Practical English Usage_1.docx

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Intervenant Laurence Petoud Executive Assistant Formatrice en Entreprise ECDL Expert [email protected] www.facebook.com/CambridgeExamsPreparation http://fce-cae.blog4ever.com/

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Abbreviations

A brief way of writing a word or a phrase that could also be written out in full, using only the letters of the alphabet and possibly full stops. We usually write abbreviations without full stops in British English. Full stops are normal in American English.

Examples are Dr (US Dr.) for Doctor, Prof (US Prof.) for Professor and Capt (US Capt.) for Captain.

An abbreviation does not normally have a distinct pronunciation of its own: we pronounce Dr as ‘Doctor’ and e.g. as ‘for example’.

Some abbreviations are made from the first letters of several words. Examples are:

 The BBC = the British Broadcasting Corporation

 UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation Some initial-letter abbreviations are pronounced letter by letter (e.g. the BBC). Others are pronounced like words (e.g. UNICEF) – these are often called acronyms.

Acronyms

An acronym is an abbreviation that is formed by combining the first letter or letters of several words. Acronyms are pronounced as words and are written without periods.

 Radio detecting and ranging (radar)

 Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL)

 Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba)

Write acronyms in capital letters without periods. The only exceptions are those acronyms that have become accepted as common nouns, which are written in lowercase letters.

Examples: laser, radar, scuba

An initialism is an abbreviation that is formed by combining the initial letter of each word in a multiword term. Initialisms are pronounced as separate letters. Examples are:

 End of month (e.o.m.)  Cash on delivery (c.o.d.)

Initialisms may be written either uppercase or lowercase. Periods are not generally used when they are upper case.

Examples:

 EDP or e.d.p.  EOM or e.o.m.  OD or o.d.

Form the plural of an acronym or initialism by adding an s. Do not use an apostrophe.

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About

 To indicate movement or position

About indicates movement or position in various directions and places.  We walked about the old city.

 The princes went riding about the country.  Children were running about everywhere.  Men were standing about the street corners.  To mean 'near to'

About can mean 'near to.'

 They are living somewhere about here.  To mean 'approximately'

About can mean 'a little more or less', 'a little before or after' and similar ideas.  She is about 10 year old.

 It is about 5 o' clock.

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How about, what about

How about and what about are used to seek an opinion and/or propose a plan.  How about having a drink? (Propose a plan.)

 He is a handsome fellow, but what about his character? (Seeks an opinion.)



About and On

About and on can both mean 'in connection with'. However, there is a slight difference between them.

Compare:

 This is a book on African history.

 This is a book for children about the festivals of India.

On used in the first sentence suggests that the book is serious or academic. It fits specialists. About used in the second sentence suggests that the book only gives some information.

 This is a movie on the life of Gautam Buddha. (A serious work on his life)

 This is a movie about Gautam Buddha. (Only gives some information about him)

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About to

About to means 'on the point of doing something'.

 We were about to go to bed when the telephone rang.  The show was about to start when the lights went out. 'Not about to' can mean 'unwilling to'.

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Above and over

Above indicates a position higher than something.  The birds flew up above the trees.

 The sun rose above the horizon.

 There is a mirror above the washbasin.  We have rented a room above the shop.  She is above average in intelligence.  Your name comes above mine on the list.  Above and Over

Above and over can both mean higher than.

 The helicopter hovered above/over the building.  The water came up above/over our knees.

Above is preferred when we want to mean that one thing is not directly over another.

 There is a small cottage above the lake. (The cottage is not directly over the lake.)

Above is also used in measurements of temperature, height, intelligence etc., where we think of a vertical scale.

 The temperature never rose above 10 degree Celsius.

Over is preferred when one thing covers and/or touches another.  He put on a coat over his shirt.

 There was cloud over the city.

Over is also used to talk about ages and speeds, and to mean more than.  You have to be over 18 to see that film.

 There were over 50 fifty people at the meeting.

According to

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Usage

According to X means 'as stated by X' or 'on the authority of X'.  According to Jane, life is a learning process.

 According to the timetable, the train leaves at 9.30.

 According to scientists, there could be life on other planets. We do not normally give our own opinions with according to.

 In my opinion, Jane Austen is a great writer. (NOT According to me…)

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Accept and agree

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACCEPT AND AGREE

The verbs accept and agree have different meanings. To express your willingness to do something, use agree with an infinitive. Accept is not possible in this case.

 She agreed to come. (= She expressed her willingness to come.) (NOT She accepted to come.)

 They agreed to part ways amicably. (NOT They accepted to part ways amicably.)

 My sister has agreed to look after my babies when I am away.

