• No results found

Ascertainment of the truth in international criminal justice

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "Ascertainment of the truth in international criminal justice"

Copied!
393
0
0

Loading.... (view fulltext now)

Full text

(1)

ASCERTAINMENT OF THE TRUTH

IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE

By

Caroline Buisman

PhD submission, January 2012

Brunel University, School of Law

Supervisors: Professor Ilias Bantekas and

Doctor Dimitros Giannoulopoulos

(2)

This thesis seeks to answer the principal question as to whether international criminal justice systems can serve as adequate truth-ascertaining forums. In doing so, it reviews the practice of three international criminal justice systems: the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). It is not the purpose of this research to review the black letter law adopted and applied by these international tribunals and court, but rather to review the implementation of the legal principles in practice. It is a socio-legal research project which focuses on the practice of the tribunals and court. It discusses socio-legal, institutional and political issues relating to the ascertainment of the truth in international criminal justice.

Abstract

In addition, it examines the gaps between the theory and practice of ascertaining the truth in the ICTY, ICTR and ICC. It does so principally by exploring the roles of the parties, participants and judges in ascertaining the truth. This includes the obstacles they face in doing so and the responses given, if any, to accommodate these difficulties. Challenges include the politicised climate of most post-conflict societies, the remoteness of the crime base areas from the seat of the Court, the lack of enforcement mechanisms and reliance on State cooperation, as well as the unfamiliarities with the cultural and linguistic features of the affected communities. This thesis reveals that these difficulties are not the principal cause of truth-searching impediments. Indeed, it is asserted that the ascertainment of the truth can be fair and effective notwithstanding these difficulties. It also demonstrates that truth-ascertaining impediments are mainly caused by failures to adequately investigate the crimes and relevant evidence. At the ICTY, investigations have been carried out in the most efficient and fair manner possible under the circumstances. By contrast, the ICTR and ICC investigations are far from adequate and should be improved. The Prosecution should make more efforts to obtain the best evidence available.

It further concludes that international justice systems have set their goals too highly. Instead of seeking to meet objectives such as reconciliation, peace and security, they should restrict their focus to the question as to whether the guilt of a particular accused has been established in respect of the crimes charged.

(3)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... 5

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... 6

INTRODUCTION ... 7

Topic of this Research ... 7

Aim of this Research ... 10

Structure of this Research ... 11

Method and Scope of this Research ... 13

PART I MEANING AND SCOPE OF ASCERTAINMENT OF THE TRUTH ...23

Identified Objectives of International Criminal Courts and Tribunals ... 24

Achievability of the Identified Objectives ... 28

The Ascertainment of the Truth as an Objective of International Justice ... 31

Right of Victims to the Truth ... 37

Reservations about the Ascertainment of the Truth as an Objective ... 39

Meaning of the Ascertainment of the Truth ... 40

Meaning in domestic criminal justice systems ... 40

Civil Law Justice Systems: Meaning of Ascertainment of the Truth ... 41

Common Law Justice Systems: Meaning of Ascertainment of the Truth ... 43

The Objective and Procedural Truths Compared ... 47

The Scope of the Search for the Truth ... 49

Scope of the ascertainment of the truth in international justice ... 51

Desired Scope of the Ascertainment of the Truth ... 51

Cultural Context ... 53

One or Multiple Versions of the Truth? ... 55

Additional Constraints in Establishing Historical Facts in the Courtroom ... 58

Expressed Reservations on Establishing Historical Facts ... 60

Wider Scope of Truth-Ascertainment in International Justice ... 62

The meaning of ‘the ascertainment of the truth’ in international justice ... 69

Relativism versus Radicalism ... 69

Construction of a Collective Truth ... 74

Conditions for the Effective Ascertainment of the Truth in International Trials ... 75

PART II METHODOLOGIES ...80

Origins of the Legal Principles of the ICTY and ICTR... 81

Origins of the Legal Principles of the ICC ... 84

Comparison of civil law and common law methodologies ... 87

Access to Relevant and Reliable Information ... 87

Civil Law Jurisdictions ... 88

Common Law Systems ... 95

Engagement at a Distance ... 101

Transparency ... 106

Democratic, open and fair procedure ... 108

Common Law Systems ... 108

Civil Law Systems ... 110

Conclusion ... 113

Combination of civil law and common law methodologies ... 117

Investigations and Charging Suspects ... 118

Disclosure Obligations ... 120

Trial Proceedings ... 124

Rules of Evidence ... 128

Appellate Proceedings ... 132

Does the international criminal justice model meet the conditions in Part I? ... 133

Access to Relevant and Reliable Information ... 134

Engagement at a Distance ... 135

Transparency and Fairness ... 137

Conclusion ... 138

Unique Context of International Justice ... 140

Structural and Capacity Limitations ... 142

(4)

Two examples of local justice ... 145

Impact of Local Justice on International Justice ... 149

Exaggeration of Cultural Differences ... 151

PART III PRACTICE OF ASCERTAINING THE TRUTH AT THE ICTY, ICTR AND ICC 155 Investigations ... 156

General Observations... 156

Equality of Arms in Practice ... 157

Prohibition of Contact with the Parties ... 161

Lack of State Cooperation ... 168

Politically motivated Investigations ... 171

ICTR ... 171

ICTY ... 172

ICC ... 174

Securing Arrests ... 184

Lack of Cooperation with the Defence ... 186

Assistance from UN and NGOs ... 189

Factors affecting the credibility of witnesses ... 207

Protective Measures ... 225

Exonerating Evidence ... 244

Role of Victims and Witnesses in International Trials ... 256

Expert Evidence ... 256

Rights of Victims to Truth and Justice ... 262

Victim Participation ... 267

Victims as Witnesses ... 280

Treatment of Witnesses Outside the Courtroom ... 281

Prohibition of Contact with the Parties ... 284

Testing the Evidence: in Control of the Judges or Parties? ... 301

Control by the judges ... 305

Judges Interventions ... 308

Public Trials? ... 315

Admissibility of Evidence ... 320

Assessment of the Evidence ... 325

The evaluation system ... 325

Evaluation by the Appeals Chamber ... 350

PART IV ... 354

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 354

(5)

Acknowledgements

After a long and torturous journey passing through various destinations between the holy land of Lamu and Iona with many obstacles on the way, this PhD has finally reached a conclusion. The end of this never-ending story has been reached with the assistance of many colleagues, friends and family. I am grateful for the moral support and encouragement I received from all my colleagues from Arusha and The Hague. I am particularly grateful to those who have never given up on my PhD. I thank Dr. Stathis Banakas for his encouragement for me to write a PhD in the first place.

I would particularly like to express my gratitude to those who have taken the time to review parts of my PhD and make valuable suggestions. A special thanks goes to Professor Kenneth Gallant, Richard Medwell, Geri Lennon, Helen Lennon, Kate Smith, Stephanie Maupas, Hedelene Monteiro, Gissou Azarnia, Christopher Santora, Ben Gumpert, James Jackson, Maxim Kogan and Julie Fabreguettes. Without the patience of my direct colleagues in the Katanga defence team, it would have been very difficult to complete this project. The support of David Hooper has been incredible both in terms of reviewing parts of my work and in terms of moral encouragement and patience.

