Daoist Dietetics

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Three Pines Press P. O. Box 609 Dunedin, FL 34697

\s^v\v. threepinespress.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the pubhsher.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Three Pines Edition, 2010

Printed in the United States of America

(8> This edition is printed on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standard Institute Z39.48 Standard. Distributed in the United States by Three Pines Press.

Cover art: Private photo of Daoist porridge.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kohn, Livia,

1956-Daoist dietetics : food for immortality / by Livia Kohn. — 1st Three Pines ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-931483-14-8 (alk. paper)

1. Cookery, Chinese. 2. Dietetics-China. 3. Taoism. I. Title. TX724.5.C5.K64 2010

613.20951?dc22

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INTRODUCTION

PART I: MEDICINAL DIETS

1. Principles of Chinese Diet 2. Social Regulations

3. Dietary Therapy

PART II: DAOIST FOOD

4. What Daoists Eat 5. Food in Ritual 6. Living on Qi

PART III: TEXTS ON PRACTICES

\. Herbal Formulas

2. Giving up Ordinary Food 3. Guiding Qi

4. Embryo Respiration

PART IV: RECIPES

Notes

\. Cooked Cereals 2. Appetizers 3. Salads 4. Soups

5. Stews and Noodle Soups 6. Main Dishes 7. Desserts 8. Herbal Drinks 17 33 50 71 96 117 145 150 159 163 171 172 175 178 180 183 185 189 191 BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX 193 209

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This book grew over several years in an ongoing dialogue with my

friend and colleague Ute Engelhardt. As sinology students at the

Univer-sity of Munich in the 1970s, we both focused on the work of Sima

Chengzhen, then moved on in different directions. As I continued to

ex-plore the various modes of self-cultivation in the Daoist tradition, Ute

became a specialist in Chinese dietetics, examining and presenting—

usually in cooperation with practitioners of Chinese medicine —the

char-acteristics, workings, and therapeutic application of all different kinds of

food.

We had variously talked about putting together a book that would bring

our expertise together and when, early in 2009, her new book on Chinese

dietetic recipes appeared and I visited her in Munich, we decided to

move ahead on the project. Then and there, we created a preliminary

book outline and began the writing process. In the event, since I had

more time and could dedicate myself fully to the work, I ended up

writ-ing it myself. But her published work on dietary therapy, her continued

encouragement, her sharing of references and research materials, and her

corrective readings have been essential in creating Daoist Dietetics.

Mod-esty prevented her from accepting the position of cooperator, but her

presence is felt throughout the work.

I would also like to thank Andreas Noll for encouraging the project and

suggesting that I teach dietary methods at the TCM Congress in

Rothen-burg, Germany. Last, but certainly not least, Stephen Eskildsen and

Vivienne Lo have been very supportive and made numerous suggestions

for correction and improvement.

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The body always move; your food always reduce.

Moving, never reach extremes; reducing, never get to naught.

Eliminate fat and heavy things; control all salt and sour tastes. . Diminish thoughts and worries; lessen joy and anger.

Get out of hectic rushing; watch out for sexual exhaustion. Do this always—and you'll see results!

—Master Blue Ox {Yangxing yanming In 1.10b)

