MIDTERM REVIEW NOTES 2015-Hulme

Review Notes for Honors Biology: Mrs. Hulme

This covers most of the material but not ALL. You are to review your notes, the Review Outline, the practice questions and information in

Handouts/Documents, the four Castle Learning midterm review and Useful Links on my Website and your past exams. Good Luck!

Scientific Method

 Observe- look at something

 State the problem- what is the problem that you are trying to solve? (Use does and will)

 Hypothesis- educated guess on a situation that is testable (use if…then statements)

 Experiment- preforming a procedure to scientifically solve a problem -Control Group- used for basis of comparison

-Experimental Group- receives the treatment or variable -Variable- the part of the experiment that changes

-In order for it to be a good experiment, must only have one variable -Independent variable- only factor in the experiment being changed

-Dependent variable- measured in the experiment *must have a unit

-Constant- all of the other conditions that are kept the same between the two groups

-Valid experiment include: -Large sample size -Can be repeated

-Trials- amount of times the SAME experiment is preformed -for validity , minimum of 3

 Collect data- utilize a chart, table, or graph -Independent variable: x axis

-Dependent variable: y axis -DO NOT connect line to zero -Label x, y, and title

-Values MUST be evenly spaced

 Draw a conclusion- based on the data, determine if you hypothesis was supported or refuted

 Retest- repeat experiment for validation and accuracy  Improve an Experiment:

-Repeated trials, larger sample size, controlled experiment

 Scientific Law- a repeated experimental explanation for the way something is  Scientific theory- an explanation of a set of related observations or events

supported by proven hypotheses and verified multiple times by many independent scientists (official)

 Observation- information gathered by the senses

Scientific Tools and Uses  Stereomicroscope

-views 3D objects

-light comes from top of the object

 Compound Light Microscope -View transparent specimens -Light comes from below the object -Image is reversed in field of view

-As the magnification increases, the field of view decreases, and the light intensity decreases

 Electron Microscope

-Uses magnetic field to bend beams of electrons instead of using lenses to bend beams of light

-Views dead specimens only  Measuring under the microscope

1-Low power

a. Measure field of view b. Measure specimen

2-Record Magnifications and field of view 3-Switch to high power

a. Calculate high power field of view 4-Estimate size of specimen

 Things to remember while measuring under microscope: 1- As magnification increases, field of view decreases. 2- Low magnification= high field of view

3- High magnification= low field of view

4- Measuring cells under high power fives a more accurate measurement than under low power.

Measurement/ Metric System  1 mm= 1000 microns

 Kilo= 1000

 Hecto= 100  Deka= 10  Deci= 0.1  Centi= 0.01

 Milli= 0.001

 Micro= .000001

 Length- Meter- Meter stick  Mass- gram- scale

 Time- seconds- stopwatch

 Temperature- Celsius- thermometer

 Volume- liter- graduated cylinder/beaker or displacement

 Life Processes

 All of the life processes are necessary for organisms to maintain life (homeostasis)  Homeostasis- maintain a stable internal environment

 All life processes occur to maintain homeostasis  HNTRSGERMR

 Nutrition- taking in materials from the environment to use as a source of energy -Nutrients- substances that are used for energy, growth, repair, and

maintenance

-Heterotroph- organisms that cannot make their own food -Ingestion- taking in food

-Digestion- breaking down food

-Egestion- elimination of undigested food

-Autotroph- organisms that can make their own food using energy from the sun

 Transport- process by which molecules move into or out of the cell and are distributed throughout organisms

 Respiration- the set of chemical reactions which release the energy stored in food in a form that the organism can use (aerobic or anaerobic respiration)

 Synthesis- the formation of large, complex molecules from smaller simpler ones  Growth- an increase in cell size or number

 Excretion- elimination of cellular wastes (metabolic wastes- wastes that result from chemical reactions that occur within the cells)

-Some metabolic wastes: -Carbon dioxide -Water

-Nitrogenous wastes (uria, ammonia, uric acid) -Salts

 Regulation- detecting changes in the external and internal environment and responding to them (goal= homeostasis

 Metabolism- the entire set of chemical reactions with the cells of an organism  Reproduction- the formation of similar cells or organisms

-Sexual- two parents, offspring is genetically different from parents -Asexual- one parent, offspring is genetically identical to parent

Cells

 Cell- basic structure of all living organisms (viewed by compound light microscope)

 Organelles- little organs- specialized parts of cell that carry out specific jobs  Cell Theory:

-All living things are made up of cells

 Plasma Membrane

-Separates cell from surrounding environment

-Controls movement of molecules into/out of the cell: selectively permeable -Visible with compound microscope

 Phospholipid Bilayer

-Flexible with freely pieces

-Composed mainly of lipids and proteins

-Polar heads: hydrophilic (Water loving)- come in contact with cytoplasm -Polar Tails: hydrophobic (water hating)- interior of membrane

 Cytoplasm

-Watery, gel- like, material within the cell membrane -Suspends organelles

-Site of chemical reactions

-Supported by a cytoskeleton: fibers that controls movement of cell or its internal parts

 Nucleus

-Contains DNA on structures called chromosomes

-Surrounded by a nuclear membrane that has pores (semi-permeable) -Visible under compound light microscope

 Nucleolus

-Located within the nucleus -Site of ribosome synthesis  Ribosomes

-Site of protein synthesis

-Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm

-Other ribosomes are attached at the outside of an organelle called the endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER)

 Endoplasmic Reticulum

-Network of channels for carrying substances from one part of the cell to another

-Usually found near the nucleus  Rough ER

-Dotted with ribosomes

-Mainly found near the nucleus  Smooth ER

-Lacks ribosomes

-Involved in synthesis of lipids -Metabolism of carbohydrates

-Detoxification of drugs and other poisons  Golgi Apparatus

-Stacks of membranes forming flattened sacs

-Process, package, store cell products to be secreted -Ribosomes, RER, SER, Golgi, Cell Membrane, released  Lysosomes

-Set of digestive enzymes

 Vacuoles

1-Food vacuoles

2-Contractile vacuoles in freshwater protists pump out excess water 3-Plant cells have a large central vacuole for water and nutrient storage (large central vacuole)

 Mitochondria

-Powerhouse of the cell -Site of aerobic respiration

-Each cell contains 300-800 mitochondria in each cell -Most abundant in muscles

-Has a double membrane

-inner membrane has many folding (cristae) so there is more surface area for more aerobic respiration to occur

-Mitochondria have their own DNA  Centrioles

-Small bundle of microtubules -Found in pairs near cell nucleus -Involved in cell division

-Found in animal cells but NOT in plant cells  Chloroplasts

-Found in plants, algae

-Contains chlorophyll- green pigment that absorbs light to start photosynthesis

-Contain their own DNA

-Chloroplasts are also part of the endosymbiotic theory -Only make glucose

 Cell Wall

-Found in plants only -Made of cellulose

-Provides protection and structure for the cell, prevents expansion  Cytoskeleton

-A network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm -Microtubules: straight, hollow tubes of protein

-Functions: mechanical support, maintain shape, allow for movement  Endomembrane System

-Includes the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles

 Endosymbiotic Theory

-Mitochondria are descended from independent prokaryotes that were engulfed by other cells but not digested

 Plant Cells

-Can make their own food -DO NOT HAVE CENTRIOLES -Have chloroplasts

-Have a cell wall -Larger vacuole

Biochemistry

 The study of molecules that make up living things  Organic molecules

-Molecules that contain both carbon and hydrogen -EX: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid  Inorganic compounds:

-Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen -EX: carbon dioxide, water, salt, minerals, oxygen

 Polymers- molecules made up of thousands of repeating units called monomers  Carbohydrates

Functions:

-Major source of energy for your cells -Used to construct cell structures Dietary Sources:

-Fiber, starches, sugars Glucose:

-Smallest unit of carbohydrates Naming of carbohydrates:

-most names end in “-ose” Chemical Structure:

-contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen -ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1 -a ring like structure

Types of carbohydrates: -Monosaccharide -Disaccharides -Polysaccharides Monosaccharide

-one sugar/ simple sugar -formula: C6H12O6

-Glucose, Fructose, Galactose= isomers (have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas

-Glucose: blood sugar

Disaccharides -two sugars

-two monosaccharides chemically joined together by a chemical reaction called dehydration synthesis- (form a bond while losing water)

-C12H22O11

-Lactose, sucrose, maltose

-formation: glucose and fructose – water= disaccharide -Sucrose: table sugar (Glucose and fructose)

-Lactose: sugar present in milk (galactose and glucose) -Lactose intolerant- lack enzyme “lactase”

-Maltose- part of a larger carbohydrate (glucose and glucose) -Breaks down with heat

