Intrinsic motivations of mobility, play and enjoyment: the smartphone game experience.

(1)

Intrinsic Motivations of Mobility, Play and Enjoyment:The smartphone game experience

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Brian McCauley

BA., M Communication, M Commerce

School of Economics Finance and Marketing College of Business

RMIT University

September 2014

(2)

Declaration

This work is that of the candidate alone, Brian McCauley. Editing was conducted by Jane Fry in terms of completeness and consistency,and not matters of substance and structure,in accordance

with IPEd's Australian standards for editing practice and The Higher Degress by Research Editing Policy. This work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award. The content of this thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program. The relevant ethics procedures and guidelines of RMIT University have been followed and the research has been

approved by The RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee.

(3)

There are a lot of people to thank who had a hand in this dissertation, So Thank You;

The late and great, Tony Naughton, for approving my entry into the program.

Mike, Linda and Ingo for allowing me to bombard them with random questions and answering them.

Stefan and Tim, for taking the time to meet with me and guide my thinking when needed. Michael, for reading and critiquing.

Jane, for her editing expertise.

My partner Sarah for putting up with all the associated suffering a PhD brings and supporting me with love.

My supervisor Francis for giving me this opportunity and pushing me as required.

The best supervisor anyone could have, Zografina, for being there all the way and without whose support and patience this would never have happened.

And most of all my parents, Jim and Mary, for supporting me with opportunities and love in order to get this far in life.

(4)

Intrinsic Motivations of Mobility, Play and Enjoyment;

The smartphone game experience

(5)

List of tables and figures

Table 1.1 Smartphone users and Penetration worldwide, 2012–2017 ... 8

Figure 1.1 Smartphone by country ... 8

Figure 1.2 When away from home what activities do you use your phone for? ... 11

Figure 1.3 Who is playing mobile games? ... 12

Fig 2.1 Literature Review ... 46

Table 2.1 Overview of the constructs ... 47

Table 2.2 Characteristics of Mobile Play ... 53

Fig 2.2 Self Determination Theory ... 62

Table 2.3 Summary of Self Determination Theory ... 64

Table 2.4: Eight major components of Flow ... 83

Table 2.5 Summary of the arguments for SDT and the PENS scales ... 110

Table 2.6 Summary of arguments for Flow, Social Escapism and Competition ... 111

Table 2.7 Summary of the arguments for Playfulness, Age and Gender. ... 112

Fig 2.3 Proposed conceptual model ... 114

Table 3.1: Variables and Corresponding number of survey items ... 118

Table 3.2: Model Fit Measures ... 124

Table 3.3 PENS Items ... 130

Table 3.4 The experience of Flow items ... 131

Table 3.5 Social Escapism items ... 132

Table 3.6 Competition items ... 132

Table 3.7 Enjoyment items... 133

Table 3.8 Playfulness items ... 133

Table 3.9 Demographic items ... 134

Table 3.10 Gamer Segments ... 134

Table 3.11 Usage item ... 136

Table 3.12 Location items ... 136

Table 3.13 Play mode items... 137

Table 3.14 Game Genre ... 138

Table 3.15 Qualitative items... 138

Fig 4.1 Age and Gender breakdown of respondents ... 142

Table 4.1 Playfulness by age ... 143

Table 4.2 Playfulness by Gender ... 143

Table 4.3 Age and playing preferences ... 144

Table 4.4 Gamer Segments by age ... 146

Table 4.5 Gamer Segments by playmode ... 146

Table 4.6 Game Genre by Gender ... 147

Table 4.7 Game Genre by Age ... 148

Table 4.8 Game Genre by Playfulness ... 148

Table 4.9 Game Genre by Gamer Segments... 149

Table 4.10 Where or when to play ... 153

Table 4.11 Why play games... 154

Table 4.12 Summary of smartphone gamer characteristics ... 155

Table 4.13 KMO & Bartletts Independent Variables ... 156

Table 4.14 Eigenvalues of Factors ... 157

Table 4.15 The Need for Competence and Autonomy ... 158

(8)

Table 4.17 Competition ... 160

Table 4.18 Mobile Escapism ... 160

Table 4.19 The experience of Flow ... 161

Table 4.20 The Need for Relatedness ... 161

Table 4.21 KMO & Bartletts Playfulness ... 162

Table 4.22 Rotated components matrix Playfulness ... 163

Table 4.23 Eigenvalues of Playfulness ... 163

Table 4.24 KMO & Bartlett Enjoyment ... 164

Table 4.25 Enjoyment ... 164

Table 4.26 Construct Reliability ... 165

Fig 4.2 Revised conceptual model ... 166

Table 4.27 Initial Goodness of Fit results ... 167

Fig 4.3 Initial CFA of Independent variables ... 168

Table 4.28 Final CFA Goodness of Fit results Independent Variables ... 169

Table 4.29 Initial Model Fit Playfulness ... 170

Fig 4.4 Initial CFA of Playfulness ... 171

Table 4.30 Final CFA Goodness of Fit results Playfulness ... 172

Table 4.31 Construct Reliability ... 173

Fig 4.5 Construct Reliabiliy & Average Variance Equations ... 173

Fig 4.6 Average Variance Extracted Equation ... 174

Table 4.32 Discriminant Validity of the Independent Variables ... 175

Table 4.33 Discriminant Validity of Playfulness ... 175

Table 4.34 Regression Analysis ... 177

Table 4.35 Multiple Regression Results ... 179

Table 4.36 Initial Hypothesis Results ... 179

Table 4.38 Final Hypothesis Testing Results ... 187

(9)

Abstract

This thesis investigates the intrinsic motivations for the playing of video games on smartphones through proposing and testing a conceptual model. The concept of play and a theory of intrinsic motivation, Self Determination Theory, provide an underlying theoretical framework. The constructs of the Need for Competence, the Need for Autonomy, the Need for Relatedness, the experience of Flow, Competition and Social Escapism form the basis of the proposed conceptual model as underlying drivers of the enjoyment of games that are intrinsically motivated. Relevant characteristics of players’ age, gender and level of playfulness are examined for their potential influence on the model. A pertinent gap was identified in the literature in regards to consumer behaviour and the understanding behind a rapidly evolving field of media enquiry. The conceptual model was established in order to enhance understanding of the representative phenomenon, allow implications to be situated in practical concerns and extend our understanding of intrinsic motivations through the concept of play.

