J
Journal of Sport Management, 1987. 1. 93-1 15
Sport Management Curricula:
Current Status and Design
Implications
for
Future Development
Bonnie
L.
Parkhouse
California State University-Fullerton
The current status of undergraduate and graduate curricula in sport manage- ment was examined in 83 institutions identified as offering sport manage- ment programs in the United States (40 undergraduate, 32 graduate, and 11 programs at both levels). Since only two Canadian institutions responded to this inquiry, definitive conclusions could not be drawn about the current sta- tus of sport management in Canada. However, several observations about them are made on the basis of external data. The findings of this study clear- ly indicate that sport management cumcula varies markedly from one insti- tution to another. In most cases the institution claims to have a program in sport management per se, but in reality course offerings are not sufficient to warrant even a minor or concentration in this area. Implications of cur- rent practices in sport management are discussed, and recommendations for future development are presented.Sport is of major importance in American society. Although Super Bowl Sunday has been viewed as a media hype, it cannot be argued that it is also a secular celebration of the masses. It is to sports fans what Christmas and Easter are to the Christian faith. No other public event has so thoroughly focused the attention of Americans on the television screen. Such sporting events as the World Series have even preempted news coverage of major world crises. Sport demands its own section in newspapers and is often the political platform for defectors, terrorists, and dissidents. Sports talk is common in corporate boardroom negoti- ations and coffee-break conversation. Sport also provides an entree for athletes to enter politics or become entertainers or entrepreneurs.
This multibillion-dollar industry is also a business that places unique de- mands on its personnel. The job requires a myriad of management, marketing, communications, and legal skills applicable to the sport setting and specific to the increasingly complex and multifaceted areas it represents. Hence, a new breed
Direct all correspondence to Bonnie L. Parkhouse, Department of Health, Phys- ical Education and Recreation, California State University-Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92631.
of specialists has emerged from the sport arena. In addition to having specialized skills, the sport executive must be extremely dedicated because the nature of the industry is such that the workday typically extends into those evening and weekend "play hours" afforded most executives. While his or her counterparts in tradi- tional settings relax and watch the game, the sport executive is on the sidelines either promoting, producing, or managing this event.
An EvoZution in Sport Management
Although sport management is indeed a relatively new concept to academia, its acceptance as a legitimate area of study is well documented in the literature (Glea- son, 1986; Hardy, 1986; Parkhouse, 1984; Parkhouse & Ulrich, 1979; Parks & Quain, 1986; van der Srnissen, 1984). It is also the topic of numerous trade articles and several published textbooks as well as the title of a refereed research journal, and it has been featured in such popular publications as USA Today and
Time Magazine. Yet, in just over a decade since its conception, the destiny of
sport management is uncertain. Its credibility is in jeopardy since serious ques- tions have been raised about the quality of curricula in this area (Gleason, 1986; Hardy, 1986; Lynton, 1983; Parkhouse, 1984). Recently some empirical evi- dence has surfaced which, although not conclusive, challenges the effectiveness of existing programs in meeting job-related needs (Hager, 1984; Milewski & Bryant, 1985; Parks & Quain, 1986).
The current proliferation of curricular development in sport management appears to have contributed significantly to this problem. In 1978 a profile on 20 institutions offering graduate programs in sport management was published (Parkhouse, 1978). Since only two undergraduate programs existed at the time, they were not mentioned in the article. Six years later, 44 such programs "almost equally represented" among undergraduate and graduate offerings in sport management were reported (Lewis, 1982, p. 2). The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) recently released the findings of a 1985 survey which identified over 50 programs at the undergraduate level and over 40 at the graduate level in sport management.
The literature (Lancaster, 1985; Parkhouse, 1984; Quain & Parks, 1986) attributes most of this proliferation to the recent attrition in physical education course enrollments. Well documented is the fact that college faculty in physical education are attempting to modify traditional curricula to attract students in such marketable areas as sport management. Given their background and credentials, which primarily involve techniques of coaching and methods of teaching in physical education, questions have been raised about their ability to provide adequate in- sight to meet the curricular needs of students not traditionally served by physical education.
In most cases, sport management programs have developed with little thought for their appropriateness (Parkhouse & Ulrich, 1979; Parks & Quain, 1986). In examining the role of the university, Lynton (1983) states, "there is a need for much more than a mechanical reshuffling of the curriculum, adding a bit of this and a bit of something else" (p. 22). In the interest of quality educa- tion in sport management, another related issue has surfaced (Hardy, 1986; Ul- rich & Parkhouse, 1982): undergraduate versus graduate preparation in this field.
Sport Management Curricula 95 The purpose of this study was to examine the current status of professional preparation in sport management in order to determine the quality of such pro- grams. Important in either confirming or disputing previous allegations, such an investigation is also a major prerequisite for understanding, and if necessary revers- ing, a reported trend toward proliferation versus quality preparation in sport management curricula.