To accept is to take something which is offered because you believe that it is true, fair or right. In this case, accept is followed by a noun or a noun clause which acts as its object.

 She accepted the offer. (NOT She agreed the offer.)  She said that she would accept the award with pleasure. Accept can be followed by a noun clause or a that-clause.

 The majority of doctors accept that smoking can cause cancer. (= The majority of doctors recognize the fact that smoking can cause cancer.)

Across

The preposition across shows movement or position from one side to the other.

 The child ran across the road. (From one side of the road to the other)  There is a bridge across the river.

 Can you jump across the stream? Across can also mean on/to the other side.

 The library is just across the road.  I live across the street.

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Across and Through

The difference between across and through is similar to the difference between on and in. Across is used for a movement in a two-dimensional space. Through is used for a movement in a three-dimensional space.

 We walked across the field. (We were on the field.)  He drove through the tunnel. (He was in the tunnel.)

 We slowly walked through the wood. (We were in the wood.)

Affect and Effect

Affect is a verb. It means 'have an effect on somebody or something.'  The climate has affected my health.

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Against

Against means not in favour of

 There were twenty votes against the proposal and only fourteen in favour of it, so it was abandoned.

 We rowed hard against the current, but made little progress. Against can also mean hitting or touching.

 I hit my head against a wall and hurt myself.  I left the ladder leaning against a wall.

 The waves beat against the cliffs.  The piano stood against the wall.

Agree with and agree to

To agree is to have the same ideas and opinions.

Agree can be followed by the prepositions with, about, on and to.  Agree with

We agree with a person, an opinion or a policy. To agree with something is to think that it is the right thing to do. To agree with somebody is to think that they are doing or saying the right thing.

 I agree with you.

 I entirely agree with your opinion that smoking must be banned.

 I couldn’t agree with those nasty remarks she made about the unemployed.

 I don’t agree with their aggressive sales policy. You can use an –ing form after agree with.

 As a concerned parent, I agree with increasing the legal drinking age. (NOT I agree increasing the legal drinking age.)

 I agree with providing free education to the poor.  Agree about

We agree about a subject of discussion.  We agree about most things.

 They were quarreling the whole time they were together because they couldn’t agree about anything.

Agree can be followed by a that-clause.

 We all agree that poverty must be eradicated.

 They agreed that the money should be equally divided among the four brothers.

 Agree on

We agree on a matter for decision.

 The ministers all agree on the need for building better infrastructure in the city.

 They couldn’t agree on a date.  Agree to

To agree to do something is to express your willingness to do it.  The police inspector agreed to look into the matter.

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 He agreed to feed the dogs.

 In the end I agreed to clean the room.

Ago

We use ago after an expression of time.  The train went out 10 minutes ago.

Ago indicates a finished time and is normally used with a past tense.

 She telephoned five minutes ago. (NOT She has telephoned five minutes ago.)

 The difference between ago and before

Ago is normally used with a simple past to count back from a present moment. Before is used with a past perfect to count back from a past moment.

 I saw him two years ago. (Two years from now.)  I had seen him two years before I went to England.

Before can be used without a time expression to mean 'any time before now/then'.

 I think I have seen him before.

All

All refers to three or more items. It is used mostly before plural and uncountable nouns.

 All children need love.  I love all music.

 All the invitees turned up.

When all is followed by a plural noun, the verb is normally plural. After an uncountable noun, we use a singular verb.

 All cheese contains fat.  All the lights were out.

All + noun is not normally used as the subject of a negative verb. We more often use the structure not all + noun + affirmative verb.

 Not all birds can sing. (NOT All birds cannot sing.)

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All and All of

Before a noun with no determiner (possessives, articles and demonstratives) we use all.

 All children need love.  All cheese contains fat.  All lights were out.

Before a noun with a determiner (the, my, this etc.), all and all of are both possible.

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Before a personal pronoun (us, them etc.) we use all of + object form.  All of us love music. (NOT All us love music)

 I have invited all of them. (NOT…all them.)

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All with nouns and pronouns

All can modify nouns and pronouns. We normally place it before the noun/pronoun.

 I have invited all (of) my friends.  All of us love music.

 I love all of you.

 All of us are going to the movies. We can put all after pronouns used as objects.

 I love you all. (= I love all of you.)

 Give my love to them all. (= Give my love to all of them.)

 I have made you all something to eat. (= I have made all of you something to eat.)

Note that all cannot be put after pronouns used as subject complements.  Is that all of them? (NOT Is that them all?)

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All with verbs

When all refers to the subject of a clause, it can go with the verb.

When the verb consists of just one word, and that word is not a form of be (is, am, are, was, were), all is placed before the verb.