Questionnaires from 340 Australian residents over eighteen who play games on smartphones were analysed. A series of hypotheses were proposed within a causal methodology to facilitate the prediction of enjoyment in terms of significant drivers. The conceptual model was tested by a multiple regression technique in order to establish variables that influence the enjoyment of games on smartphones. The empirical findings of this thesis contribute to an understanding of the process of enjoyment of games and are situated in a consumer behaviour/marketing paradigm. At an academic level, this thesis extends the marketing literature on a relatively new yet expanding area of interest and provides several new avenues of potential research opportunities. As mobile devices and games continue to grow in popularity, revenue and influence in many different areas of business and life, it is important that academia keep pace with new developments. This thesis provides insights that add to, extend, compliment and question the existing literature. Crucially, as a result of these findings the enjoyment of play on smartphones is conceptually articulated as a series of key intrinsic motivations.

Keywords: Play, intrinsic motivation, smartphones, Self Determination Theory, regression, enjoyment, playfulness

(10)

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The world has changed…

We no longer live in a world where teenage boys and dedicated games consoles prevail as the face of video gaming. While hardcore gamers remain the archetypical young male, who invests time and resources into playing more complicated games, there are now many more casual players who spend less time and attention on simpler games such as those played on mobile phones (The Economist 2011).Mobile gaming has drawn in groups such as women, the elderly and middle-aged commuters who while never describing themselves as gamers are more than happy to play Angry Birds on their smartphones (The Economist 2011).These changes dictate that prevailing wisdoms surrounding video gaming are also subject to change. Play is becoming an increasingly integral aspect of modern life.

As a result of these changes, this research seeks to provide a fresh theoretical perspective on intrinsic motivation through examining the smartphone gaming experience. As technology continues to change the world, it impacts many areas of human development, psychology and consumption. Fundamental assumptions of academic and theoretical perspectives must continually be re-evaluated and re-examined in light of a continually shifting landscape of the human experience. Through applying theories of intrinsic motivations from different academic fields, to a new area of burgeoning research interest, this thesis seeks to offer a new interpretation of established theories and offer a new perspective on the concept of play.

Video games or ‘entertainment software’ as described by Alpert (2007) is big business. With estimated worldwide revenues of $100 billion and having an industry of $5 billion value in

(11)

Australia (Derby 2010), video games can no longer be dismissed as the plaything of teenage boys and immature men but instead is a multifaceted industry consumed by anybody and everybody, with 45% of game consumers described as female and the average age of an Aussie gamer being over 30 and continuing to rise (Derby 2010). The market for video games is in effect, only limited by the world’s appetite for fun and enjoyment (The Economist 2011).

Through the continued adoption of various digital devices we are seeing what can be coined the ‘normalisation of gaming’ Kultima (2009). Games are becoming more and more entrenched within our society, with companies such as Nintendo actively targeting non-traditional segments such as the family in their marketing activities as far back as 2007 (Sterlicchi 2007). The rise of mobile and casual gaming has in particular led to the recruitment of what in the past has been seen as traditional non-players (Hjorth 2011a). Kallio, Mayra and Kaipainen (2010) have identified that rather than labelling people as particular consumers of particular games, we are instead seeing ‘the fluid continuity of different people who play to relax, socialize, have fun and entertain themselves who form the majority of the digital gaming culture and who provide the backbone for the emerging ‘ludic society’ (p. 21).

The rise of the smartphone, pioneered by Apple through the iPhone, has led to further normalisation. ‘Within a very short period of time, iPhone spurred the development of thousands of mobile applications that combine mobility, social networking, and multi-media, fundamentally changing the way people interact with the mobile phone and the Internet’ (Yoo 2010, p. 214). With ownership becoming almost ubiquitous we are seeing the rise of a population who have access to games whenever and wherever they are. And with 33% of applications downloaded for phones consisting of games and games providing the most revenue (MobiThinking 2013) we can see that consumers are willing to do so. The advent of more powerful mobile phones has put the means of playing video games into the pockets of those who would never think of investing in a

(12)

dedicated games platform (The Economist 2011).

The potential inherent in the concept of mobile games is almost infinite. The games industry is changing fast and is thriving on change and innovation that allows it to grow in all sorts of unexpected ways (The Economist 2011).This thesis seeks to address the lag of academia in regards to this phenomenon and utilize these changes to augment our understanding of intrinsic motivation and play in the age of the mobile consumer.

1.2 Objective of the Research and Research Problem

To be motivated is to be moved to do something and, ‘its most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome’ (Ryan & Deci 2000, p. 55).

The focus of this thesis is to develop a conceptual model that investigates the psychological constructs that drive preferences and motivate consumption in a particular context. Motivation is explained as identifying how various determinants impel an action towards a goal, in this case the enjoyment of video games on a smartphone. This context was chosen as an examination of the literature concluded that there was a gap in the relevant marketing literature in terms of intrinsic motivation and the mobile experience. Through an examination of this context, theories of intrinsic motivation are re-conceptualized, extended and combined in order to further advance various fields of knowledge. Combining this approach with the psychological construct of playfulness and defined roles such as age and gender further illuminate facets of intrinsic motivation and add value to the contribution of this study.

Given the application of intrinsic motivation through Self Determination Theory is relatively new in terms of video games and Przybylski et al. (2010) advocate that future studies investigate the

(13)

area with different approaches in order to allow more definitive conclusions to be drawn. Through application of the Player Experience of Need Satisfaction scales, developed from SDT, in a different context, this study attempts to broaden the understanding of the applicability of the scales. Furthermore Przybylski et al. (2010) identify a limit in their research in that it applied the studies on short-term and post play effects of video games. This thesis approaches the application of the PENS scales as a more long-term approach through examining the needs in terms of the games people generally play rather than examine post play experiences.

This thesis intends to answer the research problem of how can theories of intrinsic motivation illuminate our understanding of mobile consumption through an examination of the smartphone play experience. As a result of this investigation the act of play itself is explained through a series of key intrinsic motivations. The general aim of this thesis is guided by a selection of research questions centred on two themes.

Conceptual Model

 What model can enhance our understanding of the intrinsic motivations that drive enjoyment of video games on smartphones?

 Which drivers are the most important in understanding the need to play?

 What aspects of consumers further impact upon the proposed conceptual model?

 Can extension of the Player Experience of Need Satisfaction scales (PENS), derived from SDT, be generalized to offer an understanding of why people play?

Influential aspects of the mobile consumption experience

 How do gender, age and playfulness impact intrinsic motivations?