Method
Subjects and ProcedureSubjects were 83 institutions identified as offering undergraduate and/or gradu- ate curricula in sport management in the United States. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education in 1985 sent a questionnaire to all institutions that have an undergraduate and/or graduate degree program in physical educa- tion and related fields; the purpose was to identify those with specific offerings in sport management. The initial mailing and a follow-up produced a list of 83 institutions that meet this criterion. A follow-up telephone survey was conducted in October 1986 to confirm the above findings and to determine the extent of program development in sport management at these institutions. In addition to relevant information that could easily be conveyed over the telephone, respon- dents were asked to send materials that would also be instrumental in assessing program content (e.g., school catalogs, course outlines, and handouts or brochures prepared for student use). Respondents from 80 institutions supplied this sup- plemental information.
Of the 83 institutions offering sport management curricula, 40 have undergradu- ate, 32 have graduate, and 11 have programs at both levels. More than half of these programs have existed less than 5 years.
Geographical Location
As illustrated in Table 1 and Figure 1, 82% of all sport management programs are located in the Eastern regions of the United States. In fact, 25 of 30 states that constitute the Eastern regions offer these 68 programs. This contrasts sharp- ly with the Western regions, where only 10 of 20 states (including Alaska and Hawaii, which are not illustrated in Figure 1) have the remaining 15 programs. The Northeast exceeds the other three regions combined in sport management offerings. Further, four of the five states that offer five or more programs in sport management are located in this region. The fifth state is North Carolina, which is located in the Southeast.
Foundation and Application Courses
The foundation courses mentioned in Table 2 represent those subject areas fun- damental to the process of sport management (e.g., marketing and economics). The application courses (Table 2) represent those subject areas that have been modified to specifically address management-related practices unique to the sport setting (e.g., sport marketing and sport economics). Those courses reported by
Table l a
Sport Management Programs, Northeast Region Program A B C Total State Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin 17 states - - - - - Note: A = undergraduate; B = graduate; C = both undergraduate and graduate.
Table 1 b
Sport Management Programs, Southeast Region Program A B C Total States Alabama Arkansas Florida Georgia Louisiana Mississippi North Carolina Tennessee 8 states
Sport Management Curricula
Table l c
Sport Management Programs, Northwest Region Program State A B C Total California (Northern) Idaho Kansas Montana Oregon Utah Washington 7 states
See Note, Table la.
Table I d
Sport Management Programs, Southwest Region
State Program A B C Total California (Southern)
-
-
1 1 New Mexico - 1-
1 Oklahoma 1-
1 Texas 3 1-
4 4 states 4 2 1 7See Note, Table la.
Of the 83 programs in sport management, A = 40, B = 32, and C = 11.
subjects as offerings in sport management which did not comply with the above definitions were excluded from this report (e.g., coaching techniques, methods of teaching in physical education, and organizationladministration of physical edu- cation). Only subject areas directly related to sport management were addressed. The seven models (A-G) in Table 2 represent the various combinations of foundation and application offerings reported by undergraduate and graduate sport management programs included in this study. Some 70% of undergraduate and
63 % of graduate programs reported offering three or fewer courses in founda- tion and application areas. Further, although not illustrated in Table 2, half of those programs included in models F and G offer only one foundation and one
Sport Management Curricula 99
Table 2
Observed Frequencies for Undergraduate and Graduate Programs by Number of Foundation and Application Courses Offered
Undergraduate Graduate Foundation Application
Model N N courses courses
A 6 C D E F G Total
Note. Subject areas representing foundation and application courses that appear herein are listed in Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6. Subject areas for each model presented in this table are described in the text.
application course directly related to sport management. The programs represented by models A and B include a core and required electives in application courses, as defined below:
A core of three or more application courses required of all sport manage- ment students, regardless of area of specialization;
A specified list of application course options from which the student is required to elect a specific number of course units.
The foundation courses listed for models A, C, D, and E represent the number of cognate course options available from which a specified number of elective units are required. Respondents indicated that such decisions are usually the result of an advisor's recommendation based on knowledge of the student's interests or area of specialization.
Undergraduate Foundation Subject Areas
Undergraduate foundation subject areas for models A and C appear in the busi- ness administration section of Table 3. These three undergraduate programs (models A and C) meet the minimum standards established by the American As- sembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) for a major in business ad- ministration with an emphasis in general management. Two of these programs (model C) offer no application courses per se. Respondents indicated that appli- cation to sport is included in the subject matter presented in those business courses offered.