For their moral support and encouragement throughout the years, I would especially like to thank my friends and colleagues Myriam Bouazdi, Karim Khan, Elise Groulx, Peter Robinson, Jarinda Tuinstra, Avi Singh, Philippe Larochelle, Natalie Von Wistinghausen, as well as the many others, not explicitly mentioned here but who equally played a significant role in finalising this long outstanding project.

Most importantly, I would like to thank my supervisors, Professor Ilias Bantekas and Doctor Dimitros Giannoulopoulos for their useful comments and advice. Their positive attitude has made me enjoy the process of writing a PhD and helped me conclude it at last. Finally, a very special thought goes to my family and in particular my mother who has given me the strength to complete my PhD, who has always believed I could do it and is without doubt looking at me with a smile from wherever she is.

(6)

List of Abbreviations

ABA – American Bar Association

AFDL – Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo ALO – United Nations Office of Legal Affairs

ANC – African National Congress APR – Armée Patriotique Rwandaise BGH – German Supreme Court

BZRG – Statute on the Federal Central Criminal Register CCP – Criminal Procedure Code

DRC – Democratic Republic of the Congo

ECCC – Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia ECHR – European Convention on Human Rights

ECtHR – European Court of Human Rights EHRR – European Human Rights Reports FAB – Forces Armées Burundaises

FAR – a/k/a RPF - Forces Armées Rwandaises

FDLR – Forces Démocratiques pour la Liberation du Rwanda FRD – Forces Rwandaises de Défense

FYROM – Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia HRC – United Nations Human Rights Committee HRW – Human Rights Watch

IBA – International Bar Association ICC – International Criminal Court ICG – International Crisis Group ICJ – International Court of Justice

ICTR – International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

ICTY – International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ILC – International Law Commission

KLA – Kosovar Liberation Army

MONUC – United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo NGO – Non-Governmental Organization

OTP – Office of the Prosecutor OUP – Oxford University Press

RDC – Research and Documentation Center RPF – a/k/a FAR - Forces Armées Rwandaises SCSL – Special Court for Sierra Leone

STL – Special Tribunal for Lebanon

StPO – German Code of Criminal Procedure TRC – Truth and Reconciliation Commission UN – United Nations

UNGA – United Nations General Assembly UPDF – Uganda People’s Defense Force UPC – Union Patriotique Congolais VWU – Victims and Witnesses Unit

(7)

Introduction

This thesis on ‘The Ascertainment of the Truth in International Criminal Justice’ principally explores the following question:

Topic of this Research

Do international criminal courts and tribunals constitute effective truth-searching institutions?

This thesis has been inspired by two recent events:

A truth to be found or constructed?

First, on 30 March 2011 in The Hague, Michelle Parlevliet opened a debate on the ascertainment of the truth in international criminal justice. This debate followed the

showing of the documentary ‘Telling Truths in Arusha’,1 with the following question:

‘is there a truth to be found or a truth to be constructed’? None of the participants of the debate which included two defence counsel who had practiced before a number of

international criminal tribunals and a judge from the SCSL2 had a clear answer to that

question.3 This is not surprising since there is no fixed view on how truth is to be

defined in the context of international criminal justice. It is an important issue since it is directly linked to the question of what interpretation should be given to the task of ascertaining the truth in international criminal justice.

The same question was also central to the documentary itself, which was based on the

trial of a priest, Hormisdas Nsengimana, who was tried for genocide and crimes

against humanity before the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and

1 This documentary was shown in the filmhuis in The Hague as part of the Amnesty International Film Festival ‘Movies that Matter’. It is a documentary made by a Norwegian filmmaker, Beate Arnestad in 2010 (SF Norge Produksjon AS). See:

<http://www.moviesthatmatterfestival.nl/english_index/programma_en/film_en/513>

2 One of the defence counsel for Nsengimana, Mr. David Hooper QC, was one of the participants of the debate. The other participants were Judge Sebutinde, one of the judges in the pending SCSL case of Charles Taylor, and Wayne Jordash, former counsel for Issa Sesay.

3

It appears, however, that Michelle Parlevliet who presided over the debate and asked this question had already answered it in an academic writing entitled M. Parlevliet, Considering Truth. Dealing with a Legacy of Gross Human Rights Violations, 16(2) Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 141 (1998). In this article, she held that the truth is not something that can be found but rather that needs to be constructed (at 172).

(8)

acquitted on 17 November 2009.4 Judge Møse, the presiding judge in this case and former President of the ICTR, gave the following answer to the question of whether a truth could be found in an international court of law: “That is a bit of a philosophical quandary. The question we as judges seek to answer is whether the guilt of an accused before us has been proved beyond a reasonable doubt”. In this case, Judge Møse and two fellow judges considered that Nsengimana’s guilt had not been established beyond reasonable doubt. Had the truth been found? That appeared to be a more

difficult question to answer.5

Deficiencies in fact-finding in international criminal justice

Second, in June 2010, Nancy Combs published a book “Fact-finding Without Facts”6

with shocking results. It places doubt whether establishing accurate facts in international justice is possible. With ample examples of deficiencies in witness testimonies in the ICTR, SCSL and East Timor Special Panel, Combs concludes that there are insurmountable problems in establishing facts in conflict zones particularly in Africa and other non-Western countries where documentary evidence is sparse.

The problems she addresses are, inter alia, (i) the problem of interpretation both in

the taking of statements and in court testimony; (ii) cultural differences resulting in inaccurate answers; (iii) the inability particularly of uneducated witnesses to read

maps and measure distances; and, (iv) perjury.7

Combs argues that some improvement can be made by increasing the budget for translation, number of site visits, and prosecutions of perjurers, as well as increasing investigation standards. She also suggests that improvement can be achieved by

allowing judges greater control over the questioning of witnesses.8

4

Prosecutor v. Nsengimana, T. Ch. I. Judgement, ICTR-01-69-T, 17 November 2009.

She concludes, however, that many of these problems cannot be resolved and clearly impede on the ability to ascertain accurate facts in international justice. She believes that most of the

5

Judge Sebutinde did not seem to think so. She made the observation that, in reaching their conclusion, the judges had focused too much on contradictions between the in-court testimony of the witnesses and their prior statements, which were not taken under oath and should therefore, in her view, be given very limited weight. David Hooper, on the other hand, responded by saying that the contradictions were so significant that they could not be the result of mistakes but indicated that the witnesses did not tell the truth.

6 N. Combs, Fact-Finding Without Facts, The Uncertain Evidentiary Foundations of International Criminal Convictions (Cambridge University Press, 2010).

7Ibid, in particular Chapters 1-5. 8Ibid, 273-321.