D a o i s m i s s p e c i a l a m o n g t h e w o r l d ' s r e l i g i o n s i n t h a t i t p l a c e s p a r t i c u l a r en^phasis o n b o d y c u l t i v a t i o n for s p i r i t u a l a t t a i n m e n t . T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y i s d u e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e b o d y a s j o i n e d w i t h t h e g r e a t e r u n i v e r s e t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f a vital e n e r g y k n o w n a s q i Q i i s t h e c o n c r e t e a s p e c t o f D a o , t h e m a t e r i a l r o o t p o w e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e b a s i c stuff of n a t u r e . In a n c i e n t s o u r c e s it is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mist, fog, a n d m o v i n g c l o u d s . T h e c h a r a c t e r for q i a s i t a p p e a r s i n t h e o r a c l e b o n e s o f t h e S h a n g d y n a s t y ( 1 7 6 6 - 1 1 2 2 B.C.E.) c o n s i s t s o f t w o parts: a n i m a g e o f s o m e o n e e a t i n g a n d g r a i n in a p o t . C o m b i n e d , t h e s e p a r t s s i g n a l qi as t h e q u a l i t y w h i c h n o u r i s h e s , w a r m s , t r a n s f o r m s , a n d rises. Q i is, therefore, t h e life force i n t h e h u m a n b o d y a n d t h e b a s i s o f all p h y s i c a l vitality, f o u n d f o r e m o s t i n t h e air w e b r e a t h e a n d i n t h e f o o d s w e eat. T h i s m e a n s t h a t d i e t a r y p r a c t i c e s a r e a t t h e v e r y c o r e o f t h e D a o i s t u n d e r t a k i n g . T h e y f o r m a n e s s e n t i a l w a y t o w a r d b e i n g h e a l t h y i n t h e w o r l d , l i v i n g for a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d , a n d t r a n s c e n d i n g t o t h e u l t i m a t e s t a t e o f i m m o r t a l i t y . D a o i s t s a n d m e d i c a l w r i t e r s i n C h i n e s e h i s t o r y h a v e f o r m u l a t e d t h e c o s m o l o g y o f t h e b o d y i n m a n y different t e r m s a n d e s t a b l i s h e d n u m e r -o u s t h e -o r i e s -o f h -o w e x a c t l y t h e v a r i -o u s p a r t s a n d a s p e c t s functi-on a n d w o r k t o g e t h e r . W h i l e i t will b e t h e e x c i t i n g t a s k o f future r e s e a r c h t o e x p l o r e their w o r k a n d u n d e r s t a n d their c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d different h i s t o -ries, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s u m m a r i z e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s o f t h e C h i n e s e v i s i o n t o p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k o f D a o i s t c u l t i v a t i o n p r a c t i c e , u n

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-2 / Daoist Dietetics d e r s t a n d i n g fully w e l l t h a t t h i s i s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n a n d d o e s n o t c l a i m t o s h o w i t a s a n i m m u t a b l e s y s t e m o f e i t h e r t h e o r y o r p r a c t i c e . T h u s , g e n e r a l l y t r a d i t i o n a l D a o i s t a n d m e d i c a l t h i n k e r s a g r e e that t h e r e i s o n l y o n e qi, j u s t a s t h e r e i s o n l y o n e D a o . M a n y u n d e r s t a n d i t t o c o m e in t w o forms: a b a s i c p r i m o r d i a l or p r e n a t a l qi that is i n b o r n a n d c o n -n e c t s u s t o t h e c o s m o s a -n d t h e D a o ; a -n d a s e c o -n d a r y , e a r t h l y o r p o s t -n a t a l qi that is r e p l e n i s h e d by b r e a t h i n g , f o o d , as w e l l as s o c i a l