Table 3
Summary of Undergraduate Offerings in Foundation Subject Areas*
Business Administration
Business accountinglManageriaI accounting, Principles of accounting Advertising
Collective bargaining
lntroduction to economics, Managerial economics, Microeconomic theory Principles of economics
Principles of finance, Business finance Business law
Management and organization behavior, Principles of management Production operations
Personnel managementlHuman resource management Marketing policies and problems, Principles of marketing Simulation games in management decision-making Statistical methods in business
Computer Science Principles of computing Programming applications Journalism/Communica tions Principles of advertising lntroduction to broadcasting Graphics communications
Group communicationlPersuasive communication Interpersonal communication
lntroduction to mass communication Communications law
lntroduction to mass medialwriting for mass media Magazine writing
Sports media radio-television
Principles of public relationsllntroduction to public relations Photojournalism
Radio theory and operation
Principles of communications research
*Course titles varied for subject areas listed above.
Undergraduate foundation subject areas for models D and E are listed in the business administration and journalism/comrnunications sections of Table 3. Three of these programs representing models D and E meet the requirements for a minor in business administration, and three in journalism, according to those standards set by the AACSB and the American Council on Education for Jour- nalism, repectively. The remaining seven programs offering between four and six foundation courses (models D and E) do not meet the minimal requirements for a minor in either cognate area since the number of business units is equiva- lent to those taken in communications and vice versa.
Sport Management Curricula 101
Each of the subject areas listed in Table 3 was reported as an offering by at least one of the 35 programs with from one to three foundation courses (models F and G). A preference of one or two courses over others was not discernible since the distribution was so evenly spread among these offerings.
Undergraduate Application Subject Areas
undergraduate application subject areas for models A, D, E, F, and G appear in Table 4. Represented in these five models are 49 undergraduate sport manage- ment programs. The only application course reported as an offering by all 49 institutions was the practicum (internship). However, the requirements and fore- mat for this course varied significantly. That is, 15 were reported as extensions of another applied course, whereas 34 were self-contained. Although 17 were offered for credit, the majority (32) were noncredit courses. Some 35 were per- formed in the proximity of the campus and involved observation and assisting another professional. However, in 14 cases this assignment involved decision- making responsibilities as well as traveling more than 200 miles from campus. Most (30) involved less than 10 contact hours per week, while others (19) ex- ceeded 20 hours per week.
Three additional application subject areas were common among institutions with undergraduate programs in sport management: legal aspects of sport (38), sport management (40), and sport marketing (36). However, format and content varied for these three subject areas. In the legal area, a one-course offering with a focus on risk management was prevalent, but 5 of these 38 programs reported offering two classes in sport law (one each at the amateur and professional levels). It appears that these 5 have established a higher level of sophistication in the le- gal area by addressing issues beyond tort liability or negligence and by utilizing the case method in instruction.
Of the 40 programs with course offerings in sport management, 25 reported one course in organization and administration, 10 indicated one with a focus on career orientation, and 5 stated that two courses were offered (one each in career orientation and organizationladministration). Although the subject matter appeared consistent for the 36 programs indicating coursework in sport marketing, 2 of these institutions reported separating the sports information component from other aspects and offering two courses in this area (one in sport marketing and one in sport information).
The next most frequently offered undergraduate application course (Table 4) was sport economics, which is included in model A (1 program) and 9 of the 13 programs represented by models D and E. Course content appeared consis- tent among those 10 institutions reporting an offering in this area. Sport finance and budgeting (3, models A, E), sport fund-raising (1, model D), and a seminar in sport management that focuses on research skill development (2, models A, E) also appear in Tables 2 and 4. Aquatics management (3, models F, G) and equipment design (6, models F, G) constitute the remaining application course offerings reported in undergraduate subject areas.
Graduate Foundation Subject Areas
Graduate foundation subject areas for model C appear in the business adminis- tration section of Table 5. These two graduate programs meet the minimum stan-
Table 4
Summary of Undergraduate Offerings in Application Subject AreasR Introduction to Sport Management: Career Orientation
Aquatics management Sport economics Sport equipment design Sport finance design Sport finance and budgeting Sport fund-raising
Sport information systems (e.g., construction of media guides and press releases) Legal aspects of sport (risk management)
Sport management: Organization and administration Marketing of sport and/or leisure services
Culminating Experiences: Practicum (Internship)
Seminar in sport management: Research skill development in sport management (con- current with the practicum)
*Only those subject areas with direct application to sport management appear. Course ti- tles vary for subject areas listed above.
Table 5
Summary of Graduate Offerings in Foundation Subject AreasR Business Administration
Administrative accounting Financial accounting
Seminar in managerial accounting
The price system and resource allocation (economics) Macroeconomics theory and policy (economics) Managerial finance
Marketing strategies
Marketing theory and practice Marketing problems Consumer behavior Marketing management Advertising management Sales management Theory of organization Organizational behavior
Organizational theory and management of operations Small business management
Personnel management
Business IawILaw of labor-management relations Labor market policy and collective bargaining Statistical analysis and forecasting techniques
Sport Management Curricula
Table 5 (cont.)