-Bread tastes sweeter after baking, flavoring for beer -Break down disaccharide: add water

-Hydrolysis reactions:

-Opposite of dehydration synthesis

-Large molecules are digested by the addition of water to break chemical bonds

Polysaccharides

-Complex carbohydrates

-Hundreds of monosaccharide chemically joined together by dehydration synthesis

-Cellulose, starch, glycogen, and chitin

-Cellulose- gives plant cell walls a rigid structure -Humans cannot digest it (fiber)

-Cows and goats have bacteria in gut that digests it -Starch- stored form of sugar in plants

-Glycogen- stored form of sugar in the liver, muscle of animals -Chitin- makes up exoskeleton of insects, crustaceans

 Lipids Functions:

-Stored form of energy

-Used to form cell membranes

-Transport fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K)

-Provides essential fatty acids for the synthesis of hormones -Cushions vital organs

-Insolates our body to conserve heat Chemical Structure of Lipids

-Contain elements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in a linear structure -Ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen is greater than 2:1

-Triglycerides -Phospholipids Triglyceride

-Make up cell membranes

-Produced by dehydration synthesis

-One glycerol with 2 fatty acids and one phosphate group Digestion of fatty acids

-Glycerol is split from fatty acids and may recombine with them to form stored fat in the body or be used as a body fuel to provide energy

Dietary sources of triglycerides -Saturated fats

-Unsaturated fats

-Trans fats (hydrogenated fats

Saturated fat – Saturated with Hydrogen. No double bonds between carbons -Usually from animal sources

-Solid and room temperature

-Increase the risk of cardiovascular disease

Unsaturated fat – Less Hydrogen. Has double bond between carbons -From plant sources

-Liquid at room temperature

-Decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases Monosaturated Fat

-Type of unsaturated fat -Have one double bond -Better than saturated fats Polyunsaturated fats

-More double bonds

-Better than monosaturated Trans Fat

-Worse kind, very unhealthy

-Food manufactures convert unsaturated oils to saturated fats by making t hem solid by adding hydrogen

 Proteins

-Tens of thousands of different proteins make up the human body -Each protein has a unique 3D structure that corresponds to a specific function

-Proteins preform most of the job that a body needs to functions Functions:

-Make up structures of the body and individual cells

-Used to move substances throughout the body and into and out of cells (transport proteins)

-Used to make hormones (cell communication) -Used to make antibodies (chemical defense) -Necessary for chemical reactions (enzymes) -Used to organize DNA in chromosomes Chemical Structure:

-Nitrogenous organic compounds Proteins=Polymers

-amino acids= monomers

-Have an amino group (NH2), functional group (R), and a Carboxyl group (COOH)

Dipeptide

-2 amino acids joined together by dehydration synthesis -joined by dipeptide bond

Peptide Bond

-A peptide bond forms when 2 amino acids are chemically joined -Between the nitrogen and carboxyl group

Polypeptide

-100 or more amino acids joined together Structure

-Linear structure

-Specific sequence of amino acids in a protein -Order of amino acids determines the protein

-Slight change in amino acid’s structure makes it unable to function Denature

-Unfavorable temperature and pH changes can cause a protein to unravel and lose its shape

 Enzymes

-Have an optimum pH of 7

-Optimum temperature of 37 degrees Celsius

-If pH and temperatures become extreme, it denatures

-When it is in an environment with its optimum pH and temperature, it works the best

 Lugol’s Iodine- starch - Turns BLUE/BLACK

 Benedicts Solution- simple sugar- HEAT AND TURNS ORANGE  Biuret Reagent- protein - PURPLE

Cellular Transport

 The movement of molecules into, around, or out of the cell  Absorption- materials enter the cell

 Circulation- materials are moved throughout the cell  Cyclosis- circulation of the cytoplasm

 Cell Membrane

-Controls the movement of molecules into or out of the cell  Lipids

-Cholesterol gives the membrane a more rigid structure

 Proteins

-Transmembrane proteins- proteins transverse through whole membrane -Mainly involved as transport proteins and help to move molecules in

or out

-Peripheral proteins- sit on the bi-layer (loosely involved)

-Receptor proteins- attract specific molecules to the membrane to initiate transport

 Carbohydrates

-These may function in a cells ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another in cell to cell recognition

-Cell to cell recognition: basis for rejection of foreign cells by the immune system