 They all came. (All + other verb)  We all love music. (All + other verb)

When the verb is a form of be, all is placed after it.  You are all welcome. (be + all)

 We were all invited. (be + all)

When there are two auxiliary verbs, all goes after the first.

 They have all gone home. (Auxiliary verb + all + other verb)

 They have all been told. (Auxiliary verb + all + auxiliary verb + other verb)

Note that these meanings can also be expressed by using all (of) + noun/pronoun.

 All of them came.  All of us love music.  All of you are welcome.  All of us have been invited.  All of them have gone home.

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All and every

All and every can both be used to talk about people or things in general. There is little difference of meaning. Note that these two words are used in different structures.

Every is used with singular countable nouns. To give the same meaning, all is used with plural nouns.

 All children need love.  Every child needs love.  With Determiners

All can be used with determiners. Every cannot normally be used with them.  All the lights were out.

 Every light was out. (NOT Every the light…)  I have invited all (of) my friends.

 I have invited every friend I have. (NOT …every my friend.)  With Uncountable Nouns

We can use all with uncountable nouns. Every cannot be used with them.  I like all music. (NOT …every music.)

Already, just and yet

Both just and already are used in affirmative sentences. There is a difference of meaning.

Already is used to talk about something that has happened sooner than expected. It shows surprise. Just means ‘exactly’ or ‘very recently’.

 It is just one o’clock. (= It is exactly one o’clock.)  She has just arrived. (= Very recently)

Compare:

 She has already left. (= She has left but we weren’t expecting that she would leave so soon.)

 She has just left. (= She left a moment ago.) Just can also mean ‘only’.

 I just want a glass of water.  I just asked.

Just is not used in questions or negative sentences.  Position of just, yet and already

Already usually goes with the verb. If there is no auxiliary verb, already goes before the verb. If there is an auxiliary verb, it goes after the auxiliary verb.

 She already arrived. (NOT She arrived already.)

 She has already arrived. (NOT She already has arrived.)  I have already finished.

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All and whole

All and whole have similar meanings. They can both be used with singular nouns to mean ‘complete’. The word order is different.

 He lived all his life in Africa. OR He lived all of his life in Africa. (Word order: all (of) + determiner + noun)

 He lived his whole life in Africa. (Word order: determiner + whole + noun)

 I spent the whole day in bed.  I spent all (of) the day in bed.  Differences between all and whole

We do not normally use all before indefinite articles (a/an).

 You have eaten a whole loaf. (NOT You have eaten all a loaf.)

 I learned a whole lesson in ten minutes. (NOT I learned all a lesson in two minutes.)

 She wrote a whole novel in two weeks.

We do not usually use whole with uncountable nouns.

 The cat has drunk all the milk. (More natural than ‘The cat has drunk the whole milk.’)

 Whole and whole of

Before proper nouns and pronouns, we use the whole of.

 The whole of Paris was talking about her affairs. (NOT Whole Paris was talking about her affairs.)

Along

The preposition along means from 'one end to the other end of'. It is used with nouns referring to things with a long thin shape like roads, river, line etc.

 He walked along the road. (He walked from one end of the road to the other, not from one side of the road to the other.)

A lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of etc.

These expressions have similar meanings to the determiners much, many and most, but the grammar is not quite the same. Of is used after these expressions even before nouns with no determiner.

Compare:

 Plenty of shops open on Sunday mornings. (NOT Plenty shops …)  Many shops open on Sunday mornings. (NOT Many of shops …)  There is not a lot of rice left. (NOT There is not a lot rice left.)  There is not much rice left. (NOT There is not much of rice left.)  A lot of and lots of

These are rather informal. There is not much difference between a lot of and lots of. They are both used mainly before singular uncountable and plural nouns, and before pronouns. When a lot of/lots of is used before a plural subject, the verb is plural.

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 A lot of my friends live abroad.

 Lots of time is needed to learn a language.  Plenty of

Plenty of means ‘enough and more’. It is used before singular uncountable and plural nouns.

 There is plenty of time.

 Plenty of shops accept credit cards.

 A large amount of, a great deal of and a large number of

These expressions are rather formal. A large amount of and a great deal of are generally used before uncountable nouns.

 She has spent a great deal of time in Europe.

A large number of is used before plural nouns. The following verb is plural.  A large number of issues still need to be addressed.

All ready and already

All ready means fully prepared.

 We are all ready to leave.

 ‘Are you all ready?’ ‘No, John isn’t.’

Already is an adverb of time, meaning ‘by now’, ‘sooner than expected’.  ‘When is Jane coming?’ ‘She has already arrived.’

 They have already left.

Also

USING ALSO

Also is an adverb. It is used for adding another fact or idea to what you have already said.