Communications
Advertising communications management Electronic media
lnformation systems Mass media
News media and public opinion Public relations management Reporting methods Computer Science Information systems Principles of computing Systems programming Educational Administration Collective bargaining in education College business management Contract administration
Economic dimensions of educational administration Educational research
Higher education administration The law and higher education school law Management planning techniques Personnel management
Problems in school administration Public school finance
Public school organization and administration Psychology
Industrial motivation and work satisfaction
*Course titles vary for subject areas listed above.
dards established by the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business for a master's degree in business administration. Four of 12 programs represent- ing models D and E reported 6 foundation course offerings in educational ad- ministration (Table 5). However, according to the standards established by the Council of Post-Secondary Accreditation, none of the 4 meet the minimum re- quirements necessary for a concentration in educational administration at the master's level. Foundation course offerings for the remaining 8 programs included in models D and E and those 27 representing models F and G were dispersed over the major categories that appear in Table 5.
Graduate Application Subject Areas
Graduate application subject areas for models B, D, E, F, and G appear in Table
6. Of the 43 graduate programs, 41 offer at least one application course in sport management; the remaining two (model C) include applications to the sport set-
Table 6
Summary of Graduate Offerings in Application Subject Areas*
Computer programming Data analysis
Research methods Administration of aquatics Sport economics
Athletic equipment management
Sport facilities: Design, programming, financing, construction andlor utilization Sport finance
Sport fund-raising
Legal issues: Interscholastic, intercollegiate, commercial andlor professional
Sport management: Administrative principles, administrative theory, andlor organization and administration
Sports marketinglsports public relations and promotions Personnel issues in sport management
Culminating Experiences: Internship
Project, thesis andlor comprehensive examination
Seminar in sport management: Trends, problems and issues or policy formulation and decision-making
'Only those subject areas with direct application to sport management appear. Course ti- tles vary for subject areas listed above.
ting in those foundation courses offered. Of the 41 graduate programs with ap- plication subject areas, the most frequent offerings reported were the projectlthesis in lieu of a comprehensive examination (40), the internship (39), and research methods (37). Three additional application subject areas (Table 6) were common among institutions with graduate programs in sport management: legal issues (33), sport management (34), and sport marketing (30).
Four programs (1 in model B, 3 in model E) reported offerings in sport economics. Three institutions (1 in model B, 2 in model E) reported a course in sport finance. Only two programs (model E) indicated offerings in sport fund- raising. Administration of aquatics and equipment management were reported as offerings by three and two programs, respectively, for models F and G.
As stated earlier, research methods and two culminating experiences- the internship and the projectfthesis-were among the most frequent application areas reported at the graduate level. Another capstone offering reported at this level was a seminar in trends, problems, and issues (1 in model B, 2 in model D, 2 in model E) or policy formulation and decision-making (1 in model D). Although both appeared similar in content, the policy course focused more on the case study method.
Nine graduate application subject areas that appear in Table 6 (e.g., sport management, sport marketing) also were reported as undergraduate offerings (Table 5). A close examination of these courses (not illustrated) revealed little
Sport Management Curricula 105
difference in content for the same subjects at the undergraduate and graduate level. But a few exceptions were noted that warrant discussion. From the data subrnit- ted, it appears that students are not receiving both undergraduate and graduate credit for these same, or duplicate, offerings. Only 11 institutions (Table 1) report- ed programs in sport management at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Of these, 9 reported offering application courses on both levels. However, these 9 further indicated that such courses are offered at a level (usually 400) which meets either undergraduate or graduate requirements, not both.
Specialty Tracks
Table 7 represents the breakdown of undergraduate and graduate programs in sport management by specialty track, as defined in the table. Approximately half of these programs offer only one track at the undergraduate andlor graduate levels. As illustrated, athletic administration (sport management at the interscholastic and intercollegiate levels), professional sports, facility operations, and fitness- related areas (i.e., corporate fitness and health club management) constitute the four areas for which specialty tracks have been developed.
Degree Titles for Preparation in Sport Management
Degree titles for programs in sport management appear in Table 8. Such titles are an indicator of the school or department in which these programs are housed
Table 7
Observed Frequencies for Undergraduate and Graduate Programs by Number of Tracks and Areas of Specialization
Undergraduate Graduate No. of tracks* & specializations
N N I*' 2 3 4
4
Total 51
20 x (athletic administration) 16 x (athletic admin. &
professional sports) 4 x (athletic admin.