 Passive Transport A. Diffusion

B. Facilitated Diffusion C. Osmosis

 Diffusion

-Move from high to low concentration -No energy needed

 Osmosis

-Diffusion of water  Simple Diffusion

-Substances pass through a membrane without the aid of transport proteins -There is a net movement of molecules from high to low concentration -Molecules move down the concentration gradient

 Molecules that are able to diffuse -Non-polar molecules

-Polar molecules small enough to fit through membrane pores -Oxygen- non polar

-Carbon and water- polar but small  Dynamic equilibrium

-Diffusion stops when it is reached

-Molecules are still in constant motion, but same number of molecules move in one direction as do the molecules in the opposite direction

 Osmosis

-Diffusion of water  Hypotonic Solutions

-Have a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water than inside the cell

-As a result: water moves from the solution to inside the cell- the cell swells and bursts open (cytolysis)

 Hypertonic Solutions

-Have a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water then inside the cell- As a result: water moves from inside the cell into the solution- the cell shrinks and dies (plasmolysis)

-The concentration of solutes in the solution is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell

-As a result: water moves equally in both directions and cells remain the same size (dynamic equilibrium)

 Facilitative Transport

-Diffusion of specific particles through transport proteins found in the membrane

-Transport proteins are specific (pick certain molecules) -Transport larger or charged molecules

 Active Transport -Requires energy

-Used to transport large molecules through a membrane or to move molecules against the concentration gradient (low to high)

 Protein pumps

-Transport proteins that require energy to do work

-Protein changes shape to move molecules: requires energy -Sodium Potassium pumps are important in nerve responses  Endocytosis

-Forming vacuoles to bring molecules into a cell Phagocytosis

-Cellular eating

-Pseudopods are formed- particle is engulfed and digested within the lysosome

-Cytoplasm is pushed outward to form pseudopods (cytoplasmic streaming) Pinocytosis

-Cellular drinking

-Plasma membrane gulps particles dissolved in fluid by forming tiny vesicles -Non-specific- all solutes dissolved in the droplet are taken into the cell -The cell membrane is pulled by the cytoskeleton in toward the center of the cell

 Exocytosis

-Intracellular Vesicle moves to the plasma membrane and fuses with it to spill contents outside of the cell

Cellular Respiration and ATP  Preformed in order to make ATP

 Energy in nutrients is converted into a form of energy the organism can use  ATP- Adenosine triphosphate

-Primary source of energy

-3 phosphate molecules and an adenosine

-Energy is released from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond is broken -Releases small quantities of energy

-Energy can be released with just one action  Wastes are water and carbon dioxide

 No oxygen needed

 Takes place in the cytoplasm  Also called fermentation:

-Used by organisms that lack enzymes necessary to utilize oxygen

-Other organisms are aerobic but revert to anaerobic respiration if oxygen is not available

Glycolysis

 Splitting of sugar

 From a 6 carbon molecule into two 3 carbon molecules

 2 ATP + Glucose  2 Pyruvate (pyruvic acid) + 4 ATP (+ 2 NADH) NAD+ NADH

 NADH holds the electrons until they can be transferred to other phases in cell respiration

 Oxidation- an atom or molecule loses a high energy electron (glucose)  Reduction- an atom or molecule gains a high energy electron (NAD+)

Aerobic Respiration  Requires oxygen

 Glucose + 6 Oxygen  6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATP

Inorganic Organic

 Takes place in mitochondria

Krebs Cycle

 Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria

 Before it can enter, pyruvic acid is converted into Acetic Acid by the help of enzymes

 It goes from a 3 carbon to a 2 carbon molecule, which releases carbon dioxide  Per Glucose= 2 Pyruvate= 2 Turns of Krebs Cycle

 Citric acid is broken down

 Energy is captured in the form of NADH and a second electron carrier FADH2

 Releases: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, AND 6 CO2

Electron Transport Chain

 Proteins located near inner membrane of the mitochondria

 Cristae increase the surface area, maximizing the number of electron transport chains

 High energy electrons are passed from one carrier to the next  This energy is used to pump H+ ions across the inner membrane

 H+ ions build up in the intermembrane space, making it positively charged  ATP synthases- as H+ ions escape, the ATP synthases spin and each time it spins,

the enzyme grabs ADP and attaches a phosphate, making ATP

Anaerobic Respiration – Not Glycolysis

 Animal cells utilize fermentation when oxygen is not available

 As a result lactic acid is produced which causes muscle fatigue and soreness  Yeast- when no oxygen is present, yeast converts pyruvate to alcohol and carbon

dioxide

Photosynthesis  Autotrophic

 Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight  Glucose + Oxygen Inorganic Organic