 Which constructs matter for the enjoyment of games and in effect will affect policy in designing games or gamification?

(14)

 What aspects of the consumers can deepen the understanding of the results of the research and further our understanding of variations in intrinsic motivation and the nature of play itself?

It should be noted that similar to Shafer (2013) that this model is not intended to represent the entire process of the enjoyment of mobile games due to the sheer complexity of understanding the production of enjoyment, as noted by Vorderer, Klimmt and Ritterfeld (2004). Through focusing on six independent variables defined as intrinsically motivated and examining their influence on Enjoyment, this research offers a concise approach to the research questions posed here. These independent variables are the Need for Competence, The Need for Autonomy, The Need for Relatedness, Flow, Competition and Social Escapism. These constructs were identified as being relevant to the specifics of the mobile gaming context yet also having the potential to offer a deeper understanding of intrinsic motivation, mobile behaviour and play. Age, gender and playfulness as influential categorical segmentation variables as well as moderating influences on the conceptual model add an extra theoretical perspective for the examination of play in this context.

1.3 Background of the Research

In order to appropriately frame the scale and significance of gaming and smartphones, this section outlines the extent and growth of the smartphone and gaming industry. The scale and success of the industry demonstrates that smartphone gaming represents a valid field of inquiry both in terms of practical applications and theoretical considerations. Video gaming represents the largest entertainment industry in the world (Parker, Cox & Thompson 2014) with the total global value estimated at 93 billion dollars for 2013, growing to 111 billion dollars in 2015 (Gartner 2013).

(15)

On November 8th 2011, Modern Warfare 3, the video game, was released on PC, Xbox 360 and Playstation 3 and within 24 hours had sold 26 million units, amassing sales of over $400 million. This was 5 times the opening day revenues of the record opening film, Harry Potter and subsequently has made over one billion dollars. Since then, Grand Theft Auto VI made $800 million on its first day of release in September 2013 while two months later a billion dollars worth of Call of Duty: Ghosts, were shipped on release day. These record breaking numbers pale in comparison with the potential reach of mobile gaming. While there are forty million monthly active players across all of the Call of Duty titles (Stuart 2014), there are ninety three million people are playing Candy Crush Saga more than 1billion times daily (Dredge 2014).The escalating numbers of ownership of smartphones and tablets has opened up a broader spectrum of potential gamers. These gamers are ready to play, with games such as Candy Crush Saga earning millions in revenue per day and others such as Angry Birds having been downloaded over a billion times.

A report on Mobile Gaming by NewZoo (2013) estimates the total worldwide mobile gaming revenue to be $9.1 billion, $7 billion of which is exclusive to smartphone gaming. The total revenue is estimated to increase to a staggering $23.9 billion by 2016, with smartphone revenues having almost doubled to $13.9 billion. Gartner (2013) predicts mobile gaming revenues of $22 billion by 2015 and identifies mobile gaming as the second only to console games in terms of market share. The Casual Games Association (CGA 2014) estimates the current global revenues of mobile gaming to stand at $12.3billion and to account for 27.8% of all industry revenue by 2016. An estimated 71% of these mobile gamers play on their smartphone (CGA 2014).

The rapid proliferation of the smartphone throughout the world has facilitated the growth and spread of smartphone gaming. Currently 65% of Australians currently owning own a smartphone

(16)

and one third of the entire global population is predicted to own one by 2017. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the rise of the smartphone.

Table 1.1 Smartphone users and Penetration worldwide, 2012–2017 Year

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Smartphone users (billions) 1.13 1.43 1.75 2.03 2.28 2.50

% change 68.4% 27.1% 22.5% 15.9% 12.3% 9.7%

% of mobile phone users 27.6% 33.0% 38.5% 42.6% 46.1% 48.8%

% of population 16.0% 20.2% 24.4% 28.0% 31.2% 33.8%

Source: Emarketer

Figure 1.1 Smartphone by country

Source: Mashable.com

In 2006 Nintendo introduced the Wii, a games console targeted at casual gamers and the family which was ultimately credited as being very successful at opening up games to a broader

(17)

audience in terms of demographics. Subsequently the rise of the smartphone and tablet and the resulting accessibility of Apps, in the form of games, has broadened this market of gamers even further and resulted in a standalone industry of gaming that has a much bigger reach than the costly arena of dedicated gaming consoles and high performance PCs.

In terms of successful games, Angry Birds is possibly the ultimate success story on mobile platforms. The Angry Birds Franchise has been downloaded over 2 billion times and is rapidly becoming one of the world’s biggest brands with 45% of game developer Rovio’s 2012 revenue coming from their own branded merchandise (Feehan 2014). The Angry Birds franchise even has a cartoon series with a movie reportedly planned. Yet in 2014, Rovio is transitioning into the freemium model business for their games while trying not to alienate their brand loyal fans who grew to love Angry Birds based on paying small, one-off download fees then getting seemingly-unlimited free updates (Dredge 2014a).

The freemium model is where the initial game is downloaded free and subsequently, assorted optional in game extras and perks are available at a price to generate revenue. This model of business extends to paid games also in the form of further in-app-purchases whereas the paying consumer pays for further perks and options post initial purchase to improve their gaming experience. The two runaway success stories in terms of these models currently are Candy Crush Saga and Clash of Clans. Candy Crush Saga developers King filed IPO registration paperwork for 2013 that revealed that it generated $1.88 billion in revenue in 2013 with 78% of this coming from Candy Crush Saga alone (David & Picker 2014), which means that Candy Crush made around $1.54 billion last year, approximately 4 million a dollars per day. Over 90% of all revenue for mobile games comes from the freemium model or in-app-purchases (Wilcox 2014).

(18)

Euromonitor (2013) identifies ‘gaming is by far the most popular category of apps in terms of downloads, and generates the most revenue of all the different app types’ (p. 4) and identifies Candy Crush Saga as the most downloaded game across both iOS and Google Play platforms during May 2013. In 2012 a small Finish company, Supercell was grossing one million dollars a day from two titles ‘Hay Day’ and ‘Clash of Clans’(Wauters 2012) and by midway through 2013 this figure had risen to $2.4 million per day (Shontell 2013).