& professional sports plus facility operations or fit- ness)
3 x (all of the
above) 43
"A track is a structured plan, including a designated number of required and elective courses specific to the student's area of specialization (i.e., professional sports, athletic administra- tion, facility operations, corporate fitness, and health club management).
**Although several institutions reported offering more than one area of specialization, the materials submitted for examination indicated only one track according to the above defini- tion. Therefore these institutions were categorized as one-track programs.
Table 8
Observed Frequencies for Degree Titles of Programs in Sport Management
Undergraduate degrees* N Graduate degrees* * N
BA in education BA in physical education BE in physical education BS in business administration BS in physical education BS in sport administration BS in sport management Total 4 MA in education 15 MA in physical education 3 ME
2 ME in health, physical education, recreation 24 MS in business administration 2 MS in physical education 1 MS in sport administration MS in sport management 51 Total
*Major: Business administration (concentration in sport management) physical education (concentration in athletic administration or sport management), or sport management. **Concentration: Athletic administration or sport management. Three of these institutions also reported offering a concentration in either athletic administration or sport management at the doctoral level.
(i.e., business administration, education, physical education, or sport adrninis- trationtmanagement). Note that the titles for those departments representing physi- cal education vary, including such as health, physical education and recreation
(HPER),
sport studies, and exercise and sport sciences. The degree title (Table8) also reflects the major area of coursework, that is, sport management, physi- cal education, education, or business administration. As illustrated in Table 8,
82% of undergraduate and 76% of graduate programs reported are under the auspices of physical education or its equivalent; the implications are discussed in the following section. I differentiated between degree titles and degree pro- grams since only 6 % of the undergraduate and 7 % of the graduate offerings report- ed here actually grant degrees in sport management.
Canadian Programs
Only two Canadian institutions responded to the initial inquiry or follow-up described in the methods section of this paper. Therefore no definitive conclu- sions could be drawn regarding the current status of sport management in Cana- da. However, on the basis of external data recently brought to my attention, the following observations are made:
1. At least five programs have been established in sport management at
Canadian institutions.
2. Four of these offerings are at the graduate level.
Sport Management Curricula 107
to such specialty areas as athletic administration, professional sports, or arena management. The focus is in such subdisciplines as historical1 cultural perspectives of sport and physical activity, psychological/so- ciological dimensions, or the physiological/biomechanical aspects of sport. A thesis rather than a project is expected at the graduate level.
4. By contrast, the remaining programs (N = 3+) offer an extensive exposure to such functional or application areas as business admini- stration and sport management. Although the thesis is offered, a project is encouraged as the culminating experience for students in this area.
Discussion
The following focuses primarily on three major components of sport manage- ment curricula: foundational areas of study, applied courses, and field experiences. The findings of this study clearly indicate that sport management curricula varies markedly from one institution to another. Some institutions require coursework and experiences of sufficient scope and magnitude to constitute a full major, and in a few cases, a separate degree program. However, the majority include from one to three electives and/or required offerings in foundation and application courses (M = 2) that are actually credited to another major. In both cases the institution claims to have a sport management program. It is false advertising to report a program in sport management when course offerings are not suffi- cient to at least warrant a minor or concentration in this area, regardless of the major emphasis of study.
Further, there appears to be little distinction between undergraduate and graduate offerings in applied courses. Those programs with both undergraduate and graduate offerings commonly list applied courses at a level, usually 400, which is applicable to both. A problem not addressed in these cases is the student who elects to do both undergraduate and graduate work at the same institution. Of those institutions reporting either an undergraduate or graduate program in sport management, again, application courses in subject areas such as sport marketing or sport management are too similar and basic in most cases to warrant credit at the graduate level. Persons involved in curricular development at the graduate level should establish a model similar to that on which graduate programs in bus- iness administration are premised. That is, build in undergraduate foundation and application prerequisites to allow for a higher level of difficulty and sophistica- tion at the graduate level.
As suggested by Hardy (1986), graduate programs should produce managers rather than entry-level technicians. Even at the undergraduate level, most applied courses should have prerequisites (e.g., principles of marketing for sport mar- keting). Therefore the applied course can build upon the foundational knowledges inherent in its parent discipline. Only two institutions in this study require pre- requisite knowledge in relevant foundation areas prior to enrollment in applica- tion courses.
The field experience was reported as the most frequent offering among sport management programs. In most cases it was referred to as a practicum at the undergraduate level and an internship at the graduate level. Unlike other ap- plication courses, a clear distinction in content was apparent between these un-
dergraduate and graduate field experiences. In fact, with few exceptions the content of each is almost identical to the following recommendations of the NASPE Task Force on Sport Management (1986):
The practicum should be an extension of another course or self-contained. As a non-credit offering in most cases, it requires a shorter time-commitment than the internship (less than 10 contact hours per week), is performed in close proximity to campus and involves primarily observation and assistance to another professional.
