheirbreadformulationstoincrease

thedietaryvalueofthebread.Itwasexpectedthatthiswould

have detrimentaleffects on bread’s quality characteristics.

Baianoetal.(2009)obtainedcelldensitiesrangingfrom0.45to

0.56cellsmm−2.Thelesstoasteddurumwheatﬂourpresent

inthebreadthestudied,thegreaterthecelldensitiesandthe

closerthecelldensitiesweretothoseobtainedinthisstudy.

Thecelldensitydiffersforidenticalsugarcontentloaves

madeusingbothmethods,withagenerallyhighercelldensity

intheTweedy-producedloavescomparedtothe

breadmaker-producedloavesforidenticalsugarcontentbreads. ANOVA

testsshowthatasigniﬁcantdifferenceexistsbetweenthetwo

datasets.

Fig.2showsselectedcelldiameterdensitydistributionsfor

bothloavesproducedinthebreadmakerandTweedymixer.

Celldiameterdensitiesbelow10−3cellsmm−3werebasedon

measurementsoffewerthan10cellsandaretherefore

sus-ceptibletorandomerrors.Fig.1(c)and(d)illustratedthatthere

wereoveralldifferencesinthedistributions,andcomparison

ofthedatainFig.2illustratesdifferenceswithinthedensity

distributionsofbreadproducedusingbothmethods.

Therearemanydifferentparameterswhichdeterminethe

qualityofbread.Theworkinthispapershowsaninvestigation

intotheeffectofsugaronseveralqualityparametersinbread:

speciﬁcvolume,ﬁrmness,cellsize,celldiameterandcell

den-sity.Thisworkhasbeencarriedoutontwodifferentsystems

toinvestigateifthemethodofbreadmakingaffectsthetrends

observed.Theresultsshowthedifferentsystemscanaffect

theproducttodifferentextentsandevenhaveoppositeeffects

onqualityparameters.Akeyvariableinthemethodsisthe

highspeeddoughdevelopmentintheTweedymixer-produced

breadcomparedtothelowmixingspeedandbulk

fermenta-tionmethodinthebreadmaker.Thesecontrastingprocesses

areknowntoaffectthecellsizedistribution,whichare

respon-sibleforanumberofqualityparameters.Thisdifferenceisa

likelyreasonforthedifferencesobserved.

Theliteraturesurveyandtheresultspresentedhere

illus-trateboth theutility ofbreadmakersforresearch,but also

highlight somelimitationswhichhave notpreviouslybeen

recognised inthe literature.As a means to produce small

quantitiesofbreadforspeciﬁcpurposesthebreadmaker

pro-videsaveryconvenientandconsistentmethod.However,it

hasbeenshownthattheloafresponsetoformulationchanges

may notbethesame betweenabreadmaker-producedloaf

andaonemadebyascaleddownversionofanindustrial

pro-cess,suchasaTweedy1mixer.Itisrecommendedthatcaution

isexercisedbeforeextrapolatingconclusionsfromonetypeof

breadmakingprocessandanotherwithoutﬁrstbenchmarking

theprocessestoensurecompatibility.

5. Conclusions

Speciﬁc volume, ﬁrmness and cell size distribution were

measured in different sugar content loaves to assess if a

breadmakercan beusedtomimicother breadmaking

pro-cesseswhenthesameformulationisused.Theresultsshowed

differencesinthequalityparametersbetweenthedifferent

methodsandattimesopposingtrends,demonstratingthat

useofdifferentmethodsbutwiththesameformulationdoes

notproduceidenticalresults.Therefore,abreadmakershould

notbeusedtoassessformulationchangestofullscale

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breadmakeragainsttheindustrialprocessoremployingsome

othermethodofveriﬁcation.

Acknowledgements

Theauthorsaregratefulforﬁnancialsupportfromthe

Engi-neeringandPhysicalScienceResearchCouncil,whichmade

thisresearchpossible.

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