(9)

defendants are guilty but that their guilt cannot be established beyond reasonable doubt in an international court of law. She argues that an unjustified acquittal in international criminal justice is more costly than in domestic trials, while an unjustified conviction is less costly than in domestic trials. Combs bases her argument on the fact that international trials are extremely expensive and the financers are likely to be less willing to pay the costs if a large number of the trials end in acquittals. She also highlights that acquittals are regularly followed by public outrage, particularly of

the victims who suffered unspeakable atrocities.9

In light of the foregoing, Combs offers two solutions in addition to improving fact-finding accuracy: (1) to apply a flexible standard of proof permitting a lower level of

certainty, as appropriate in the circumstances;10 and (2) to charge more frequently

under the joint criminal enterprise mode of liability.11

Combs’ research is a valuable contribution to the literature because it is the first socio-legal research that has been conducted in the area of fact-finding in international justice. In reaching her conclusions, she read thousands of transcripts and interviewed many defence and prosecution counsel and investigators in the field of international justice.

However, her research and conclusions are highly controversial because they question the very essence of international criminal tribunals, which is equivalent to domestic criminal courts, namely the ability to establish accurate facts. Her research has been embraced by some, and criticised by others. Some of the criticism is valid, other less, as will be discussed in this thesis.

Defence counsel in international courts and tribunals generally support her views. In one case before the ICTR, as well as in a Rwandan genocide case in the Netherlands,

the defence unsuccessfully sought to introduce her book as expert evidence.12

9Ibid, 352-360.

On the other hand, Justice Doherty, one of the SCSL judges in the case of Charles Taylor, is

10Ibid, 343-364. 11

Ibid, 321-333.

12 Such a request was made in the ICTR case of Prosecutor v. Nzabonimana, ICTR-98-44D-T; and in the Dutch case of Yvonne Basebya.

(10)

highly critical of Combs’ book. She suggests that the difficulties Combs describes are not unique to fact-finding in international justice but also occur in domestic jurisdictions where practical solutions have to be found constantly to practical problems. Similarly, practical solutions must be found for practical problems in international criminal tribunals. In her view, it cannot be argued that accurate

fact-finding in international justice is impossible per se.13 Given that Combs did not

observe any of the proceedings personally but rather relied on transcripts, she was not

in a position to assess the demeanour of the witnesses.14

Combs’ book also provoked ample academic debate on the limitations of fact-finding in international justice and clearly warrants follow-up research. As Professor John Jackson has pointed out, some valid criticism can be made against Combs’ research and conclusions, but it should be acknowledged that she managed to do what many others failed to do. She went out and conducted socio-legal research concerning the practical realities of fact-finding in international justice. This is not an easy task.

Jackson encourages academics to continue the socio-legal work she started.15

This thesis seeks to take Jackson’s advice and to continue the debate ignited by Combs’ socio-legal research with a touch of Parlevliet’s philosophical approach to the ascertainment of the truth. It examines the difficulties in ascertaining the truth in international criminal tribunals. The central question of this thesis is whether international criminal courts and tribunals constitute effective truth-searching institutions. If not, what improvements can be made to achieve this goal, if, indeed it is possible?

Aim of this Research

The aim of this research is not to review the black letter law adopted and applied by international criminal tribunals, but rather to review the implementation of the legal principles in practice. It is a socio-legal research project focusing on the practice of the tribunals, discussing socio-legal, institutional and political issues relating to the

13 Observations of the Honourable Justice Teresa Doherty, key speaker at A Socio-Legal Approach to Evidence in International Criminal Tribunals, Conference held at the University College of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland, 19 November 2011 (“the Dublin Conference”).

14Ibid.

(11)

ascertainment of the truth in international criminal justice. It examines the gaps between the theory and practice of ascertaining the truth in international tribunals. It then explores what improvements can be made to fill these gaps.

This research consists of four parts.

Structure of this Research

Part I

Part I analyses theoretical concepts with the aim to define the theoretical framework within which the practical issues will be discussed. It looks at the aspirations and expectations of the ascertainment of the truth in international justice, as well as the limitations of what can be achieved. It also discusses the extent to which the ascertainment of the truth is an objective of international justice, and how this objective relates to other objectives of international justice.

It explores what is actually meant by ascertaining the truth within the context of the function and perceived mandate of international trials. In this regard, it analyses whether the ascertainment of the truth corresponds with the reasonable doubt standard or whether it is subsumed within the more general restorative aims. It further examines the theoretical difficulties to achieve it as well as its scope. The principal question of whether these international criminal justice systems are effective as truth-ascertaining institutions can only be meaningfully discussed after these factors are addressed. In so doing, Part I analyses and compares the meaning and scope of the ascertainment of the truth in civil law and common law criminal justice systems.

Part I then establishes minimum conditions international courts and tribunals should meet to provide an adequate theoretical possibility of ascertaining the truth.

Part II

Part II examines the method chosen to ascertain the truth and whether it, at least in theory, has all the ingredients to succeed in this endeavour. It assesses to what extent these procedures comply with the minimum condition set out in Part I. It also

(12)

identifies the procedural aspects which are potentially problematic in the ascertainment of the truth.

Part II will provide a brief overview of two types of methodologies – civil law and common law. Mainly these methodologies have influenced the procedure which is now adopted and applied in international criminal courts and tribunals.

It then analyses whether the combining of these two types of procedures into the emerging international methodology has led to a thoroughly adequate structure of international truth ascertainment. It will address the concern frequently raised that mixing bits and pieces of fundamentally different systems with their own distinct legal philosophies may create a deformed system.

It further evaluates to what extent the emerging international truth-ascertaining methodology, essentially based on Western criminal justice methodologies, can in theory be implemented effectively in non-Western countries with potentially different views on truth and justice.

Part III

In Part III, the efficiency of international criminal justice systems as truth-searching forums is tested by considering whether the minimum conditions, as set out in Part I, are met. This part determines how well the international tribunals and courts have done so far in implementing the theoretical task of ascertaining the truth.

Part III examines the truth-searching practice in three international criminal tribunals and court: the ICTR, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). It explores the roles of the parties, participants and judges in ascertaining the truth, the obstacles they face in doing so and the response which was given, if any, to accommodate these difficulties. Particular attention is paid to the procedural aspects which have been identified in Part II as potentially problematic in ascertaining the truth.

Part III discusses the following subjects:

(13)

• Victims and Witnesses;

• Admissibility and evaluation of the evidence.

Part IV

From the analysis in Parts I to III, conclusions are drawn regarding the adequacy in practice of the ascertainment of the truth in the ICTR, ICTY and ICC. To the extent necessary, suggestions for improvement are made.

Part I

Method and Scope of this Research

Part I discusses theory rather than practice. In exploring the theoretical concepts that are later tested in practice, Part I principally relies on academic sources. It has particularly been inspired by the aforementioned debate on the ascertainment of the truth, as well as a number of scholarly works including Michelle Parlevliet’s academic article on ‘Considering Truth: Dealing with a Legacy of Gross Human

Rights Violations’.16 Other influential authors exploring the definition of the

ascertainment of the truth and conditions necessary to ascertain the truth efficiently

and fairly include Rorty,17 Koskenniemi,18 and David Becker.19

The theories of Richard Ashby Wilson,20 Hannah Arendt21 and various other

observers22 are referred to in discussing the extent to which courts should get

involved in establishing historical facts. To this effect, the views of practitioners in international justice are also discussed.