 Mary writes excellent short stories. She also likes to paint.

 Bill Gates is one of the richest men in the world. He is also a great philanthropist.

 My brother is a good singer. He is also a great actor.

 Coffee is a very popular beverage. It is also rich in antioxidants.

Also can also be used for showing that what you have just said about someone or something is true about another person or thing.

 John now works at the State Bank of India, where his father also worked for thirty years.

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NOT ONLY...BUT ALSO

This is a relatively formal structure. When you use this structure don’t forget to put not only and but also before the words or expressions that they modify. Also make sure that the structure is parallel.

 He was not only a great singer but also an accomplished pianist.  I was not only upset but also angry.

 He not only misbehaved with the servants but also broke the windows and furniture.

Not only can be moved to the beginning of the sentence for emphasis. It is then followed by auxiliary verb + subject. If there is no auxiliary verb, we use do / does / did.

 Not only did he misbehave with the servants, but he also broke the windows and furniture. (NOT Not only he misbehaved with …)

But can be left out in this case and then we separate the two clauses with a semi-colon.

 Not only did he misbehave with the servants; he also broke the windows and furniture.

USING NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO

Students often find it difficult to use the correlative conjunction not only…but also correctly.

When you use not only…but also in a sentence, you have to ensure that not only and but also go immediately before the words or expressions that they modify.

 She is not only intelligent but also beautiful.

When using a correlative conjunction, both clauses have to be parallel. That means you have to use them before two nouns, two adjectives, two verbs etc. Study the following examples.

 They need not only food but also shelter. (Here we use nouns (food and shelter) after not only and but also.)

 She is not only rich but also generous. (Here we use adjectives (rich and generous) after not only and but also.)

 My uncle not only brought me to the city but also found a good job for me. (Here we use verb phrases after not only and but also.)

Not only can go at the beginning of a sentence. In this case, it is followed by auxiliary verb + subject. If there is no other auxiliary verb, we use do. But can be left out in this case.

Not only did my uncle bring me to the city, but he also found a good job for me.

OR

Not only did my uncle bring me to the city; he also found a good job for me. Not only is Jack working at a pub, but he is also doing his graduation.

OR

Not only is Jack working at a pub; he is also doing his graduation. Not only is Susan going to England, but she is also going to France. OR

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 Not only ... but also ...

Not only and but also normally go immediately before the words or expressions that they modify.

 The place was not only good, but also safe.

 She is not only a good wife, but also a good mother.  She speaks not only English, but also French.

Mid position with verb is also possible.

 She not only speaks English, but also French.

For emphasis not only can be moved to the beginning of a clause. Note that we use the inverted word order 'not only + auxiliary verb + subject'. But can be left out in some cases.

 She was not only sad, but also angry.  Not only was she sad; she was also angry.  They not only need food, but also shelter.

 Not only do they need food, but they also need shelter.  Not only do they need food; they also need shelter.  As well as

As well as has a similar meaning to not only … but also.

 She is clever as well as beautiful. (= She is not only beautiful, but also clever.)

Note that as well as introduces information which is already known to the listener/ reader; the rest of the sentence gives new information.

 Verbs after as well as

When we put a verb after as well as, we most often use the –ing form.

 He hurt his arm, as well as breaking his leg. (NOT … as well as broke his leg.)

If there is an infinitive in the main clause, an infinitive without to is possible after as well as.

 I have to clean the floors as well as cook the food.  Subjects

It is possible to connect two subjects with as well as. If the first subject is singular, the verb is usually singular.

 Mary, as well as Ann, was delighted to hear the news.

 Fisher Investments, as well as other financial firms, help people with advice on their investments.

But note that this is not a common structure. It is more normal to put as well as … after the main clause. This almost always happens with pronoun subjects.

 Mary was delighted to hear the news as well as Ann.

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USING AS WELL AS

As well as means ‘in addition to’. As well as means ‘in addition to’.

 He is strong as well as courageous.

We can express the same idea in several other ways.  He is both strong and courageous.

 He is not only courageous but also strong.  In addition to being courageous, he is strong. As well as can be used in the following structure: As well as + noun + clause / phrase

 Our team played as well as theirs but missed many attempts on goal. When we put a verb after as well as, we usually use an –ing form.

 As well as verbally abusing his wife, he hit her. (= He not only hit his wife, but also abused her verbally.) (NOT As well as he verbally abused his wife, he hit her.)

 He acted in the play as well as directing it. (= He not only directed the play, but also acted in it.)

If the main clause has an infinitive clause, an infinitive without tois possible in the clause introduced by as well as.

 I have to cook breakfast as well as get the kids ready for school. Note the difference between the following structures.