This rising success of mobile games on phones and tablets is eliminating the need for game specific portable machines as Dredge (2013) tells us that mobile gaming on smartphones is making four times the revenue of the game specific handheld consoles for Sony and Nintendo. Mobile gaming has been expanding strongly at the expense of traditional console and PC games (Euromonitor 2013) demonstrating that not only is mobile gaming a phenomenon in itself but one that can potentially supplant traditional gaming contexts. Dredge (2013) predicts mobile gaming to be a legitimate threat to the next generation of consoles in less than five years as technology continues to develop. According to Euromonitor (2013) over 35 % of respondents use their mobile phone for gaming while away from home, see Table 1.3.

(19)

Figure 1.2 When away from home what activities do you use your phone for?

Source: Euromonitor (2013).

The rise and proliferation of smartphones and tablets and the subsequent use and apparent dependence on Apps has not only changed the global digital landscape but also exerted a strong influence on all aspects of lifestyles and behaviour (Euromonitor 2013). There is currently a trend towards mobile cocooning, where consumers can be immersed in their own private digital worlds anytime and anywhere, and Euromonitor predicts this trend will only intensify in the future as consumers spend more time immersed in their mobile devices due to the continued development of products. This indicates tremendous potential for growth in areas such as mobile games. The spread of mobile devices and M-commerce will only continue to rise throughout the world and ultimately smartphones and similar devices will become so powerful as to meet virtually all digital needs (Euromonitor 2013). The Euromonitor report provides confirmation of what is readily apparent in every public space, which is that mobile technology is taking over, and games are one of the drivers of this change. As Table 1.4 illustrates, this change is being

(20)

embraced by everyone with at least 43% of gamers being female and more than half of all gamers choosing to play on their smartphones.

Figure 1.3 Who is playing mobile games?

Source: NewZoo (2013).

IGEA (2014) identifies a number of trends in Australia that reflect how video gaming has risen in importance including that 47% of gamers in Australia are female.

households have a device for playing

the age of eighteen have a device for playing games which can be considered full market penetration (IGEA 2014).While 65% of Australians play video games

play games on a mobile phone and for these gamers passing time was the key reason While the average age of an Australian gamer is thirty two

eighteen and 19% of Australian gamers

embraced by everyone with at least 43% of gamers being female and more than half of all gamers choosing to play on their smartphones.

ng mobile games?

IGEA (2014) identifies a number of trends in Australia that reflect how video gaming has risen in importance including that 47% of gamers in Australia are female. In 2014, 93% of Australian

e for playing video games while 98% of households w

have a device for playing games which can be considered full market While 65% of Australians play video games, 47% of all Australians games on a mobile phone and for these gamers passing time was the key reason

age of an Australian gamer is thirty two, 76% of all gamers are adults over and 19% of Australian gamers are over fifty one (IGEA 2014).

embraced by everyone with at least 43% of gamers being female and more than half of all

IGEA (2014) identifies a number of trends in Australia that reflect how video gaming has risen in In 2014, 93% of Australian games while 98% of households with children under have a device for playing games which can be considered full market 47% of all Australians games on a mobile phone and for these gamers passing time was the key reason for play. of all gamers are adults over

(21)

The sheer scale of the mobile and smartphone gaming industry and rapid adoption by consumers demonstrates that people want to play. This in turn provides a context rich for furthering our understanding of the concept of play itself.

1.4 Significance of the Research

While the background to the thesis demonstrates a valuable and applicable context, this section demonstrates the theoretical and conceptual value of this research in addressing the aporia.

Video games and smartphone gaming constitute an entertainment experience. Vorderer, Steen and Chan (2006) suggest that for an optimal model in the study of entertainment it is important to reconcile together what they call the intentionalist and objectivist stances. They deem the intentionalist stance as utilising a general understanding of agents to formulate a causal theory (Dennett 1999) while their interpretation of the objectivist stance (Leslie 1994) concerns the innate biological impulses and subsequently the developmental psychology of play. ‘Uniting work in the psychology of intrinsic motivation, the cognitive analysis of fiction-based forms of entertainment, and the evolutionary and developmental psychology of play, provides an integrated causal model for the study of entertainment’ (Vorderer, Steen & Chan 2006, p. 14).

Accordingly, this research investigates intrinsic motivation through the use of Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan 1985) as a starting point and underlying theoretical base. An examination of the literature and the characteristics of mobile gaming provide a cognitive analysis of mobile gaming through the use of the independent variables; the experience of Flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1975), Social Escapism (Korgaonkar & Wolin 1999), and Competition (Greenberg et al. 2010). In order to examine the impact of the psychology of play, the personality trait of playfulness (Barnett 2007) and the demographics of age and gender, are examined for their potential impact

(22)

on the smartphone gaming experience. This represents a cross disciplinary approach through the application of relevant literature garnered from various sources.

As a result, the focus of this thesis is to develop a conceptual model that investigates the psychological constructs that drive the enjoyment of smartphone games. Enjoyment is explained by identifying the degree of influence these particular drivers have, if any. This conceptual model is also situated in exploratory findings that enhance the understanding of the players who play games on their smartphone and as a result, deepen understanding of intrinsic motivation through use of a specific context.

A significant contribution of this thesis is the amalgamation of existing intrinsic motivation scales from various fields of enquiry including; gaming, marketing, consumer behavior, media studies and psychology, in order to provide an original conceptualization around the research area. Previous assumptions of play and video games as a situated activity must be disregarded and new conceptualisations are necessary to take into account the level of play through video games on mobile devices that are currently reshaping behaviour. Given that the emergence of smartphone gaming has changed the nature of games studies inquiry (Christensen & Prax 2012), can provide new insights into the rise of smartphones (Hjorth 2011a) and that little research actually explains the key success factors within this business (Park & Kim 2013), the outcomes of this thesis have significant value in terms of a contribution towards academic inquiry and knowledge.

The scales utilized in this research add value to the field of intrinsic motivation through their use in an alternate context. The findings of this research validate the adaptation and reliability of the scales used and adds insight to our understanding of the construct of motivation and its influence on the consumption of smartphone, and by proxy, mobile games in general. The conceptual

(23)

model and modified scales identified in this research can be used for future research in the burgeoning area of mobile consumption.

Consequently, while relevant research identified in existing literature may provide a foundation for beginning this research, the outcome of this research aims to contribute more specific insights through addressing such questions as: What are some potentially relevant segmentation criteria? How are such levels of variability in the gaming experience explained? What drives player preference in selecting and playing games? How do psychological constructs influence enjoyment? Do demographics and certain player characteristics influence the smartphone gaming experience? Can age, gender or playfulness moderate the relationship between intrinsic motivations and enjoyment?