 Takes place in chloroplast

 Using energy to convert inorganic compounds to organic compounds

Light Reactions  Occur in grana

 When a photon strikes a pigment molecule, the energy jumps from pigment to pigment until it reaches the reaction center

 Occurs in 2 photosystems Photosystem 2

-Water molecules are split using light energy

-Photolysis- releases oxygen and hydrogen in the atmosphere Photosystem 1

-Produces NADPH by transferring light excited electrons from chlorophyll to NADP+

 An electron transport chain then pumps hydrogen ions generated by

photosystems across the membrane and ATP synthases use the energy to make ATP

Dark Reactions  Occurs in stroma

 Carbon dioxide is used to produce Glucose  DOES NOT require light

 Using carbon from carbon dioxide, ATP and high energy electrons from NADPH, the Calvin Cycle synthesizes an energy rich sugar molecule: G3P

 G3P/ PGAL is a raw material used to make glucose and other organic molecules  For every 3 carbon dioxide used, 1 G3P is formed

Leaf Structure

 Guard Cells- open or close the stomata- contain some chloroplasts

 Stomata- holes in the leaf surface that allows oxygen to leave the leaf and carbon dioxide to enter the leaf

-Where water leaves the leaf by transpiration

-Lower epidermis has everything upper epidermis has, but has MANY stomata

 Cuticle- waxy covering of the leaf for protection (helps reduce water loss)  Palisades layer- found under the upper epidermis

-Contains most of the chloroplasts and where most photosynthesis occurs

 Spongy Layer- found under palisade layer

-Contains many moist air spaces that connect to stomata to allow for gas exchange

-Contain some chloroplasts and some photosynthesis occurs here

Digestive System  Mouth

-Ingestion occurs here

-Chemical and mechanical digestion occur

-Salivary amylase- chemically begins to break down starch

-Teeth- mechanically begin to break down food, increasing the surface area -Bolus- food we swallow

 Pharynx

-Back of throat

-Where trachea and esophagus meet

-Epiglottis- flap of connective tissue that closes over the trachea when swallowing

 Esophagus

-Connects oral cavity with the stomach

-Peristalsis- muscular contractions that squeeze food towards the stomach -Opening from the esophagus to the stomach is a ring of muscle called the cardiac sphincter

 Stomach

-Muscular organ that mechanically digests food -Lined with cells that secrete

-Mucus- to protect stomach lining

-Protease (pepsin)- chemically digests proteins

-Hydrochloric acid- kills bacteria, lowers the pH in the stomach (pepsin=2), and helps to kill microorganism ingested in the food

-Chyme- food coming out of the stomach

-Acidic chyme leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter and enters the small intestine

 Small Intestine

-Absorption- of nutrients into the bloodstream occurs here

-Villi- finger like projections lining the small intestines for increased surface area, better diffusion of nutrients, makes it the longest length of digestive track

 Villi

-Digested end products are taken here -Each contains:

-Lacteal: pick up fatty acids and glycerol

-Veins, arteries, and capillaries- pick up nucleotides, amino acids, and monosaccharide

 Pancreas

-Produces enzymes that break down carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and release them into the SI

-Raises the pH- neutralizes stomach acid

-Produces hormones that regulate blood sugar levels (insulin)  Pancreatic Juice

-Proteases- digest proteins (enzyme- Trypsin) -Lipases- digest lipids (enzyme)

-Amylases- digest carbohydrates (enzyme)  Gall Bladder

-Small, non-vital organ -Stores bile

-Bile- emulsifies fat, NOT an enzyme

-Breaks down fat globules by emulsification

-Emulsification- mechanical digestion of fat molecules dissolved into smaller droplets

-Tucked underside of the liver  Liver

-Largest internal organ- opposite stomach Functions:

-Produce bile

-Convert glucose to glycogen -Produces urea from RBC

-Filters harmful substances from blood- alcohol -Responsible for producing cholesterol

 Bile

-Produced in liver -Stored in gall bladder -Mixture of 3 chemicals

-Cholesterol- excess cholesterol removed from blood by the liver -Bilirubin- yellow pigment formed from dead red blood cells -Bile salts- to help break up fat structure

 Appendix

-Pouch where small and large intestine meet

-Non vital: but could possibly play a role in immunity  Large Intestine

-“Colon”