 She sings as well as writing plays. (= She not only sings but also writes plays.)

 She sings as well as she writes plays. (= Her writing is as good as her singing.)

Also, as well and too

Also means 'besides', 'as well', 'too' and similar ideas. It normally goes in mid position with the verb. It is placed after auxiliary verbs and before other verbs.

 He got his article published. He also won an award.  She is a doctor. Her husband is also a doctor.

 When they withdraw their forces, we shall also withdraw ours. When also refers to the whole clause, it goes at the beginning.

 I am not about to buy this house. It is small. Also, it needs a lot of repairs.

 ALSO,AS WELL AND TOO

 Also, as well and too have similar meanings. But they go in different positions in clauses.

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As well and too usually go at the end of a clause.  She not only sings; she also plays the piano.  She not only sings; she plays the piano as well.  She not only sings; she plays the piano too.

We do not normally use also in short answers and imperatives. Instead we use as well and too.

 'I have a headache.' 'I have too.' (BUT NOT I also have.) In an informal style we use 'me too', instead of I am too.

 'I am going home.' 'Me too.' (More natural than 'I am too.') ANY

Any is a determiner. It suggests an indefinite quantity or number. It is used when it is not important to say how much/many we are thinking of.

 Is there any water in the bottle?  Have you got any friends?  Have they got any children?

Any is often used in questions and negative clauses, and in other cases where there is an idea of doubt or negation.

 Are there any witnesses?  Do you need any help?  I haven't got any money.

 I have hardly any food in the larder.  You never give me any help.

Any is also common after if

 If you need any help, let me know.  Any, no, not any

Note that any alone does not have a negative meaning. It is negative only when it is used with not.

 See that you don't do any damage. (NOT See that you do any damage.) No means the same as not any, but is more emphatic.

 He has got no friends. (More emphatic than He hasn’t got any friends.)  Any and Any of

Before a pronoun or a noun with a determiner (the, this, my, your etc.) we use any of.

 Do any of these books belong to you?

 I don't think any of us want to work tomorrow.  She doesn't like any of my friends.

Note that when any of is followed by a plural subject, the verb can be singular or plural.

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Any is the plural equivalent of a/an. It is often used before plural and uncountable nouns.

 They recently bought a new car.  Have they got any cars?

But note that any can be used before a singular countable noun with the meaning of it doesn't matter who/which/what.

 Can you recite any poem by heart?  Do you know any cardiologist here?

With this meaning any is common in affirmative clauses as well.  Come any day you like.

 There is some risk in any project. BESIDES, EXCEPT AND APART FROM

Besides means ‘as well’, ‘in addition to’.

 Besides the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. Except, means ‘not including’.

 They were all tired except John.

 That was a good essay except for a few spelling mistakes. Apart from can be used in both senses.

 Apart from the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. (= Besides the violin, …)

 That was a good essay apart from a few spelling mistakes.

After no, nobody, nothing and similar negative words, the three words can all have the same meaning.

 He has nothing besides/except/apart from his salary

Alternate and alternative

These words are often confused. If you have meetings on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and Sundays, you can say that you have meetings on alternate days. Alternate means every other or every second.

While pronouncing this word, put the stress on the first syllable ‘al’.  I play cricket on alternate days.

 I see him on alternate days.

 I water the plants on alternate days.

 It would be nice if he had to work only on alternate days.

Alternately is an adverb. If something takes place alternately, then it takes place in turns.

 She would cry and laugh alternately.  It would rain and shine alternately.  I’m alternately happy and sad.

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Alternative and alternatively

An alternative is a choice between two or more things.

 Trains are late and overcrowded. An alternative option is to take the bus.  I had to obey. There was no alternative.

Alternative can also be an adjective. In this case, it means ‘different’ or ‘instead’.  If this plan doesn’t work out, we will have to find an alternative one.

 Rahul is not free on Monday. We will have to find an alternative date for the conference.

Alternatively is an adverb.

 You could wait till Rohit comes, or alternatively you could go without him.

Alternately and alternatively

Alternate(ly) means 'every second'.  We meet on alternate days.

Alternative(ly) means 'the other option'.

 I had to go, there was no other alternative.

Although and though

There is little difference between although and though. They are both subordinating conjunctions used to join two clauses together. Though is more common in informal speech and writing.

 Though I wasn’t feeling well, I decided to go out.  Although I wasn’t feeling well, I decided to go out.

 I decided to go out though / although I wasn’t feeling well.

 Clauses introduced by though / although can go at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. When they go at the beginning, we usually separate them from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

More examples are given below.

 Though / although she is poor she is honest.  I would like to go out although / though it is a bit cold.  Note that we can express these ideas using but.