The more intrinsically motivated an activity the more likely people are to enjoy it and do it for its own sake (Ryan & Deci 2000). Play itself can be seen as conducted for the sheer pleasure or enjoyment of the activity itself (Brougère 1999), in effect the more you enjoy something the more you will choose to do it. One of the characteristics of play in this thesis is that it is frequently repeated (Oerder 1999).

The satisfaction of the Needs for Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness have all been found to be linked to not only enjoyment but also game genre preferences and intentions for future play (Ryan et al. 2006). Similarly, Competition has been found to motivate usage and game choice (Vorderer et al. 2003, Sherry et al. 2006). Korgaonkar and Wolin (1999) found that Social Escapism positively influenced usage of online web surfing and online purchases. Flow has also been positively identified as a key motivation, reason for and driver of play. Given that self reported usage in video games is problematic and unreliable (Kahn et al. 2014) this thesis cannot accurately measure usage, yet the key intrinsic motivations inherent in the model have been

(24)

previously established as having value in understanding why people both enjoy and choose to perform certain activities such as playing video games. Vorderer et al. (2004) emphasize the growing importance of understanding enjoyment as modern individuals devote incredible amounts of time to the entertainment experience in the pursuit of fun. Sweetser and Wyeth (2005) explain that player enjoyment is the single most important goal for video game play.

This thesis further extends the literature in a number of ways. First, to date, a critical review of marketing literature pertaining to consumer behaviour and games on mobile platforms such as smartphones was found to be relatively limited at the onset of this project. Previous literature on the subject could not take into account the rapid spread and adoption of the technological advances that constitute smartphones. An example of this problem can be seen by the fact that ‘Much related work can usually be identified for an article that compares various technologies. However, if it deals with cutting-edge technology, the number of similar papers shrinks dramatically’ (Heitkötter, Hanschke & Majchrza 2013, p. 299).

There are opportunities within the marketing literature that does not yet fully acknowledge and demonstrate an understanding of a market that can produce a phenomenon such as Angry Birds, or the potential marketing implications of new phenomena such as gamification or games as services. Deterding et al. (2011) propose ‘that current ’gamified’ applications present emerging phenomena that warrant new concepts and research’ (p. 5). There is an inherent need to investigate these new technologies as they continue to affect daily life in a myriad of ways. McCrea (2011) views mobile gaming as ‘a natural fit for academics seeking to uncover some of the changes to our relationship with our technology that have occurred in the last 15 years: play is a potent concept that lends sometimes deterministic discussions of technology a humanizing quality’ (p. 392). Interpreting the mobile play experience through the intrinsic motivations identified in this research offers insights into this relationship.

(25)

While the literature is catching up with the importance of gaming in everyday life, this research offers an alternative conceptual model through the development of new theoretical constructs that can find relevance in an area of burgeoning research. The amalgamation of scales from several different disciplines explored in a new and unique context allows us to re-evaluate traditional interpretation of certain intrinsic motivations. Furthermore, removing the scales from a specific singular experience such as the playing a particular game and generalizing them to enhance our understanding of what drives the overall experience allows reflection on a more macro level, reflecting Rigby’s (2004) assertion that it is not the particular game that matters but what drives people to choose to play the games they do.

This research takes and examines a traditional theory of Self Determination Theory within a specific context not previously examined. Specifically the Player Experience of Need Satisfaction (PENS) scales are generalized to test their value in examining an overarching model of game enjoyment as opposed to previous uses in testing against specific games experiences. To add value to the use of these scales, several other intrinsic motivations are added alongside these variables to test for their impact on enjoyment. Furthermore the intrinsic personality trait of playfulness is tested for its influence on the model. The results of the thesis provide a unique combination of intrinsic motivations influencing the enjoyment of smartphone games. Through an examination of the impact that the of characteristics of age, gender and playfulness have between intrinsic motivations and the enjoyment of smartphone games, this research allows an understanding that these characteristics may have less influence on intrinsic motivations and this particular context that the previous literature would indicate. As a result we can see that smartphone and mobile gaming can be seen as a context that can allow for unexpected results as we seek to understand the most ubiquitous and personal development in modern technology. The key aspect of the smartphone context that requires a new conceptualisation lies in the instant

(26)

gratification of needs that the accessibility of the smartphone allows before. No other mode of play has ever been ever present and accessible as the player so desires.

The relative newness of the context and the identified lack of research on the subject add significance to the work of this thesis. The unique aspects of the context, particularly the ever present accessibility, demand a fresh perspective and a unique combination of variables to examine the theories behind traditional video gaming situated in a unique context. Play can now be viewed as a serious pursuit amongst adults and this research begins a discussion on what drives the enjoyment of this particular mode of play. Play can now be viewed as a personal pursuit, enjoyed relatively on demand, and as one not necessarily influenced by playfulness, age or gender. Indeed play in the modern smartphone era can be seen as a universal pursuit of the satisfaction of certain intrinsic motivations that ultimately drive enjoyment

Previous assumptions of play and video games as a situated activity must be disregarded and new conceptualisations are necessary to take into account the level of play through video games on mobile devices that are currently reshaping behaviour. Given that the emergence of smartphone gaming has changed the nature of games studies inquiry (Christensen & Prax 2012), can provide new insights into the rise of smartphones (Hjorth 2011a) and that little research actually explains the key success factors within this business (Park & Kim 2013), the outcomes of this thesis have significant value in terms of a contribution towards academic inquiry and knowledge.

We have moved away from gaming being the domain of dedicated devices. Chang (2010) identifies a generation of smartphone and iPod players who now download and play games on these ‘non-dedicated’ devices, further making gaming accessible for anyone. This research intends to further our understanding of what is a very common yet relatively poorly understood

(27)

phenomenon within academia. As smartphones usher in a new phase of casual and social media games such as Angry Birds, so too are practices of co-present engagement transforming not only how games are played and by whom, but also the nature of games studies inquiry (Christensen & Prax 2012).

Of all gaming platforms the smartphone can be seen as potentially dominant due to the fact that ‘the mobile platform offers a number of features that are well suited to the massive adoption of gaming, including wide demographics, its status as the only truly interactive platform available in many developing countries, ubiquity (any time, any place), casual usage, the ability to be both personal and capable of maintaining close links with social networks, and its ability to supply content and applications adapted to the context of the user’ (Feijoo et al. 2012, p. 219). Although the nature of the eco-systems is complex and success dependent on a myriad of factors, the development costs for mobile games remain substantially lower than for traditional games (Feijoo et al. 2012). Accessibility and lower development costs adds relevance to any enquiry within this context as the smartphone remains the most salient touch point for any game related developments. Not just a gaming device, the practical and professional communications capabilities of the smartphone further justifies its ubiquity.