In contrast,
The internship should be a self-contained course taken for credit. Although limited and under close on-site supervision, the student should be afforded an opportunity to get involved in the management and decision-making process.
Findings of the present study varied from the above recommendations in two areas regarding the internship: contact hours and faculty responsibilities. The task force recommended a full-time, 40-hour-per-week work experience for a minimum of 400 contact hours (equivalent to at least a semester of coursework). Most of the graduate programs in this study reported requiring between 10 and 20 contact hours per week for three to six units of course credit.
The task force also recommends that the internship be supervised by a qualified faculty member who can make on-site visits. Over 80% of those pro- grams with an internship indicated that on-site visits by the faculty member respon- sible for supervising this offering were virtually impossible. Various reasons were stated, including a lack of funds to defray travel expenses. Parkhouse (1984) ad- dressed the importance of human and physical resources within proximity of the institution for the field experience:
Since the subject matter inherent in sport management is professional, appli- cation is extremely important. The internship can most effectively serve this purpose when the student can be closely supervised by practitioners employed on-site and by faculty representing the training program. In this endeavor, it is advantageous when internship resources are located nearby. @. 13) From the findings of this study and the literature (Hardy, 1986; Lewis, 1982; Mullin, 1980; NASPE Task Force, 1986; Parks & Quain, 1986; Ulrich & Parkhouse, 1982), there is no question that the field experience is extremely important. Yet, institutions remote from the metropolitan areas that can best serve the sport management student continue to ignore this important criterion. Over 70% of the 83 institutions reported in this study are located in geographical areas beyond the 60-mile radius suggested by Parkhouse (1984) as effective in taking advantage of nearby resources necessary in sport management program de- velopment.
Although citing advantages beyond the internship for such proximity, Park- house emphasizes the need for an on-site visit by a qualified faculty of interns both to assure a quality experience and to establish a mutually beneficial rela-
Sport Management Curricula 109
tionship, or "partnership," between the university, business community, and in- dustrial community.
The former is suggested to protect both the student and the university. How can such an important course offering be justified if a university represen- tative is not occasionally there to observe the educational process? Student teachers for their part aren't left with such little guidance or direction from campus representatives. Campus coordinators of various teacher education programs, in- cluding physical education, are contracted to meet at least once a week on site with each candidate and the campus supervisor. The latter is most instrumental in creating opportunities for interns. That is, the faculty member responsible for these assignments must have the personal contacts and respect from representa- tives of the sport industry to effectively solicit a pool of resources from which the student can select a field experience according to his or her area of special- ization.
The literature (Hardy, 1986; Parks & Quain, 1986; Ulrich & Parkhouse,
1979) supports specialized offerings in sport management. A one-track curricu-
lum to serve the needs of a variety of sport-related occupations fails to adequate- ly address the unique competencies required of each. As mentioned earlier, it is false advertising to report a program in sport management when course offer- ings are not sufficient to warrant at least a minor or concentration in this area. In turn, claiming to offer specialty tracks in a variety of sport management areas such as athletic administration, professional sports, and arena management is also unethical when in fact only one structured track has been developed. The results of this study indicate that several institutions are guilty of this practice.
In the interest of quality preparation, it is suggested that those responsible for curricular development in sport management follow a similar model as that established by business administration. That discipline offers a variety of specialty tracks or concentrations with specific and structured requirements for each, such as business economics, finance, management, marketing, and management in- formation systems.
Where the sport management program should be housed within the uni- versity structure is another major issue that must be addressed since this location unquestionably influences its orientation. From findings of this study, when housed in the department of physical education-where most sport management programs are presently located-there is a tendency to focus on coursework in human move- ment such as exercise physiology and motor learning. Philosophically, since sport and physical education are from the same medium, one could argue that sport management belongs under the auspices of physical education. Yet, since sport management builds primarily upon the foundations of business administration, it can also be argued that it belongs under the jurisdiction of that academic dis- cipline.
Given its nature, sport management is a multidisciplinary field of study. Therefore regardless of its location, sport management requires the cooperation of several disciplines, especially business administration and physical education (the latter now commonly referred to as sport studies or sport sciences). Current political undertones claiming territorial rights or unwillingness to be reasonably flexible in altering traditional curricula to meet the needs of the sport manage- ment student undermines the existence of this discipline. Unless a reciprocal com-
mitment is made throughout the university toward this endeavor, a sport manage- ment program is not likely to survive.
As noted earlier, based on findings from this study and a literature review, three major components have been identified as necessary in effectively meeting job-related needs of the sport management student: foundation courses, applica- tion offerings, and field experiences. Neither the business school nor the depart- ment of physical education can accomplish this task single-handedly since such an endeavor requires effective applications of business principles to the unique sport setting.