 I wasn’t feeling well but I decided to go out.  She is poor but she is honest.

 It is a bit cold but I would like to go out.  Even though

Though can be used with even. Although is not possible in this case.

 I will go even though you tell me not to. (NOT I will go even although…)  Even though I didn’t know anybody at the party, I had a nice time.

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Amount and number

We use amount to refer to quantities that cannot be counted or cannot be expressed in terms of a single number.

 Repairing the roof took a great amount of work. Number is used for quantities that can be counted.

 We saw a large number of deer at the zoo.

And

And is used to join two or more grammatically similar expressions.  bread and butter

 black and white  knife and fork

When two clauses are joined by and, there are many possible relationships between them – time, cause and effect, contrast, condition etc.

 Peter took out his pen and began to make notes. (time)

 Do that again and I will hit you. (condition: = If you do that again …)  She won the prize and astonished them all. (cause and effect)

 Adjectives before a noun

We do not usually use and between adjectives used before a noun.

 She has lovely long fingers. (NOT She has lovely and long fingers.)

However, and is used when the adjectives refer to different parts of the same thing.

 green and white socks  And after try, be sure etc.

We often use try and/be sure and … instead of try to/be sure to… This is informal.

 I try and visit her often. (= I try to visit…)

 Be sure and ask him about his new projects. (= Be sure to ask him about …)

Note that we only use this structure with the simple base forms try/be sure. It is not possible with tries, tried, trying or am/is/are/was/were sure.

Compare

 Try and eat something.

 I tried to eat something. (NOT I tried and ate something.)

Another

Another can mean 'one more of the same kind'. It is used with singular countable nouns.

 We need another person to finish the work. (= We need one more person to finish the work.)

 He has bought another car.

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With uncountable and plural nouns, we normally use 'more', not another .  Would you like some more milk? (NOT …another milk)

However, another can be used before a plural noun in expressions with few or a number.

 We will wait for another few days. Another can also mean 'one that is different'.

 I think we should paint it another colour.

Anyhow and somehow

These expressions are often confused by ESL students.

Use anyhow to mean in disorder. Anyhow can also mean for certain. Somehow means in some way or by some means. It can also be used to refer to a reason that is not known or specified.

 Incorrect: He did it anyhow.

 Correct: He managed to do it somehow.

 Incorrect: He keeps his things somehow in his desk.

 Correct: He keeps his things anyhow in his desk. (= He keeps his things in disorder.)

 Incorrect: He may not come but somehow I shall.

 Correct: He may not come but anyhow I shall. (= I will certainly come.)  Incorrect: He hadn’t prepared for the test, but anyhow he passed.  Correct: He hadn’t prepared for the test, but somehow he passed.

Appear

Appear can be used as a copular verb. It is used to say how things look. It is used in similar ways to seem.

 She appeared mighty pleased.  He appears (to be) angry today.  They do not appear to be happy.

 There appears to be some misunderstanding between them.  The thieves appear to have left the city.

When appear is used as a copular verb, it is followed by an adjective, not an adverb.

 She appears to be angry. (NOT angrily)

Appear can also be used as a non-copular verb. It then means 'come into sight', or 'arrive'. In this case it is used with an adverb, not an adjective.

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Appositive phrases

An appositive is anoun or pronoun that renames another noun or pronoun. Appositives are placed directly after the noun or pronoun they identify.

 She, my sister, is always late. (The appositive ‘my sister’ renames‘she’.)

 Smarty, my cat, understands my moods. (The appositive ‘my cat’ renames ‘Smarty’.

 Appositive Phrases

Appositive phrases are nouns or pronouns with modifiers. They provide additional information and description to the sentence. As with solitary appositives, appositive phrases are placed near the noun or pronoun they describe. For example:

 Columbia University, the second-largest landowner in New York City, is part of the Ivy League.

 Stalin, the dictator of Russia, had talks with Roosevelt, the President of the United States.

 Paradise Lost, the great epic poem in English, was written by Milton. As with appositives, appositive phrases come in two varieties: essential and nonessential. Don't set off essential appositives with commas, but be sure to set off nonessential appositives with commas.

Compare:

 The famous British mystery writer Agatha Christie disappeared in 1924 and was missing for 10 days. (Essential appositive)

 Agatha Christie, the famous British mystery writer, disappeared in 1924 and was missing for 10 days. (Nonessential appositive)

Around

Around/round indicates movement or position in a circle or a curve.  They sat around the fire.

 She walked around the house.

British people also use around to talk about going to all or most parts of a place, or giving things to everybody in a group.

 We walked around the town. (=We went to almost all parts of the town.)  Could you pass the cups around, please?