We are now entering an age where gaming has moved from being part of an exclusive subculture to being a social norm (Kallio, Mayra & Kaipainen 2010, Mayra 2008, Kultima 2009, Pargman & Jacobsson 2006). Technological diffusion and lowered cost barriers plus technological advances have both led to a normalisation of digital play leading to a ‘ludic’ society where digital play through video games can now commonly extend to the phenomenon of parents playing with children. We are entering an age of ‘contextual gaming’ where play is becoming increasingly part of everyday life. Indeed, ‘play is increasingly tied to the practices and rhythms of everyday life’ (Mayra 2008, p. 2). This indicates that furthering the understanding of play through an

(28)

exploration of intrinsic motivation and a specific context adds to an increasingly important avenue of enquiry.

Accordingly, the significance and contribution of this thesis can be considered from two perspectives. Firstly, on a practical marketing level through proposing insights relevant for developing games accessible on a device that is becoming almost ubiquitous, this research adds knowledge that can be used through a broad range of potential applications. The contribution on an academic level adds value to disciplines such as marketing, consumer behaviour, communications, and psychology through extending the understanding of intrinsic motivation when applied to a new and relevant context such as mobile gaming. Particular examples of how we enhance our understanding can be seen in that the Needs for Competence and Autonomy can be seen as linked together in terms of how people enjoy the games they choose to play or through how age, gender and playfulness do not impact on how these intrinsic motivations drive enjoyment.

More specifically the contributions to the marketing, gaming, education and psychology literature are:

Through drawing on various constructs from various academic disciplines, a conceptual model is established that identifies and captures a number of intrinsic motivations for the enjoyment of smartphone games.

Self Determination Theory and the relevant scales applicable to video games are extended to the smartphone gaming experience. The Needs for Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness are adapted and examined in relation to their influence on enjoyment, having previously only been tested in terms of ‘traditional’ gaming experiences.

(29)

This thesis adapts and applies three constructs to the smartphone gaming experience that have previously not been empirically tested in this context. The experience of Flow is examined as a result of previous findings that confirmed its importance in terms of traditional video gaming experiences. Previous definitions of the mobile gaming experience have alluded to short casual play sessions that may not allow full immersion of the player to experience flow. This research seeks to empirically examine if the experience can be conceptualized as part of the smartphone game experience. Competition, conceptualized as an intrinsically motivated construct and previously identified as an important motivation for video game play and Social Escapism, a construct previously utilized to examine motivations for using the internet, are also extended to be examined in terms of the smartphone game experience. The findings of the research are also situated within exploratory findings and utilized to provide potential segmentation criteria that further add to a holistic understanding of the modern smartphone gamer.

But this thesis also provides a conceptual understanding that goes beyond the specific context of smartphone gaming and extends the epistemology of play itself. An examination of the literature identified an aporia surrounding the broader context of play and playfulness.

This thesis acknowledges a lack of work around the concept of the trait or characteristic of playfulness. A specific measure of playfulness is adopted from the psychology literature and tested for its influence on the proposed conceptual model. This represents an important step towards integrating the evolutionary and developmental psychology of play within a casual model for the study of entertainment. In this case, the Young Adult Playfulness Scale (Barnett 2007) provides the theoretically most suitable, and most recent, measure of playfulness. Complimenting this approach, the impact of age and gender are also examined in terms of playfulness and the model in order to extend the scale beyond its original use on exclusively adults under thirty.

(30)

All play has meaning (Huizinga 1938) yet play itself remains ambiguous as a concept despite being expressed across a diverse range of activities and contexts (Sutton-Smith 2001). Vorderer’s (2000) theory of playful action states that any activity that is intrinsically motivated, highly attractive, implies a change in perceived reality and is frequently repeated, can be seen as play. Reflecting this, it can be seen that understanding how people play can be seen as central to understanding how consumers consume (Hildebrand 2012). This thesis utilizes Self Determination Theory and other established theories to conceptualize Play as a series of key intrinsic motivations that can explain enjoyment, thus offering further illumination of the concept of Play.

The anytime, anyplace ubiquity of the smartphone device (Feijoo et al. 2012) allows for a fresh and original understanding of play as an activity that is accessible for adults almost constantly in daily life. The concept of play traditionally remains a difficult phenomenon to understand (Sutton-Smith 2001, Piaget 2013) yet forty seven percent of all Australians play games on a mobile phone (IGEA 2014). The impact of this phenomenon represents an opportunity to examine a mode of play that is enjoyed by a large proportion of the adult population and is enjoyed on demand, as desired.

The results and contributions of thesis are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

1.5 Rationale for the Thesis

As new technologies present people with more and more media choices, motivation and satisfaction become even more crucial components of audience analysis (Ruggiero 2000). It becomes imperative to present a well designed product that can stand out from the often bewildering mass of options that confront the modern consumer. As we see a growing influence of ‘convergent and participatory’ media (Jenkins 2006) it becomes more imperative that we seek

(31)

to fully understand them. Gaming as one of the first interactive media can be seen as a crucial and pivotal element of this ‘shift’ and can provide new insights into the rise and use patterns of this new media (Hjorth 2011a). These insights provide impetus towards developing theories and delivering insights that can further understanding in the context of ‘new’ media.

As a result, research such as this thesis, has important implications for academics, marketers and game designers in a competitive and growing market place. Understanding the importance consumers allocate to the drivers that facilitate to their enjoyment of games can effectively provide an insight to what players deem important and relevant in term of smartphone gaming experience. An understanding of these intrinsic motivations also adds to our understanding of the growing influence of convergent and participatory media and seeks to re-dress the current aporia.

One of the difficulties identified by McCrea (2011) for academics in investigating games is that complex theoretical language has to somehow explain phenomena in a rapidly changing technological landscape. This thesis seeks to avoid overtly complex game-speak and instead root results in an accessible lexicon for those not specialised or inherently familiar with modern gaming. According to Rigby and Ryan (2011) at present there is little meaningful dialogue about the incredible motivational pull that games have, however due to its current prevalence throughout modern society, there has never before been such a strong need to understand video games and the diverse ways they can influence various human behaviours.