One final comment: I was disturbed by the number of graduate programs
reported in sport management per se, when most are really nothing more than concentrations (at best) within a master's degree in physical education. From my experience, such degree programs severely penalEe-the applicant who holds a bachelor's degree in either business administration or communications. That is, although these candidates have appropriate prerequisites for graduate entry into sport management, they are required to take between 15 and 24 upper division prerequisite units of coursework in such areas as exercise physiology, kinesiolo- gy, and motor learning. It appears these candidates are being penalized, when in actuality they are more qualified to enter a graduate program in sport manage- ment than the traditional bachelor's degree recipient in physical education. Many excellent candidates have gone elsewhere as a result.
It is time for physical education departments that are serious about quality offerings in sport management to make necessary adjustments to accommodate the student not traditionally served by this discipline. Since it would be difficult to justify the elimination of aforementioned prerequisites from the traditional graduate degree program in physical education, it is suggested that the sport management component be developed sufficiently to warrant a separate degree, for example a master's degree in sport management.
In 1979 Parkhouse and Ulrich presented a paradigm for theoretical develop- ment, scientific inquiry, and professional application in sport management, em- phasizing the need to follow that particular sequence or order of events. Eight years since this conceptualization, theory specific to sport management is virtu- ally nonexistent, and little research (other than by two authors) has been pub- lished in this area. As a case in point, Zeigler summarizes this state of the art in a foreward to Chelladurai's book (1985):
This text is a "first" in that it brings into play
. .
.
theoretical orientation. He [Chelladurail has become one of the two most prolific people of this de- cade in publishing in this area in refereed, scholarly journals (the other be- ing Dr. Bonnie Parkhouse of the California State University, Fullerton). (Zeigler, 1985, p. x)As a publication that focuses on theoretical development and research findings, the new Journal of Sport Management will undoubtedly provide the in- centive and forum necessary to augment these two areas. Yet professional prepa- ration in sport management is growing at a dangerously rapid rate in proportion to its theoretical development and scientific inquiry. (See Parkhouse & Ulrich, 1979, for a discussion of the need to develop these theoretical and scientific dimen-
Sport Management Curricula 111 sions as prerequisites to professional application.) In my opinion, based on the findings of this study, practitioners have become impatient with this process. Most have used a band-aid approach to attract students rather than providing a quality program to effectively meet job-related needs of the sport management industry. It appears too late to reverse this process since so many practitioners have gone ahead on their own. Therefore, based on findings of this study and a litera- ture review, the following schema for quality professional preparation in sport management is offered as an alternative (see Figures 2 and 3). This paradigm is premised on the notion that the growing complexity of the field requires the expertise of managers rather than entry-level technicians. I think graduate pro- grams with undergraduate prerequisites can best meet these job-related needs. The only course cited in Figure 3 not reported as an offering by one or more subjects in this study is sport ethics. Understandably, the Ivan F. Boeslcy affair has left business schools uneasy, many now urging an emphasis on ethics
in their classrooms. One can understand why MBA recipients may have misgiv-
I
I
* Introduction to Sport Management
* Fundamental Courses In Business Administration And CornmunicationsNournalism
I
Career Orientation Legal Aspects of SportOrganization and Administration in Sport Settings
Sport Information and Marketing
I
* Related ExperfencerMajor in Business Administration or Communication/Journalism Independent Study (focus on development of research skills)
I
Practicum concentration or Minor in Sport Management I+
Undergraduate PrerequisitesFigure 2
-
A schema for curricula in sport management: Undergraduate prereq-UNDERGRADUATE PREREQUISITES Parkhouse FOUNDATION COURSES
-7
-
APPLICATION COURSESI
I *Graduate Orientation Research Methods Computer Applications *CoreElectfvrr In Cognate A m Sport Economics (to advance knowledge Sport Ethics in area of specialization) Sport Management
Sport Marketing
I
1. Sport Law l (Amateur & Commercial) or
Sport Law II (Professional) 2. Sport Facilities or Sport Fundraising or Sport Media culminating' Experiences Internship Project or Thesis
Seminar: Contemporary Problems and Issues in Sport Management (focus on policy development utilizing the case method)
I
4
I
Master's Degree in Sport Management
Figure 3
-
A schema for curricula in sport management: Graduate preparation.ings about working on
Wall
Street. A similar scenario has surfaced in sport management, particularly with regard to incidents involving the National Col- legiate Athletic Association and intercollegiate athletics.Recommendations regarding the specific content of the proposed sport ethics course, or any others which appear in Figures 2 and 3, are too extensive to be addressed here. However, I hope to publish a sequel to this manuscript that addresses such specifics.