16

Parlevliet, Considering Truth, supra note 3.

17 R. Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge University Press, 1989), 48; R. Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth. Philosophical Papers Vol. I (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 21-45; Parlevliet, Considering Truth, supra note 3,6.

18

M. Koskenniemi, Between Impunity and Show Trials, 6 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law 1 (2002).

19 D. Becker, Confronting the truth of the Erinyes: The illusion of Harmony in the Healing of Trauma, in T. Borer (Ed), Telling the Truths: Truth Telling and Peace Building in Post-Conflict Societies, (University of Notre Dame Press, 2006) 231; at 232 he refers to ‘belief rather than scientific proof’, and 242-243.

20 R. Wilson, Judging History: The Historical Record of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 27 Human Rights Quarterly 908 (2005), 908-942.

21

H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem, A Report on the Banality of Evil (Penguin Books, 1994) (first published in the US by the Viking Press 1963).

(14)

Part I further gives due consideration to the manner in which Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRCs) have interpreted their mandate to establish the truth and how they deal with difficulties in meeting this mandate. This is considered essential because TRCs and international criminal courts and tribunals are established in similar circumstances with similar objectives albeit with different types of truth-ascertaining methodologies.

The scope of the analysis of TRCs is limited. The analysis does not discuss practical examples – save for a number of limited references – but focuses on theory. The discussion is primarily aimed at explaining the common objectives of TRCs and international criminal justice. It points out the limits of any mechanism in meeting those objectives and emphasises the difficulties of meeting them all at once in the same procedure. The TRC experience demonstrates that the achievement of these objectives can be frustrated by seeking to over-achieve as, in particular situations, these objectives may be in conflict with each other.

Part I also discusses opinions expressed at conferences or in personal interviews by various participants from NGOs or international criminal courts and tribunals. Inclusion of such opinions is necessary to analyse the general perceptions of what the functions of international criminal courts and tribunals are, or should be.

Part II

Part II provides a comparative analysis of common law and civil law criminal justice systems. The discussion of civil law jurisdictions is based mainly on the Dutch, French and German criminal justice systems with occasional references to the Italian, Russian and Belgian systems. Whilst this clearly does not give the overall picture of all civil law systems, it offers a global picture of the common features among these various systems. The discussion of common law jurisdictions is based mainly on the criminal justice system of the United Kingdom (UK), the birth country of common law. It does not discuss other common law jurisdictions in great detail.

A classification of domestic systems as common law or civil law systems requires significant generalisations, omissions of important details and oversimplification of legal complexities. This is all the more so in light of the fact that the analysis is

(15)

limited to a number of jurisdictions only. Each jurisdiction has features unique to its own and could form the subject of an entire thesis. In addition, there are debates on whether the legal systems can and should still be classified as common law or civil law systems.

Domestic systems continue to evolve. Given the massive expansion of international relations over the last fifty years, the evolution of domestic systems is a process that is heavily influenced by cross-border developments. The European Court of Human Rights, the European Union and international treaties have had significant influence on European criminal justice systems and led to convergence between the UK

common law and continental civil law criminal justice systems.23 Simultaneously,

such European developments influencing the UK system may widen the gaps between the UK and non-European common law criminal justice systems. In light of such developments, Richard Frase argues that “the value of global models may become increasingly limited; the growing complexity and hybridisation of modern criminal justice systems tend to undercut the simplicity needed for models to serve their

descriptive, explanatory, predictive and normative functions.”24

The impact of international developments on domestic jurisdictions and whether they should be re-classified as a result, or not classified at all, is a thesis on its own. This is, however, beyond the scope of this research. A more in depth analysis of the comparative framework of common law versus civil law and the extent to which it is still applicable is given by distinct comparative criminal law scholars like Professor Hans Nijboer, Professor Mireille Delmas-Marty, and Professor Mirjan Damaška. Their deep and challenging thinking has greatly inspired this thesis.

23

M. Delmas-Marty, The ‘Hybridisation’ of Criminal Procedure, in J. Jackson, M. Langer & P. Tillers (Eds.), Crime, Procedure and Evidence and International Context, Essays in honour of Professor Mirjan Damaška, (Hart Publishing, 2008) 251, at 253; M. Delmas-Marty, Procédure Pénale d’Europe (Dalloz, 1995); C. Brants & S. Field, Convergence in European Criminal Justice, in E. Hondius, De meerwaarde van de rechtsvergelijking.Opstellen aangeboden aan prof. mr H.U. Jessurun d’Oliveira, Nederlandse Vereniging voor Rechtsvergelijking, (Deventer: Kluwer, 1999), 179-180; B. Swart & J. Young, The European Convention on Human Rights and Criminal Justice in the Netherlands and the UK, in P Fennell, C Harding, N Jorg & B Swart (Eds.) Criminal Justice in Europe: A Comparative Study (Clarendon Press, 1995).

24 R. Frase, Sentencing and Comparative Law Theory, in Jackson, Crime, Procedure and Evidence, supra note 23, 351, at 369.

(16)

The following question comes to mind: why does this thesis rely on a comparative framework whose usefulness is disputed?

Most scholars still use this comparative framework, particularly in discussing

elements of international criminal justice.25 Even if such a classification is no longer

justified, it is still used in international criminal justice. The scope and word limit of this thesis do not permit inclusion of an analysis of Chinese, Sharia or other law which has little in common with either common law or civil law. The influence of any such laws on international criminal justice is extremely limited, even if debatably they should have more impact.

Comparative research can only be done properly within a well-defined framework. Being fully cognisant of the disparities among individual criminal justice systems labelled as the same ‘ideal type’ criminal justice system, Damaška has nonetheless stressed the importance of ‘comparative modelling’. The complex legal world cannot be understood “without constructing analytical models through which to organise and

interpret the empirical data which bombard our senses.”26

While Paul Roberts defends the continuing relevance and importance of conceptual analysis and modelling in comparative law, he highlights that “constructing ideal-typical models should be a starting point, rather than the ultimate destination, of

comparative legal analysis.”27 Indeed, domestic jurisdictions are not “blueprints of

procedural ideas”.28

With that in mind, Part II of this thesis will explore what influence, if any, the two ideal type methodologies have had on international criminal courts and tribunals. Where necessary, a number of

25

See, for instance, P. Murphy & L. Baddour, International Criminal Law and Common Law Rules of Evidence and V. Tochilovsky, The Nature and Evolution of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, in Khan, Principles of Evidence, in K. Khan, C. Buisman & C. Gosnell (Eds.), Principles of Evidence in International Criminal Justice (Oxford University Press, 2010). See also P. De Hert, Legal Procedures at the International Criminal Court in R. Haveman, O. Kavran & J. Nicholls (Eds.), Supranational Criminal Law: a System Sui Generis (Intersentia, 2003) 79, 93–94.