Mayra (2006) identifies that the fundamental task of universities is to create knowledge, including within the discipline of video games. The study of video games can be seen to be still in its relative infancy with Corliss (2011) identifying video game studies as being in its formative stages and Prugsamatz, Lowe and Alpert (2010) acknowledging that the scholarly literature within consumer behaviour and marketing has paid little attention to the industry. This

(32)

demonstrates that there are gaps in the literature surrounding game studies and a review of the literature identified further gaps pertaining to the mobile gaming experience.

Ryan, Rigby and Przybylski point out that ‘few formal theories of motivation have been applied to games, the motivations of players, and the well-being outcomes of play’ (2006, p. 348) and according to Corliss (2011) there has been an apparent over-emphasise on massive multiplayer online role playing games leading to a disproportionate share of research belonging to this particular genre of gaming. Furthermore, there is a lack of specific theories on video games and as a result there is a potential need for a new set of theories focusing on games and their interactive aspects (Lee, Peng & Park 2009).

Utilisation of SDT as a framing theory can be of immense value as ‘the research reviewed on need satisfaction in games demonstrates the value of bring clear psychological theories to game study that can drive real hypothesis testing’ (Rigby & Ryan 2011, p. 167). People return to a medium they find gratifies their needs (Chen 2011) and through investigating the satisfaction of the needs for Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness in a new context, this thesis can add to our understanding of the intrinsic motivations of media use. While fun has often been ascribed as the key factor in the success of video games and would appear to be the driving force to play, there has been very little psychological research done to explain what this fun consists of (Rigby & Ryan 2011). This thesis takes previous utilization of SDT and Intrinsic Motivation and extends it to the smartphone gaming experience. This approach provides a new approach to a particular context that, while extending previous research also provides an original theoretical perspective.

According to Castells, Fernandez-Ardevol, Qui and Sey (2007) wireless media, the fastest growing communication technology ever, has emerged as one of the defining media of our times. Despite this there still remain a lot research opportunities in the mobile gaming literature.

(33)

Wilson, Chesher, Hjorth and Richardson (2011) acknowledge the success of games on mobiles, and identify that this success points to a need to understand play in order to fully comprehend contemporary styles of mobility.

Mobile media in the age of smartphones requires the systematic understanding of its various dimensions (Hjorth, Burgess & Richardson 2012) as the platform offers specific capabilities and characteristics. Indeed as the various contexts of gameplay rapidly change and expand we are forced to re-think what constitutes gameplay in the era of the smartphone (Hjorth 2011a). The social importance of gaming also needs to be understood and located within the complexities of people’s daily lives (Gosling & Crawford 2011), particularly given the social nature of the mobile as a device itself. Intrinsically motivated constructs related to the social aspects of smartphone gaming such as The Need for Relatedness, Social Escapism and Competition are utilized in this thesis to reflect this.

Nysveen, Pedersen and Thorbjørnsen (2005) suggest that we need to understand what drives consumer’s intentions to use mobile services, including games, in order to adapt the services to fulfil consumer’s motivations for using them. As enjoyment of games is what drives usage (Ryan et al. 2006) this thesis can further our knowledge in terms of understanding the drivers of consumer’s motivations for using them. New game technologies and faster processors will continue to change gaming; the research challenge is to explain better the underlying processes of game use without simply describing new game experiences (Greenberg et al. 2010). Watkins, Hjorth and Koskinen (2012) put forth strong arguments that the advent of the smartphone means that mobile media must be considered from a perspective that takes this development into account. This puts early studies on mobile gaming in a different context, as they must be considered as an examination of an early historical phenomenon that bears little resemblance to the modern game saturated smartphone era. GPS capabilities, touch-screen, computing power,

(34)

social networking, app accessibility and the sheer volume and advances in gaming contribute to this difference. This research offers an understanding of underlying influences for enjoyment and subsequently applies them to new gaming experiences.

The success of Apple’s App store and games such as Angry Birds has begun to threaten the traditional business model of developers and publishers buying the right to publish games from the hardware developers such as Sony or Microsoft (McCrea 2011). Indeed Wilson, Chesher, Hjorth and Richardson (2011) identify that sources of games such as the App store and Apple’s Game Centre will mediate an expansion of games and their culture in a new direction. Klimmt and Hartmann (2006) pointed out that ‘computer games are expensive, not only because they require high-end hardware, but also because the costs for the software itself are remarkable’ (p. 133).

The rise of the smartphone as a ubiquitous device has negated the need for high end hardwire purchased for the specific event of gaming while the cost of smartphone games are low with many available for free or as little as a dollar. This in turn has led to the current explosion of mobile gaming as the economic barriers towards gaming have been lowered. Park and Kim (2013) point to the fact that the mobile game industry is growing fast due to the rapid diffusion of mobiles throughout the world and this area of growth holds a number of exciting possibilities for new business models and growth strategies. Despite this massive increase in the importance and popularity of mobile games, little research actually explains the key success factors within this business (Park & Kim 2013). Understanding the underlying forces influencing the enjoyment of games and potentially as a result, the choices and decision making behaviour, can empower the requisite parties in designing relevant and effective gaming experiences directed towards appealing to particular gaming cohorts.

(35)

Basole and Karla (2012) in examining the significance of the growing influence of the app economy through smartphones identified that the mobile service ecosystem is one of enormous revenue opportunities that is constantly in a state of fundamental and rapid transformation. There has been an explosion in the demand for mobile services and the mobile app store is playing a transformative role in the provision of services and value for customers. Basole and Karla (2012) identify the role that games have played as a launch pad for this mobile application ecosystem including the acquisition of new consumer segments through games and conclude that ‘Unquestionably, the market for mobile games is a key driver for the app economy’ (p. 33). This underlines the value in investigating a context such as smartphone gaming in that it demonstrates a value beyond direct revenue.

The advent of the iPhone changed the nature of mobile gaming and since 2008 downloading games as apps form an app store has become the normal approach to mobile game consumption and mobile games have become competitive with console games (Feijoo et al. 2012) which serves as a reminder that smartphone games must not be exclusively characterised as mobile games but also considered in the context ofa traditional gaming experience. This research focuses on the smartphone as according to Feijoo et al. (2012) smartphones should be considered separately from tablets as they typically provide a different play experience with tablet gaming sessions lasting typically three times longer. Crucially, Kim (2013) states that as the field of research on modern mobile gaming is still quite young more research is necessary to fully understand the market.