Sport Management Cunicula 113
Recommendations
The following recommendations are proposed in the interest of quality profes- sional preparation in sport management:
1. Establish an accrediting agency comparable to NCATE in educational administration, ACEJ in communications, and AACSB in business ad- ministration to determine the minimal standards for professional prepa- ration in sport management.
2. Focus on graduate preparation utilizing entry-level technical or applied skills and basic foundation knowledge as prerequisites to this program.
3. Supplement those prerequisite applied skill courses with a series of graduate application courses, including a core required of all students and electives in accordance with the area of specialization, that are more advanced than undergraduate offerings of this nature.
4. Develop structured tracks to meet the unique competencies inherent in each occupation representing this multifaceted industry (e.g., athletic administration, arena management, health club management).
5. Seek reciprocity with other disciplines on campus, especially business administration and communications. Since these particular academic areas are normally impacted, it is often difficult for nonmajors to enroll in such classes (refer to Parkhouse, 1984, for strategies that may be effective in this endeavor).
6. Appoint faculty to teach the application courses who are educated in such foundation areas as business administration, educational adrnini- stration, communications (journalism), and/or law and who are suffi- ciently experienced to apply these concepts to various sport settings.
7. Assure sufficient human and physical resources for the sport manage- ment program within proximity of the institution (refer to advantages cited by Parkhouse, 1984).
8. Utilize external sources in program development and evaluation. Al- though the findings of the present study clearly indicate unanimity among educators regarding the importance of an internship, the opinions of ac- tive practitioners have been largely unexplored (Parkhouse & Ulrich, 1979; Parks & Quain, 1986). It is highly recommended that practition- ers serve on advisory boards to help develop and evaluate sport manage- ment programs.
Conclusion
Michael Goodwin (1986) recently cautioned against the "cash register scoreboard" syndrome too frequently overemphasized in sports as a result of financial pres- sures. Although his article is primarily directed toward current practices in inter- collegiate athletics, his comments are also relevant to those in sport management. According to Goodwin,
Sports has become a big, profitable business on many campuses. A powerful
. . .
constituency, often unconcerned about the academic side of the univer- sity.
.
.
[these motives] are as bottom-line-oriented as any company on the Fortune 500. (p. 27)Goodwin continues with a devastating analysis of the developing situation that has, in his opinion, gotten out of hand. The result is a poor educational setting generally stemming from institutional politics, questionable ethical practices, and little regard for quality education.
Although the relatively new field of sport management has great potential, its destiny is still in question. It won't survive unless those responsible for its curricular development at both the national and institutional level accept much of this responsibility in assuring quality professional preparation. In this endeavor, it is highly recommended that a national accrediting agency comparable to those in business administration and communications be established in sport manage- ment. Further, at the institutional level, proliferation in the interest of increasing student enrollment must give way to a commitment to excellence. Both are neces- sary in assuring sport management the place it rightfully deserves in academia. Tomorrow's results will unquestionably reflect today's effort.
References
Gleason, T. (1986). Sports administration degrees: Growing to fill a needlsupply over- whelms demand. Athletic Administration (February), pp. 10-11.
Goodwin, M. (1986). When the cash register is the scoreboard. The New York Rmes (June 8), pp. 27-28.
Hager, S. (1984). Curricular questions confronting sport management: A summary. In B.K. Zanger & J.B. Parks (Eds.), Sport management curricula: The business and
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Physical Education and Recreation.
Hardy, S. (1986). Sport management cumculums: The need for a business orientation. Unpublished report, Robert Moms College.
Lancaster, H. (1985). Is sports just another business? Wall Street Journal (August 19), p. 17.
Lewis, G. (1982). Degree programs in athletic and sport administration. Unpublished report, University of Massachusetts.
Lynton, E. (1983). A crisis of purpose: Reexamining the role of the university. Change, 15, 18-23, 53.
Milewski, J., & Bryant, J. A survey of institutions offering sport administration, sport management, or related sport studies programs. Unpublished study, Western Carolina University.
Mullin, B. (1980). Sport management: The nature and the utility of the concept. Arena
Newsletter, 4(3), 1-1 1.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (1985). Schools in the United States offering degree programs in sport management. Unpublished study, Reston, VA.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education Task Force on Sport Manage- ment. (1986). Guidelines for programs preparing undergraduate and graduate stu- dents for careers in sports management. Unpublished report, Reston, VA. Parkhouse, B. (1978). Professional preparation in athletic administration and sport man-
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Parkhouse, B. (1984). Shaping up to climb a new corporate ladder
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Parkhouse, B., & Ulrich, D. (1979). Sport management as a potential cross-discipline: A paradigm for theoretical development, scientific inquiry, and professional appli- cation. Quest, 31, 264-276.
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