26

P. Roberts, Faces of Justice Adrift? Damaška’s Comparative Method and the Future of Common Law Evidence, in Jackson, Crime, Procedure and Evidence, supra note 23, at 300, citing Damaška’s reference to Weber.

27Ibid, 325. 28

J. Jackson & M. Langer, Introduction: Damaška and Comparative Law, in Jackson, Crime, Procedure and Evidence, supra note 23, at 7-8; M. Damaška, The Faces of Justice and State Authority: A Comparative Approach to the Legal Process (Yale University Press, 1986).

(17)

superficial descriptions, in particular of civil law criminal justice systems, will be corrected. International criminal justice systems frequently refer to ‘common law’ or ‘civil law’ without being more specific. They have relied over the years on generalised assumptions about common law or civil law to justify legal interpretations and modifications.29 These will be addressed.

Common law jurisdictions are also referred to as ‘Anglo-American’, ‘adversarial’, ‘adversary’ and ‘accusatorial’ systems; and civil law jurisdictions as ‘continental

European’, ‘inquisitorial’ or ‘non-adversary’ systems.30 This thesis refers to common

law and civil law criminal justice systems only. This is done for simplicity reasons, but also because the terms ‘common law’ and ‘civil law’ are most value-neutral. To refer to these two legal families as ‘Anglo-American’ and ‘continental European’ would not do justice to the many other jurisdictions falling under the common law and civil law nominators. To refer to them as ‘inquisitorial’ and ‘accusatorial’ or ‘adversarial’ would not describe the systems accurately as both ideal types are accusatorial in the sense of the prosecutor charging the defendant. Also, both have adversarial proceedings. Civil law criminal proceedings have their roots in inquisitorial proceedings, but have over the years incorporated many adversarial features.

Accordingly, Damaška considers it unfair to continue to brand these systems as

‘inquisitorial’.31 He argues that the traditional classification of criminal legal systems

in ‘inquisitorial’ versus ‘accusatorial’ or ‘adversarial’ “does not afford a suitable conceptual framework within which to study the contrasts between modern

continental and Anglo-American criminal processes”.32 Instead, Damaška proposes to

use the terms ‘adversary’ for common law systems versus ‘non-adversary’ for civil

law systems.33

29 See, for instance Prosecutor v.Tadić, T. Ch. II. Decision on defence motion on hearsay, IT-94-1-T, August 1996, para. 13.

However, even these terms no longer adequately reflect the ideal-type

30

Damaška has qualified the two different families as adversary versus non-adversary systems. See M. Damaška, Evidentiary Barriers to Conviction and Two Models of Criminal Procedure: A Comparative Study, 121 UPennLRev 506 (1972–73), 562.

31

Ibid, 560-562. 32Ibid, 555.

33 In earlier days, Damaška distinguished three types of criminal procedures: adversarial, inquisitorial, and reformed inquisitorial criminal procedures. As inquisitorial type procedures are now all increasingly adversarial, at least in parts, the differences between inquisitorial and reformed inquisitorial type criminal proceedings have diminished. See Damaška, Evidentiary Barriers, supra note 30, 562.

(18)

systems. As will be discussed in this thesis, the ‘non-adversary’ systems have become more ‘adversary’.

Part III

Part III is in part a follow-up of Nancy Combs’ research on international fact-finding realities and discusses her findings and conclusions. Having carefully scrutinised Combs’ book on fact-finding without facts, it has become clear to me that there is still ample room for further research in this area. Indeed, as Combs herself recognises in her book, her research “is preliminary and […] much more needs to be done both to

quantify [her] findings and to understand their impact”.34

This thesis is complementary to Combs’ research since it focuses primarily on the ICC, a court Combs has not discussed in her book. The ICC could not have been part of her research as it had barely begun. Even today, there are no verdicts yet. However, a number of confirmation decisions have been rendered. These may reveal whether the ICC judges apply a rigorous standard of proof or simply accept the prosecution’s allegations on face value without thoroughly scrutinising the supporting evidence. Even without verdicts, a number of conclusions can already be drawn on the basis of the ongoing proceedings, the investigations that have been conducted thus far and the procedural decisions issued by different Pre-Trial and Trial Chambers. In addition, while ICTY and ICTR will soon close down, the ICC represents the future. The ICC will continue to ascertain the truth, likely facing fact-finding difficulties resembling those experienced by the ICTY and ICTR. This is precisely why this research principally examines the ICC proceedings.

In so doing, it analyses the truth-ascertaining obstacles that have occurred in the ICTY and ICTR. Combs does not include the ICTY in her analysis. The ICTY is ascertaining facts relating to a European rather than a non-Western conflict and deals with Western witnesses. Combs therefore assumes that the ICTY is not faced with the same number of fact-finding impediments as she has identified in the ICTR, SCSL and East Timor Special Panels. In addition, until now, the ICC is dealing exclusively with African situations. Accordingly, Combs asserts that it is likely that the ICC will

(19)

face similar fact-finding problems to those experienced by the ICTR, SCSL and East Timor Panels, even if the ICTY is not as problematic. These are her reasons for

leaving the ICTY out of her research.35 She has been criticised for failing to include

the ICTY, which according to Professor Paul Roberts renders her research flawed.36

This thesis reviews the assumption that the ICTY is not affected by fact-finding impediments in the same fashion as the ICTR, SCSL and East Timor Special Panels. Accordingly, it compares the fact-finding practice of the ICTR with that of the ICTY and determines whether they differ greatly. It is to be expected that the ICC will not continue to deal exclusively with African conflicts but may at some point deal with a conflict zone in a Western sector. Accordingly, the realities of ascertaining the truth in the ICTY and ICTR are both relevant to the ongoing ascertainment of the truth in the ICC.

Combs has already extensively discussed the practice of the ICTR. However, it is still worthwhile discussing this practice as part of this thesis because significant judgments (Government I and II, Bagosora & Nsengiyumva Appeal Judgment, Military II) have been passed since she wrote her book. These may alter her conclusions. This project includes an analysis of these recent judgments with the aim to determine whether there has been any change of approach to ascertaining the truth over the course of time.

Contrary to Combs’ book, this research does not refer to fact-finding, but rather to the ascertainment of, or search for the truth. Conceptually, ascertaining the truth differs from ascertaining the facts as becomes clear in Part I. In addition, this research refrains from using the terms ‘fact-finding’ or ‘truth-finding’ notwithstanding that

these are commonly accepted terms used frequently by scholars.37

35Ibid, 5.

Former judge in the United States and critical legal philosopher, Jerome Frank, points out that “finding facts” is a misleading term. In his view, facts “found” in the court are not ready-made “data” waiting somewhere to be found by the court. Frank argues that it is more

36 Observations of Professor Paul Roberts, one of the speakers at the Dublin Conference, supra note 13. 37 For instance H. Friman, The International Criminal Court and Participation of Victims: A Third Party to the Proceedings?, 22 Leiden Journal of International Law 485 (2009) 485-500; W. Schomburg, Truth-Finding in the International Courtroom: The ad-hoc Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR), Lecture Outline, Utrecht 29 March 2008.