Applying theories of Intrinsic Motivation specifically to the context of smartphone gaming offers a considered approach to an area of research that to date, has yet to be fully considered. The sheer scale and spread of the industry offers a salient point to begin extending our understanding of intrinsic motivation and play in the modern world.

(36)

1.6 Mobile Gaming in the Marketing Literature to Date

The seminal work to date in marketing specific literature on models to explain mobile usage was by Nysveen, Pederson and Thorbjørnsen (2005) who developed and tested a model to explain consumer’s intentions to use mobile service. They examined empirical studies of four mobile services; games, contact services, text messaging and payment. Adopting variables from several areas including uses and gratifications, information systems research and domestication research, all the variables they examined in relation to intention to use services were significant. This approach offers support to the approach of this thesis, in that combining elements of separate research fields adds value to a relatively new phenomenon such as mobiles and mobile gaming.

Nysveen et al. (2005) acknowledge that ‘marketing managers should be aware of the sensitivity of service characteristics (type of interactivity and process characteristics) when considering the importance of the antecedents included in our model’ (p. 334). This research argues that to include diverse services such as text messaging, contact, payment services and gaming accountable to the same conceptual model, while effective in a macro sense, does not accurately explain or illuminate a specific medium such as mobile gaming. The research of Nysveen et al. (2005) offers a broad perspective on the value of reconciling marketing and mobile gaming, yet does not offer or contribute to the inquiry of intrinsic motivations in the context of modern mobile gaming. The rapidly evolving nature of the technology is an important consideration as ‘over the past few years, an array of smart web-capable touch-screen phones such as the HTC Diamond, Samsung Galaxy and the iPhone have transformed mobile game-play’ (Hjorth 2011, p. 420). This indicates a need to re-conceptualize the approach towards mobile gaming.

Revels, Tojib and Tsarenko (2010) provide a more recent example of understanding the satisfaction of customers in terms mobile services, utilising a similar model and approach to Nysveen et al. (2005). While both studies provide a good example for methodological approach,

(37)

it needs to be remembered when considering game studies as a new discipline ‘that it is critical to step back and consider the new discipline’s character’ (Boellstorff 2006, p. 30). Smartphone gaming as a specific context remains part of the mobile inquiry yet there remains a need to examine it with a discipline specific approach. Through conceptualizing smartphone gaming as intrinsically motivating, this thesis seeks redress the game specific gap in the mobile marketing literature.

The primary spread of gaming on smartphones has been on actual games yet there also remains a need for our understanding of games to be applied elsewhere. What is your mobile coffee loyalty app if it is not a game? Buy five coffees and win one free. Zichermann and Linder (2010) identify phenomena such as this as being of play and games. Feijoo et al. (2012) acknowledged that while there has been some academic interest in the area of mobile entertainment, the available literature has adopted either the perspective of social media or game design and that in effect, that the ‘specific mobile gaming perspective to be insufficiently addressed so far’(p. 212).

There have been several studies on augmented reality games which do have marketing opportunities. The concept of augmented reality utilising smartphones offers further opportunities for gamification and marketing as smartphones utilise GPS and cameras to allow consumers to interact with the real world through a gaming layer that gives ‘the material for a much richer gaming world and user experience. In mobile augmented reality games the playing area becomes borderless and they can be played literally anywhere and anytime’ (Wetzel, Blum, Broll & Oppermann 2011, p. 1). Yet this area of potential interest still remains a niche area of mobile gaming that has yet to be fully embraced by consumers. By contrast, the success of ‘typical’ smartphone games demonstrates where the core focus of consumers is.

(38)

Penttinen et al. (2012) did attempt to segment mobile gamers as they identified that a deeper understanding of the values and needs of gamers is necessary. While they did identify that mobile gamers are heterogeneous and seek different experiences from games, their exploratory study seems rooted in a pre smartphone era of gaming that doesn’t reflect current practices and technologies. Research on smartphone gaming rooted in marketing and consumer behaviour considerations remains an area rich in potential

Zichermann and Linder (2013) identify games and gamification as one of the most important areas in modern marketing. They identify that this area can deliver affordable, measureable and scalable behavioural change that can benefit all the employees and internal stakeholders of a company as well as cut through the noise and capture consumer’s attention for an increase in connection, dialogue and ultimately, loyalty.

There are currently no studies examining mobile gaming and the intrinsic motivations for play within the marketing and consumer behaviour literature. Przybylski et al. (2010) state that the cultural penetration of video games and virtual environments will increase is inevitable, and as a result it there is an important agenda for employing new theoretical models to empirically explore these domains. As a result they posit that new knowledge derives could inform health and education interventions and advance the basic science of what is going on when humans play. As a result of this gap, this thesis offers a viewpoint of mobile gaming that can be considered alongside similar studies yet offers original conclusions and insights that can add to an area of research that has yet to be fully realized.

1.7 Managerial Implications

Mobile Marketing is defined as the use of the mobile device for marketing communications (Phumisak, Donyaprueth & Vatcharaporn 2010).The advent of smartphone, and the rise of

(39)

mobile gaming, has many implications in terms of the marketing context. The research conducted here, in deepening our understanding of the intrinsic motivations towards smartphone play, can be extended to broadening the understanding of several areas of marketing and consumer behaviour. This section provides an understanding of the potential managerial implications of the results of this thesis.

One such area of concern for marketers lies in the field of gamification, defined by Deterding et al (2011) as ‘the use of game design elements in non-game contexts’ (p. 3). Zichermann and Cunningham 2011 define it as ‘The process of game-thinking and game mechanics to engage users and solve problems’ (p xiv). A previous simple application of this developing trend can be seen in the use of loyalty programs. Loyalty programs can be seen as a complex game like exercise in achieving rewards, status and benefits, and these game mechanics can be used as levers to drive consumer behaviour (Zichermann & Linder 2010).

In terms of modern gamification, consumers are now equipped with smartphones which allows gameplay as well as being equipped with a GPS that allow for location based services. As more mobile applications adopt gamification combined with location based services to attract users, more and more users are volunteering their personal and social data as well as their specific location in using the services (McKenzie 2011). Applications such as Foursquare or indeed Facebook can allow users to check in and use gamified services. Zichermann and Cunningham (2011) applaud of such programs and games as being simple yet effective in offering the potential to solve specific business problems.

Huotari and Hamari (2011) link gamification to services in defining it as ‘a form of service packaging where a core service is enhanced by a rules-based service system that provides feedback and interaction mechanisms to the user with an aim to facilitate and support the users’