-All indigestible waste at this point (no nutritional value)

-Large colony of bacteria: E.Coli- are good

-Help produce vitamin K needed for blood clotting

 Ulcers

-Erosion of the stomach lining by digestive enzymes or acid due to lack of protective mucus

-Bacteria- Helicober pylori  Constipation

-Large Intestine is difficult to empty due to too much water being reabsorbed in the colon- waste hardens

 Heartburn

-Cardiac sphincter- stretches and stomach acid splashes walls of esophagus -Burning and pressure in chest

-Caused by overeating, acidic foods, or carbonated/caffeinated beverages  Diarrhea

-Not enough water is absorbed out of waste before egestion -Usually caused by bacteria

-Salmonella- pathogen- causes diarrhea -Results in watery feces

-Can cause severe dehydration  Appendicitis

-Inflammation of appendix

-Could be very dangerous if it explodes- infection will spread in the bloodstream throughout body

 Gallstones

-Accumulation of hardened cholesterol in the gall bladder  Hepatitis

-Inflammation of the liver  Cirrhosis

-Distorted or a scared liver

Respiratory System

 Breathing- the mechanical movement of air in and out of your lungs  Functions

-To provide a constant supply of oxygen to keep your body cells functioning -To remove carbon dioxide from the body cells

 Mouth and Nose

-Brings air to the body

-Nasal hairs- in nostrils trap dust

-This is the first line of defense for the body  Nasal Cavity

-Warms and moistens air

-Glands that produce sticky mucus line the nasal cavity

 Pharynx

-Tube like passageway used by food, liquid, and air -The adenoids and tonsils are found

-At the lower end of the pharynx is a flap of tissue called the epiglottis  Larynx

-Voice box

-The airway were two folds of tissue, called vocal cords, are attached  Trachea

-Air conducting tube

-Connects larynx to bronchi

-Lined with mucous membranes and cilia

-Contains strong cartilage rings to protect it from collapse and injury -Smoking paralyzes the cilia- one cigarette stops movement of cilia for 20 minutes

-Smoking increases the production of mucus  Bronchial Tubes- bronchi

-Two short tubes that branch off the lower end of the trachea -Carries air into the lungs

-Lined with some cartilage  Bronchioles

-Tiny branches of air tubes in the lungs -Connect bronchi to alveoli

-NO CARTILAGE  Alveoli

-Tiny, thin walled, grape like clusters at the end of each bronchiole -Lined with thin moist membranes

-Surrounded by capillaries

-Where carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange occurs -They are the respiratory surface

-1800 capillary contacts

-Major surface of gas exchange

 Gas Exchange

-Oxygen and Carbon dioxide are exchanged at the capillaries of the body tissues

-Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuses from an area of high to low concentration

-Carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs by the blood as bicarbonate and diffuses out through the alveoli

-Oxygen diffuses into the blood and is carried as oxyhemoglobin  Diaphragm

-Muscle wall between the chest and abdomen that the body uses or breathing -When diaphragm goes down, opens up chest cavity and oxygen goes in  Inhalation

-Diaphragm- downward -Lungs expand

-Ribs pulled up and out -Chest cavity enlarged -Pressure reduced  Exhalation

-Passive phase

-Diaphragm relaxes and pushes upward -Lungs deflate

-Chest cavity decreases -Rib muscles relax (ribs drop -Pressure increases

 Breathing Rate

-Controlled by medulla of the brain

-Medulla- monitors amount of carbon dioxide in the blood

-When carbon dioxide increases, nerve impulses are sent to the diaphragm and chest muscles to increase the rate of breathing

-Sensors in carotid and aorta arteries monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood

 Asthma

-Breathing is impaired by constriction of bronchi and bronchioles, cough, and thick mucus secretions

-Cause: allergies, pollutant, infection, emotional stress -Treatment: immunosuppressors and bronchodilators  Bronchitis

-Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi -Causes: smoking, pollution, and bacterial/viral infections  Pneumonia

-Acute inflammation of the lungs

-Symptoms: high fever, chills, headache, cough, chest pain -Causes: bacterial, fungal, viral infections

-Treatment: antibiotics/ antimocrobials  Emphysema

-Permanent and irreversible destruction to alveolar walls -Result: loss of lung elasticity and gas exchange surface

-Symptoms: shortness of breath, difficulty breathing, cough, weakness, anxiety, confusion, heart failure, respiratory failure

-Causes: smoking, pollution, old age, and infections -Treatment: oxygen- NO CURE!