 Around and about

Around and about can both be used to mean 'here and there', 'some where in', 'in most parts of' or similar ideas. They don't suggest a definite or clear movement or position.

 Children usually rush about/around .

 The prince went riding about/around the country.

 ’Where is Peter?’ ‘He must be somewhere around/about.’ Around/about can also mean approximately.

 She earns around/about $300 a month.

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As, since, because and for

As can be used to refer to the reason for something. This is particularly common when the reason is already known to the listener/reader, or when it is not the most important part of the sentence.

 As he wasn't ready, we went without him.

As-clauses often come at the beginning of sentences. They are relatively formal. In an informal style, the same ideas are often expressed with so.

 He wasn't ready, so we went without him.

 She wanted to pass, so she decided to study well.  As and since

As and since can both be used to refer to the reason for something. They are used in the same way.

 As he wasn't ready, we went without him.

 Since she wanted to pass her exam, she decided to study well. Since- and as-clauses cannot stand alone.

 Because

Because often introduces new information which is not known to the listener/reader. It puts more emphasis on the reason. When the reason is the most important part of the sentence, the because-clause usually comes at the end.

 We had dinner after ten o' clock because dad arrived late.  He bought a new home because he won a lottery.

 I read because I like reading. A because-clause can stand alone.

 Why are you crying? Because John hit me.  For

We use a for-clause when we introduce new information. A for-clause often expresses an inference. It cannot come at the beginning. It cannot stand alone either.

 I decided to consult a doctor for I was feeling bad.  Something certainly fell ill; for I heard a splash.

 All precautions must have been neglected, for the epidemic spread rapidly.

As if and as though

As if and as though mean the same. They are used to say what a situation seems like.

 It looks as if/as though it is going to rain.  Tenses

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In a formal style, were can be used instead of was to show that a comparison is unreal.

 She looks as if she were rich.

Note that we do not use a past perfect for a past unreal comparison.

 She looked as if she was rich, but she wasn’t. (NOT … as if she had been rich.

In an informal style, like is often used instead of as if/as though.This is common in American English.

 It looks like it is going to rain.

Ask and ask for

Ask is used without for to ask somebody to tell something.  Don't ask him his age.

Ask for is used to ask somebody to give something.  Don’t ask me for money.

Ask can be followed by an object.  Ask him.

When ask is followed by two objects, the indirect object (the person) usually comes first.

 Ask him his name. (NOT Ask his name to him.)  Infinitive structures after ask

Ask can be followed by an infinitive.

 I asked to leave. (= I asked permission to leave.) Ask + object + infinitive is also possible.

 I asked him to leave. (= I wanted him to leave.)

As, when and while

When, while and as can be used to talk about actions or situations that take place at the same time. There are some differences.

WHEN AND WHILE

We can use when and while to introduce a longer background action or situation, which is/was going on when something else happens/happened. Note that we usually use a continuous tense for the longer background action or situation.

When- and while-clauses can go at the beginning or end of sentences.

 I was having a bath when the telephone rang. OR When the telephone rang I was having a bath.

 While they were having a nap, somebody broke into the house.  I was working on that report when Sam called.

 She was waiting for a bus when the accident occurred.  Cathy broke her arm while she was playing in the garden. When can mean ‘at the same time as something else’.

 I always wear gloves when I wash clothes.

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When is used to refer to ages and periods of life. As and while are not possible in this.

 His parents died when he was ten.

 I was eighteen when I got my driving license.  She was twenty-one when she got married. WHILE

While is used to say that two longer actions or situations go/went on at the same time. We can use progressive or simple tenses.

 While he was watching TV, I was working.  He slept while I cooked supper.

 You can do the dishes while she cooks dinner.

 While she was in Australia, she met a rich businessman and fell in love with him.

 I acquired a strong Canadian accent, while I was holidaying in Toronto.  I sprained my ankle while I was playing football.

REDUCED CLAUSES

It is often possible to drop subject + be after when and while.  Start when ready. (= Start when you are ready.)

 While in Australia, we saw many kangaroos. (= While we were in Australia, we saw many kangaroos.)

 I hurt my back, while lifting that box. (= I hurt my back, while I was lifting that box.)

 While in Rome, do as Romans do. (= While you are in Rome, do as Romans do.)

 I learned French, while working in France. (= I learned French, while I was working in France.)

As

To talk about two short actions or situations that happen/happened at the same time, we usually use as. When is also possible.

 As I opened my eyes, I saw a strange sight. OR When I opened my eyes, I saw a strange sight.

As can also be used to talk about two situations that develop together. We normally use simple tenses.

 As I get older, I get more optimistic.