(20)

appropriate to say that the court creates the facts on the basis of its subjective

perceptions of the witnesses’ stories.38 The same reasoning applies to the truth. As is

discussed in Part I, it queries whether the truth can be found or whether it must be constructed. Accordingly, the terms ‘truth-finding’ and ‘fact-finding’ are avoided in this thesis.

In discussing the obstacles to ascertaining the truth in international criminal justice, I rely on my extensive (over a decade) personal experience and observation in conducting investigations in war-affected areas as well as employment at various international criminal courts and tribunals. Having interned for the ICTY Office of the Prosecutor and participated in the defence of several accused before the ICTR, ICTY, SCSL and ICC, I observed on a daily basis in the courtroom as well as the field, everyone’s struggle to ascertain the factual allegations accurately and efficiently. I conducted investigations in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Kenya and Kosovo with the aim to collect evidence and interview potential witnesses.

While being there, I also conducted interviews with members of the local communities concerning their expectations of international justice and their perspectives on the truth regarding the conflict through which they had lived.

In and outside Rwanda, I have spoken to at least 200 Rwandan male and female adults of both ethnic groups (although more Hutu than Tutsi) about their perceptions on ICTR justice. In the DRC, I have had similar discussions on ICC justice with at least 100 Congolese of various ethnic groups including Hema, Ngiti and Nande. The interviewees were predominantly men in their twenties or older. I also spoke to about 15 prisoners in DRC and Rwanda.

In Kosovo, I have spoken to approximately 25 male Kosovar Albanians about ICTY justice. Women were less forward in DRC and Kosovo. In addition, I have spoken to ICTY colleagues from the former Yugoslavia mainly of Serb ethnicity. These discussions were mostly informal conducted in French, Swahili or English. In

38 J. Frank, Courts on Trial, Myth and Reality in American Justice (Princeton University Press, 1973) 23-24.

(21)

Kosovo, I relied on a translator. The people I interviewed were aware of my role in defence, which may have affected their answers. It is possible that their answers would have been different had I worked for the Prosecution, or had no affiliation with international justice. This is, of course, a problem that any socio-legal researcher, or investigator is facing.

Part III is therefore largely based on primary sources and inspired by my personal experiences in the field and in international courtrooms. My discussions are also based on the experience of other practitioners in international criminal justice.

In addition, I have reviewed all ICTY and ICTR Appeals and Trial Judgments through to the end of 2011. I have also reviewed all ICC Confirmation Decisions until 23 January 2012. Where necessary, I have studied the transcripts to review the testimonies of witnesses or legal debates. I have also examined many motions, briefs and decisions. In doing so, I have drawn a number of conclusions concerning the accuracy and efficiency of the ascertainment of the facts. The review of the case law was particularly important for writing the chapter on the evaluation of the evidence.

Any socio-legal researcher seeking to assess the credibility of witnesses or the reliability of their testimonies by reading the transcripts is faced with significant limitations. Unless a researcher has witnessed the testimony of a witness in court, it is difficult to make an assessment of the weight it should be given. A researcher attempting to do so essentially wears the hat of a judge without having had the

opportunity of observing the witnesses.39

Combs has, however, demonstrated that significant inferences can be drawn from the transcripts and detailed judgments rendered by the Trial and Appeals Chambers. For instance, the coherence and consistency in approach can be assessed. In cases where previous written witness statements are accessible to the public, it is possible to

compare these statements with the witnesses’ viva voce testimonies and consider

whether they contradict each other. Regrettably, large parts of the transcripts and

39

At the Dublin Conference, supra note 13, Justice Doherty expressed criticism of Nancy Combs for drawing conclusions on the basis of the transcripts without having observed the live testimonies on which the conclusions were based.

(22)

witness statements are confidential and thus not accessible to the public.

In conducting this research, I have faced such limitations, save in the ICTR case of Bagosora et al and the ICTY cases of Kupreskic et al, Limaj et al and Haraqija where I was a direct observer. I was, however, a party to the proceedings, and may thus be perceived as partial. In addition, I cannot make use of confidential material to which I have been privy.

This research, therefore, limits itself to making observations on how the judges go about evaluating the evidence without drawing conclusions on whether it was fair to convict or acquit an accused in a particular case. This research is confined to analysing the quality of the evidence produced by the parties, the Chambers’ approach to certain categories of witnesses, whether defence and prosecution witnesses are treated in the same fashion, whether Chambers have been consistent, and whether there has been a change in approach over time.

As a complement to the research of primary sources and jurisprudence, this thesis is based on academic literature and addresses the scholarly debate that has arisen in relation to the practical realities of the ascertainment of the truth in international courts and tribunals.

PART IV

Part IV draws conclusions on the basis of the research in previous parts.

As Clark rightly observed, in conducting empirical research relating to international criminal justice, “self-reflection and recognition that our own “aspirations are often

taken for empirical facts” are (…) important components of impact assessment.40

Therefore, I am not offering conclusive answers, but rather material to ponder.

40

J. Clark, Transitional Justice, Truth and Reconciliation: An Under-Explored Relationship, 11 International Criminal Law Review 241 (2011).

(23)

PART I

MEANING AND SCOPE OF

ASCERTAINMENT OF THE TRUTH

(24)

International criminal justice systems are set up in post conflict situations, or sometimes even during an ongoing conflict. They are often established in respect to States in transition where domestic criminal justice may be inadequate due to a variety of factors: massive scale of atrocities committed in the course of the conflict, the collapse of the domestic legal infrastructure, and/or its inability to conduct trials in a neutral and fair fashion. When a conflict is still fresh, the applicable domestic legal system is often unwilling or unable to address past atrocities.

Identified Objectives of International Criminal Courts and Tribunals

41

Indeed, the climate in a post-conflict society is often politicized with many unhealed wounds. A domestic judicial system in this context may not be suited to deliver

impartial justice.42 Post-conflict societies have a plethora of problems and require a

significant transitional period to rebuild. This rebuilding is not limited to physical infrastructure but also includes psychological rebuilding necessary to deal with communal trauma. It is during this period that international criminal justice systems

step in to offer a helping hand and deliver ‘transitional justice’.43 Whilst the ICTY

and ICTR can enter in even in situations where the domestic State itself is willing to deal with criminal investigations and prosecutions, the ICC only has jurisdiction where a domestic State is unable or unwilling to initiate genuine criminal

investigations.44

41 J. Llewellyn, Restorative Justice in Transitions and Beyond, The Justice Potential of Truth-Telling Mechanisms for Post-Peace Accord Societies, in Borer, Telling the Truths, supra note 40, 90. See also M. Latimer, Enforcing Human Rights Through International Criminal Law, in M. Lattimer & P. Sands, Justice for Crimes Against Humanity (Hart Publishing, 2003) 387, 394-400, describing the difficulties and challenges faced by post-conflict societies.