 Lung Cancer

-Canceorus tumors grow and destroy lung tissue

-Symptoms: bloody sputum, persistent cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain -Causes: smoking, pollution –radon and asbestos

-Treatment: surgery (50% operable) Circulatory System

 Supplies cells with oxygen and nutrients

 Carries hormones, maintains body temperature, and can clot  Arteries

-Carry blood AWAY from the heart

-Walls of the arteries are thick, muscular, and elastic -Aorta is the largest artery

 Veins

-Carry blood TOWARDS the heart from body tissues and organs -Walls are thin and slightly elastic

-Contain one way valves to prevent backflow

-Superior and inferior vena cava are the largest vein of the body  Valves

-Found only in veins

-Keep blood flowing toward the heart

-Also found in the heart to keep the blood flowing through the chambers  Capillaries

-Connect arteries to veins -One cell layer thick

-Gas exchange occurs by diffusion  Lymph Vessels

-Some fluid leaks into surrounding tissues through the capillaries and lymph vessels collect the fluid and return it in the circulatory system into large veins by the neck

-Contain valves to prevent backflow -Collect nutrients by small bowel  Lymph Nodes

-Found along lymph vessels

-Trap bacteria and other disease-causing organisms and become enlarged when infected

 Beating heart

-Beats 70/80 times per minute

-Upper chambers: atriums – receive the blood -Lower chambers: ventricle – pump blood out

 Oxygen poor blood comes from the vena cava to the right atrium, and the into the right ventricle passing through tricuspid valve

 Then the right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery

 The oxygen rich blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium and goes to the left ventricle passing through the mitral valve

 The left ventricle pumps the oxy-gen rich blood to all parts of the body through aorta

-All of the cardiac muscles contract together due to the electrical impulses by other cells

 SA Node

-A group of cells located in the wall of the right atrium -Pacemaker of the heart

-Causes the atria to contract  AV Node

-Cells that are located near the septum between the right atria and right ventricle that coordinates the contraction of the ventricles

-When the SA node contracts, Purkinje Fibers rapidly conduct the impulse to the AV Node and the impulse goes to the Bundle of His

 Pulmonary Circulation- circulation of blood between the heart and lungs  Systemic Circulation- circulation of blood between the heart and all of the body  Systole- pressure in heart when it is contracted

 Diastole- pressure in heart when it is relaxed  Pressure of blood against walls of arteries

-Normal = 120/80 or less -High= 140/90 or more

-Very High (hypertension)= 180/110 or above  Heart Murmur

-Leakage of blood in heart caused by damaged valve  High Blood Pressure

-Can strain heart and result in heart attack or stroke

-Causes: stress/anxiety, smoking, genetic, high sodium diet, obesity  Atherosclerosis

-Narrowing of arteries due to growing plaques of cholesterol -Blood cannot pass through

-Could lead to heart attack  Heart Attack “angina pectoris”

-Blood supply cut off to heart- cells die and heart stops working

-Symptoms: severe pain in chest, sweating, shortness of breath, nausea, pain in left arm/neck

-Treatment: angioplasty- microscopic balloon fed into blocked artery with a catheter- presses plaque against arterial walls to resume blood flow

 Stroke

-Failure of blood supply to the brain

-Nerve cells die and could cause paralysis- loss of speech/memory  Blood

-Carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, cell wastes (urea), enzymes and hormones

-Maintains body temperature (for enzymes 37C) -Maintains constant pH (7.2 for enzymes)

-Protection against microorganisms

-Liquid part of blood (clear) -90% water

-50% of blood volume

-Contains: nutrients, wastes, enzymes, hormones, proteins, antibodies, fibrinogen, and prothrombin

 Red Blood Cells “erythrocytes”

-Biconcave disk with no mitochondria or nucleus

-Carry oxygen in a protein called hemoglobin that contains iron to bind to oxygen

-Most abundant- 120 day life span  White Blood Cells “leukocytes”

-Function is to identify and destroy foreign particles in the body -Larger and have a nucleus and mitochondria

-Phagocyte: engulfs and destroys bacteria by phagocytosis

-Lymphocyte: some produce antibodies to destroy foreign substances  Platelets

-Cell fragments involved in blood clotting – Enzyme reactions

-Contain no nuclei- formed from lots of cytoplasm from large cells in bone marrow