a n d s e x u a l c o n -tact a n d h e l p s t h e b o d y s u r v i v e i n e v e r y d a y life. B o t h f o r m s o f q i a r e n e c e s s a r y a n d i n t e r a c t c o n s t a n t l y w i t h e a c h o t h e r , so that p r i m o r d i a l qi is lost as a n d w h e n e a r t h l y qi is insufficient, a n d e n h a n c i n g e a r t h l y qi is no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y w h e n p r i m o r d i a l q i i s c o m p l e t e (as i n t h e c a s e o f t h e e m b r y o i n t h e w o m b ) . O n c e p e o p l e are b o r n , t h e y start this i n t e r c h a n g e of t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s of qi a n d s o o n start l o s i n g their p r i m o r d i a l qi, e s -p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e w o r l d o n t h e b a s i s o f -p a s s i o n s a n d d e s i r e s , s e n s o r y e x c h a n g e s , a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n . A s p e o p l e l o s e their p r i m o r d i a l qi, t h e y b e g i n t o d e c l i n e a n d e v e n t u a l l y die. S h o u l d t h e y l o s e it at a r a t h e r r a p i d or u n b a l a n c e d rate, t h e y e x p e r i -e n c -e a w -e a k -e n i n g o f th-eir d -e f -e n s -e s w h i c h g r o w s i n t o m i n o r s y m p t o m s that m a y l e a d t o a c u t e o r c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s . J u s t a s s i c k n e s s i s t h e r e f o r e a form of (j/-loss, so h e a l i n g is t h e r e p l e n i s h i n g of qi w i t h m e d i c a l m e a n s s u c h a s d i e t a r y t h e r a p y o r food c u r e s a s w e l l a s d r u g s , h e r b s , a c u p u n c -ture, m a s s a g e s , a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r m e a n s a t t h e p h y s i c i a n ' s d i s p o s a l . L o n g e v i t y , n e x t , c o m e s i n a s a n d w h e n p e o p l e h a v e b e c o m e a w a r e o f their c o n t r i b u t i o n t o i n t e r n a l i m b a l a n c e s a n d t a k e their h e a l i n g i n t o their o w n h a n d s . B e i n g initially h e l p e d b y m e d i c a l m e a n s , t h e n d e v e l o p i n g a life-style m o r e c o n g r u e n t w i t h their e n e r g e t i c n e e d s , t h e y attain a s t a t e o f g o o d h e a l t h . H o w e v e r , t h e y d o n o t s t o p t h e r e b u t p r o c e e d t o i n c r e a s e their p r i m o r d i a l q i t o a n d e v e n a b o v e t h e l e v e l t h e y h a d a t b i r t h . T o d o so, t h e y f o l l o w specific d i e t a r y p r i n c i p l e s a s w e l l a s w o r k w i t h b r e a t h i n g , h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s {daoyin i ^ ^ l ) , s e l f m a s s a g e s , s e x u a l c o n t r o l , a n d m e d i -t a -t i o n s — p r a c -t i c e d -t o a l a r g e e x -t e n -t -t o d a y u n d e r -t h e n a m e o f q i g o n g ( s e e K o h n 1 9 8 9 ; 2 0 0 6 ; 2 0 0 8 a ; C o h e n 1 9 9 7 ) . A p p l i e d r e g u l a r l y a n d s y s t e m atically, t h e s e m e t h o d s e n s u r e n o t o n l y a n e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r a l life e x p e c -t a n c y b u -t of-ten l e a d -t o i n c r e a s e d v i g o r a n d y o u -t h f u l n e s s . I m m o r t a l i t y , third, r a i s e s t h e p r a c t i c e s to a y e t h i g h e r l e v e l . To a t t a i n it, p e o p l e h a v e to t r a n s f o r m all t h e i r qi i n t o p r i m o r d i a l qi a n d p r o c e e d to i n c r e a s i n g l y r e f i n e it to e v e n s u b t l e r l e v e l s . T h i s finer qi w i l l e v e n t u a l l y