42 Wilson, Judging History, supra note 20, 919: According to Wilson, post-conflict governments often “selectively filter the past to invent a new official history and to construct a new vision of the nation. These regimes manufacture legitimacy internally to defuse and delegitimate political opponents, and externally to assert the government’s human rights credentials to the international community. They attempt to create a new shared ‘collective memory’.”; Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem, supra note 21, 270-272. See also S. Cohen, State Crimes of Previous Regimes: Knowledge, Accountability, and the Policing of the Past, 20(1) Law and Social Inquiry 7 (1995), 18, 14-15. See also Burying Myths, Uncovering Truth, The Economist, 12 March 2010, available at <http://www.other-news.info/2010/03/burying-myths-uncovering-truth/#more-3311>, last accessed December 2011. 43 Transitional justice has been described as “the task of doing justice in the time period following the end of a conflict or repressive rule, during which a new peaceful, stable and democratic society is being established.” (see: Jennifer J. Llewellyn, supra note 41, in Borer, Telling the Truths, supra note 40, 83) Transitional justice can be rendered by international or domestic criminal courts, commissions of inquiry, referred to as Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (“TRCs”), or other mechanisms allowing redress for victims. See further Koskenniemi, Between Impunity and Show Trials, supra note 18, 9-12. 44 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 2187 UNTS 3, Art. 17(1)(a). The question as to whether the ability to conduct trials requires the ability to do so fairly must still be answered in light

(25)

International criminal courts are set up principally with the purpose of prosecuting and, if found guilty, punishing those responsible for the commission of serious

violations of international humanitarian law.45 This is considered necessary to pay

tribute to the victims and to end impunity for such crimes with the aim to deter potential future perpetrators from doing the same. Bassiouni pointed out that these crimes are so serious that they affect mankind as a whole and the only way to work towards prevention of their recurrence is to send out a clear message to future

dictators that they will have to answer for their deeds.46

The ICC has explicitly acknowledged the right to justice for victims, which was defined as follows: “victims’ interests in the identification, prosecution and punishment of those who have victimized them by preventing their impunity. When the right to justice is to be satisfied through criminal proceedings, victims have a central interest in the outcome of such proceedings leading to the identification, prosecution and punishment of those who have victimised them. Accordingly, victims have a personal and core interest in the determination of guilt or innocence of the

persons charged.”47

of the Prosecutor’s invitation to the Libyan highest authorities to challenge the admissibility of the case of Saif Gaddafi before the ICC. See: Situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in the Case of the Prosecutor v.Saif Al Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah al Senussi, Public Prosecution’s Submissions on the Prosecutor’s recent trip to Libya, ICC-01/11-01/11-31, 25 November 2011.

45 UN Doc. S/RES/808, 22 February 1993 (Resolution establishing the ICTY); UN Doc. S/RES/955, 8 November 1994 (Resolution establishing the ICTR); Preamble of the Rome Statute, supra note 44. 46 M. Cherif Bassiouni, Searching for Peace and Achieving Justice: The Need for Accountability, 59(4) Law and Contemporary Problems 9 (1996), 9-28; M. Cherif Bassiouni, International Crimes: Jus Cogens and Obligatio Erga Omnes, 59(4) Law & Contemp. Probs. 63 (1996), 63-74. See also Karl Jaspers who suggested this already in 1963, in ‘Lebensfragen der deutschen Politik’, referred to by Arendt in Eichmann in Jerusalem, supra note 21, 269-270. See further M. Drumbl, Atrocity, Punishment and International Law, (Cambridge University Press, 2007), 60-63; On identifying retribution and deterrence as the main purposes of international criminal justice, see R. Amoussouga, ICTR Spokesperson, Strong Message to Africa’s Leaders and Warlords, ICTR Newsletter, March 2008, available at <http://69.94.11.53/English/newsletter/mar08/mar08.pdf>, last accessed 2008. 47

Prosecutor v. Katanga & Ngudjolo, P. T. Ch. Public Urgent Decision on the Set of Procedural Rights Attached to Procedural Status of Victim at the Pre-Trial Stage of the Case, ICC-01/04-01/07-474, 13 May 2008, paras. 39-42, footnote 102; Prosecutor v. Katanga & Ngudjolo, Confirmation of Charges Hearing - Open Session, Opening Statement by Mr. Gilissen, ICC-01/04-01/07-T-38-ENG ET, page 45, lines 8-13 (“With the Court and the participants, we contribute – and I believe this firmly – we represent hope, the hope for justice, the hope in justice. You can believe me, on the ground there is a burning thirst for justice. They need justice, which is necessary, because the justice that they wish for is one of the conditions for the return to real peace on the ground”). See also the opening statement of Ms. Bapita, another victim representative, at page 52 lines 1-7: “The victims want you to know that they are thirsting for justice. This is the first time that they can speak out. Five years later, can you imagine what they have had to deal with over the last five years, how they crave for justice? And to

(26)

The prosecution of the perpetrators of serious violations of international humanitarian law is further believed to be necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security. In respect of the ICTR and ICTY, the Security Council used its powers under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, to adopt military and non-military measures deemed appropriate to maintain or restore international peace and

security.48

These objectives correspond with the ICTY’s First Annual Report, which notes that the mandate of the Tribunal is “to do justice, to deter further crimes and to contribute

to the restoration and the maintenance of peace”.49 Similarly, the Humanitarian Law

Centre and other human rights organisations in the former Yugoslavia embraced the establishment of the ICTY because it constituted an effort to resist the culture of impunity in the former Yugoslavia, as well as stop the violence by fighting this

impunity.50

The ICTR Resolution refers to an additional objective, namely, its contribution to the

process of national reconciliation.51

that end, they hope that at the wake of this hearing the charges against these suspects will be confirmed. They also that they will not be victimised anew, be it by individuals or by institutions.”

The ICTY Resolution, on the other hand, does not

48 It can do so by virtue of Art. 39 of Chapter VII of the 1945 Charter of the United Nations, 892 UNTS 119, which provides that:

“The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security.”

49

M. Cherif Bassiouni, Crimes against humanity in International Criminal Law, ed. Kluwer Law International (The Hague/London/Boston, 1999 2nd ed), page 236. This corresponds with the view expressed by Mr. Joinet in the ICTY contempt case against Florence Hartmann, holding that one of the purposes of international criminal justice is to set an example in order to prevent persons in the future from committing massive human rights violations. See Prosecutor v. Hartmann, IT-02-54-R77.5-T, T. 16 June 2009, page 288.

50Prosecutor v. Hartmann, IT-02-54-R77.5-T, T. 17 June 2009, pages 383-384 (per Ms Kandic). See also Michael Mansfield who cited Martin Luther King’s famous phrase “There can be no peace without Justice” in the context of the bloody Sunday inquiry. See: Expensive, but justice must be done, Article published in The Independent, 13 June 2010.