 As he came into the room, all rose to their feet.

As can be used to introduce a longer background action or situation.  As I was driving do

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At

At is a word used to show the place, direction, time or manner of something.  He works at the market.

 We live at home.

 Throw the ball at the stumps.  We have breakfast at eight.  She ran at top speed.

After some verbs, at is used to indicate the target of a perception or non-verbal communication. Common examples are look, smile, wave, frown, point.

 The child looked at its mother.

 Why are you looking at her like that?  She smiled at me.

At is also used after some verbs referring to attacks or aggressive behaviour. Common examples are shoot, laugh, throw and shout.

 Why are you shouting at me?  Stop throwing stones at the cat. PLACE

At is used to talk about position at a point.  It is very hot at the centre of the earth.  He works at the market.

Sometimes we use at with a larger place, if we think of this as a stage on a journey or a meeting place.

 The plane stops for an hour at Chennai.  Let us meet at the club.

At is particularly common with proper names used for buildings or organizations.  I first met your father at Harrods.

 She works at the State Bank of India.  She was educated at Oxford.

We generally use at to talk about addresses.  Are you still at the same address?  She lives at 73 Albert Street.

At can be used with a possessive to mean ‘at somebody’s house or shop’.  You are always at the hairdresser’s.

At is also used before the names of group activities. At a party

At a meeting At a concert At a lecture At a match

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TIME

We use at with clock times.

 I usually get up at six o’ clock.  I will meet you at 4.15.

 We have breakfast at nine.  Phone me at lunch time. At night means during any night.

 I often work at night.

We use at to talk about the whole of the holidays at Christmas, New Year, Easter and Thanksgiving.

 We are having the roof repaired at Easter.

Back and again

BACK

Back is an adverb particle. With a verb, back suggests ‘a return to an earlier situation’ or ‘a movement in the opposite direction’.

 Give me my money back.

 If you are not satisfied with this product, you can bring it back.

Note that back usually goes between the verb and its object, unless this object is a pronoun. It is also possible to put back after the object.

 Take back your money. (OR Take your money back.) With a verb, again suggests repetition.

 It was a lovely song. Would you play it again? Again goes after a verb and its object.

WITH ADVERB PARTICLES

With adverb particles and prepositional phrases, both back and again can be used to suggest a return to an earlier situation.

 Go to sleep again. (OR Go back to sleep.)

 I will be back in the office on Monday. (OR I will be in the office again on Monday.)

Note that ‘ring back’ and ‘call back’ can be used to mean both ‘return a phone call’ and ‘repeat a phone call’.

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Bath and bathe

BATH

Forms: bath / bathed / bathing

In British English, the verb bath is used to mean ‘wash oneself’. Bath can also mean ‘bathtub’.

The verb bath is rather formal. It is normally used in the structure ‘have a bath’ or ‘take a bath’. Note that the phrase ‘take a bath’ is common in both British and American English. The phrase ‘have a bath’ is usually only used in British English.

 The telephone rang while I was taking a bath. (GB / US)  The telephone rang while I was having a bath. (GB) Bath can also be used with an object.

 Can you bath the baby?

In American English, the verb bathe is used in this case.  Do you know how to bathe an infant?

BATHE

Forms: bathe / bathed / bathing

In British English, bathe means ‘swim for pleasure’. In a less formal style, we use other expressions like ‘have a swim’ or ‘go for a swim’.

 We bathed in the sea. (= We went for a swim in the sea.) In American English, bathe can mean ‘take a bath’.

 People should bathe regularly. (= People should take a bath regularly.) Note that to lie in the sun is to sunbathe, not sunbath.

Beat and win

The words beat and win are often confused.

Beat is usually followed by an object which refers to the person you are playing or fighting against.

 She always beats me at poker.

 Although he tried hard, he couldn’t beat his opponent.

 She is one of the best athletes in the world. You aren’t going to beat her. Win can also be followed by an object, but it usually refers to things like money or prize. You can also win in a game, a race, a battle or an argument.

 She won the first prize in the quiz competition.  She always wins when we play poker.

Practical English Usage_1.docx

Table of Contents

Abbreviations

Acronyms

About







Above and over

According to



Accept and agree

Across



Affect and Effect

Against

Agree with and agree to

Ago

All







All and every

Already, just and yet

All and whole

Along

A lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of etc.

All ready and already

Also

Also, as well and too

Alternate and alternative

Alternative and alternatively

Alternately and alternatively

Although and though

Amount and number

And

Another

Anyhow and somehow

Appear

Appositive phrases

Around

As, since, because and for

As if and as though

Ask and ask for

As, when and while

As

At

Back and again

Bath and bathe

Beat and win