51 UN Doc. S/RES/955, 8 November 1994. Concerns have been expressed about these objectives. They make no reference to principles of due process, which, according to Howard Morisson, former defence attorney at the ICTY and ICTR, suggests that the political agenda at the time of drafting did not prioritise defence issues. See H. Morrison, International Criminal Tribunals,Counsel, June 2001, 14-17, at 14. See also, L. Hammond, Professor, University of Texas, statement before the United States House of Representatives International Relations Committee, 28 February 2002, expressing concern about the objective to restore peace: “From the beginning ... the ICTY was established to carry out a specific political purpose: to restore peace. ... There may be nothing wrong with this purpose, but it is not one that should guide a court that exists to assure just trials. There is no hint of any presumption of

(27)

explicitly refer to reconciliation as an objective,52 but a number of judgments have nonetheless referred to such an objective. For instance, in Deronjic, the Chamber held that “[t]ruth and justice should also foster a sense of reconciliation between different

ethnic groups within the countries … of the former Yugoslavia”.53 In Erdemovic, the

Trial Chamber stated that efforts to end impunity ‘would contribute to appeasement and give the chance to the people who were solely afflicted to mourn those among

them who had been unjustly killed.’54

Similar objectives are set out in the Preamble of the Rome Statute, stating that, “during this century millions of children, women and men have been victims of unimaginable atrocities that deeply shock the conscience of humanity”. Such grave crimes “threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world” and concern the international community as a whole “and must not go unpunished”. Their “effective prosecution must be ensured … to put an end to impunity for the perpetrators of these

crimes and thus to contribute to the prevention of such crimes”.55

There is no explicit reference to reconciliation. However, it is regularly suggested that “peace, security and well-being of the world” can only be achieved if former

opponents are reconciled in a new stable order.56

The ICC recognises an additional objective of international criminal justice, that is, to give a voice to victims through participation in the proceedings and offer them a

innocence, or of the possibility that persons brought before the Tribunal might not be “responsible for serious violations” of law.... [T]here exists an always present pressure to gain convictions.”

52 UN Doc. S/RES/808, 22 February 1993. 53Prosecutor v. Deronjić

, T. Ch. Judgment on sentence, IT-02-61-T, 30 March 2004, para. 133.

54 Sentencing Judgment, IT-96-22-T, 29 November 1996, para. 65. See also J. Temminck Tuinstra, Defence Counsel in International Criminal Law (T.M.C. Asser Press, 2009), footnote 141, where question marks are raised about the goal of retribution at the ICTR.

55

Preamble of the Rome Statute, supra note 44; text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by procès-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002. See also R. Goldstone & N. Fritz, In the Interests of Justice” and Independent Referral: The ICC Prosecutor’s Unprecedented Powers, 13 Leiden Journal of International Law 655 (2000), 656. See also: Jugde Kirsch, who is optimistic about preventive function of ICC at: http://wwwold.icc-cpi.int/library/about/newsletter/16/en_01.html

56 J. Bolton, The Global Prosecutors: Hunting War Criminals in the name of Utopia, 78 Foreign Affairs 157 (1999), 657-658. See also S. de Gurmendi, The Role of the International Prosecutor, in R. Lee (Ed.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence (Transnational Publishers Inc., 2001) 175, at 181.

(28)

forum of redress for their losses.57 This function does not exist in the ICTY and ICTR where victims have a voice only if they testify. However, each of these international tribunals and court intend to offer victims a forum where they can tell their truth in an

officially sanctioned forum.58 This “truth-telling” function of international courtrooms

aims to “break their silence” and so instil in them “a sense of empowerment and

control”.59 Whilst the international tribunals and court were not established to serve as

therapeutic centres for victims, Doak argues that, to the extent possible, they should

“maximize their healing potential and minimise their harming potential”.60 Safferling,

on the other hand, is of the viewpoint that any healing objective would overstrain the

system and should, therefore, be dealt with by TRCs.61

In summary, the acknowledged primary purpose of international criminal justice is the punishment of alleged perpetrators of international humanitarian law with the additional aims to

(1) put an end to impunity;

(2) do justice to the victims and give them a voice, as well as a forum;

(3) deter any potential future perpetrators from doing the same;

(4) restore and maintain the international peace and security;

(5) reconcile former enemy fighters.

Achievability of the Identified Objectives

These objectives are both retributive and restorative in nature. They resemble the

57 I. Bonomy, The Reality of Conducting A War Crimes Trial, 5 Journal of International Criminal Justice 348 (2007), 4; Fiona McKay, Civil Reparation in National Courts for Victims of Human Rights Abuse, in Lattimer & Sands, Justice for Crimes Against Humanity, supra note 41, 283, at 285; L. Francis & J. Francis, International Criminal Courts, the Rule of Law, and the Prevention of Harm: Building Justice in Times of Injustice, in L. May & Z. Hoskins (Eds.), International Criminal Law and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2010) 58, 70-71.

58 P. Akhavan, Justice in The Hague, Peace in the Former Yugoslavia? A Commentary on the United Nations War Crimes Tribunal, 20 Human Rights Quarterly 737 (1998), 737-816.

59 M. Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History After Genocide and Mass Violence (Boston: Beacon Press 1998), 66; See also J. Doak, The Therapeutic Dimension of Transitional Justice: Emotional Repair and Victim Satisfaction in International Trials and Truth Commissions, 11 International Criminal Law Review 263 (2011), 270-271; See also, as Debra L. DeLaet put it, in light of the purpose of healing, “truth telling needs to be conceived as a process emphasizing the need of survivors to tell their stories, to be listened to, and to have their experiences validated, rather than as a means to an end in which the truth is primarily a product intended to serve as an authoritative record of atrocity or as a basis for punishing the guilty.”; D. DeLaet, Gender Justice, A Gendered Assessment of Truth-Telling Mechanisms, in Borer, Telling the Truths, supra note 40.

60 Doak, The Therapeutic Dimension of Transitional Justice, supra note 59, at 291.

61

C. Safferling, The Role of the Victim in the Criminal Process – A Paradigm Shift in National German and International Law? International Criminal Law Review 11 (2011) 183-215.

References

Related documents

This study examined the relationship between portfolio return volatility and the volatility of stock returns using wavelet analysis on the Tehran Stock Exchange The data for

Het totaal aantal uren is berekend na optelling van de drie onderdelen in minuten. Door afrondingen kan de optelling van de onderdelen in uren iets afwijken van het

Fathers’ propensity to take parental leave increased by 35 percentage points, and their average number of leave days taken increased by 8 (meaning an average increase of 23 work

Myomas that compress the uterine cavity with an intramural portion (submucous myoma type II) and submucous myomas significantly reduce pregnancy rates, and should be removed

This research investigates how consumer’s choice among three broad makes of passenger automobiles in Malaysia (Proton, Perodua, and foreign) is affected by

A judgment ordering the distribution of LERW’s assets to the County (This obviously includes whatever funds the Attorney General can collect for LERW as restitution from

ii. Cegah orang-orang yang tidak berkenaan dari memasuki kawasan bangunan tersebut. Mencari kakitangan yang hilang di kawasan Bangunan Perbendaharaan apabila mendapat arahan