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2 / Daoist Dietetics

d e r s t a n d i n g fully w e l l that this is an a p p r o x i m a t i o n and d o e s n o t c l a i m t o s h o w i t a s a n i m m u t a b l e s y s t e m o f e i t h e r t h e o r y o r p r a c t i c e .

T l i u s , g e n e r a l l y t r a d i t i o n a l D a o i s t and m e d i c a l t h i n k e r s a g r e e that t h e r e is o n l y o n e qi, j u s t as t h e r e is o n l y o n e D a o . M a n y u n d e r s t a n d it to c o m e in t w o forms: a b a s i c p r i m o r d i a l or p r e n a t a l qi that is i n b o r n a n d c o n -n e c t s u s t o t h e c o s m o s a -n d t h e D a o ; a -n d a s e c o -n d a r y , e a r t h l y o r p o s t -n a t a l

qi that is r e p l e n i s h e d by b r e a t h i n g , f o o d , as w e l l as social and s e x u a l c o n

-tact a n d h e l p s t h e b o d y s u r v i v e in e v e r y d a y life. B o t h f o r m s of qi a r e n e c e s s a r y a n d i n t e r a c t c o n s t a n t l y w i t h e a c h other, so that p r i m o r d i a l qi is lost as a n d w h e n e a r t h l y qi is insufficient, a n d e n h a n c i n g e a r t h l y qi is no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y w h e n p r i m o r d i a l qi is c o m p l e t e (as in t h e c a s e of t h e e m b r y o i n t h e w o m b ) . O n c e p e o p l e are b o r n , t h e y start this i n t e r c h a n g e of t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s of qi a n d s o o n start l o s i n g their p r i m o r d i a l qi, e s -p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e w o r l d o n t h e b a s i s o f -p a s s i o n s a n d d e s i r e s , s e n s o r y e x c h a n g e s , a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n . A s p e o p l e lose t h e i r p r i m o r d i a l qi, t h e y b e g i n t o d e c l i n e a n d e v e n t u a l l y die. S h o u l d t h e y l o s e it at a r a t h e r r a p i d or u n b a l a n c e d rate, t h e y e x p e r i -e n c -e a w -e a k -e n i n g o f t h -e i r d -e f -e n s -e s w h i c h g r o w s i n t o m i n o r s y m p t o m s that m a y l e a d t o a c u t e o r c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s . J u s t a s s i c k n e s s i s t h e r e f o r e a form of qi-\oss, so h e a l i n g is t h e r e p l e n i s h i n g of qi w i t h m e d i c a l m e a n s s u c h a s d i e t a r y t h e r a p y o r food c u r e s a s w e l l a s d r u g s , h e r b s , a c u p u n c -ture, m a s s a g e s , a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r m e a n s a t t h e p h y s i c i a n ' s d i s p o s a l . L o n g e v i t y , n e x t , c o m e s i n a s a n d w h e n p e o p l e h a v e b e c o m e a w a r e o f their c o n t r i b u t i o n t o i n t e r n a l i m b a l a n c e s a n d t a k e their h e a l i n g i n t o their o w n h a n d s . B e i n g initially h e l p e d b y m e d i c a l m e a n s , t h e n d e v e l o p i n g a life-style m o r e c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e i r e n e r g e t i c n e e d s , t h e y attain a state o f g o o d h e a l t h . H o w e v e r , t h e y d o n o t s t o p t h e r e b u t p r o c e e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r p r i m o r d i a l q i t o a n d e v e n a b o v e t h e l e v e l t h e y h a d a t b i r t h . T o d o so, t h e y f o l l o w specific d i e t a r y p r i n c i p l e s a s w e l l a s w o r k w i t h b r e a t h i n g , h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s {daoyin [), s e l f m a s s a g e s , s e x u a l c o n t r o l , and m e d i -t a -t i o n s — p r a c -t i c e d -t o a l a r g e e x -t e n -t -t o d a y u n d e r -t h e n a m e o f q i g o n g ^ J / j (see K o h n 1 9 8 9 ; 2 0 0 6 ; 2 0 0 8 a ; C o h e n 1 9 9 7 ) . A p p l i e d r e g u l a r l y a n d s y s t e m atically, t h e s e m e t h o d s e n s u r e n o t o n l y a n e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r a l life e x p e c -t a n c y b u -t of-ten l e a d -t o i n c r e a s e d v i g o r a n d y o u -t h f u l n e s s .

I m m o r t a l i t y , third, r a i s e s t h e p r a c t i c e s to a yet h i g h e r l e v e l . To attain it, p e o p l e h a v e to t r a n s f o r m all t h e i r qi i n t o p r i m o r d i a l qi a n d p r o c e e d to i n c r e a s i n g l y refine it to e v e n s u b t l e r l e v e l s . T h i s finer qi will e v e n t u a l l y

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Introduction / 3 t u r n i n t o p u r e spirit {shen | ^ ) , w i t h w h i c h p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n -tify t o b e c o m e s p i r i t - p e o p l e a n d i m m o r t a l s . T h e p r a c t i c e that l e a d s t h e r e i n v o l v e s i n t e n s i v e m e d i t a t i o n a n d t r a n c e t r a i n i n g a s w e l l a s m o r e r a d i c a l f o r m s o f diet a n d o t h e r l o n g e v i t y p r a c t i c e s . I m m o r t a l i t y i m p l i e s t h e o v e r c o m i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e b o d y a n d its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a different k i n d of e n e r g e t i c c o n s t e l l a t i o n . T h e result is a b y p a s s i n g o f d e a t h s o t h a t t h e e n d o f t h e b o d y h a s n o i m p a c t o n t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t - p e r s o n . I t a l s o l e a d s t o t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f m a g i c a l p o w e r s a n d e v e n t u a l l y t o r e s i d e n c e i n t h e h e a v e n s a n d p a r a d i s e s o f t h e i m m o r t a l s . C h i n e s e l o n g e v i t y a n d d i e t a r y p r a c t i c e s , a s first d e s c r i b e d i n m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . ( s e e H a r p e r 1 9 9 8 ; L o 2 0 1 0 ) , o c c u p y a m i d d l e g r o u n d i n t h i s s y s t e m . T h e y s t a n d b e t w e e n h e a l i n g a n d i m m o r t a l i t y a n d a r e u s e f u l l y a p p l i e d o n e i t h e r level. A l t h o u g h e s s e n t i a l a s m e d i c a l t e c h -n i q u e s a -n d i -n h e a l t h i m p r o v e m e -n t , t h e y a l s o p l a y a -n i m p o r t a -n t r o l e i -n D a o i s m , b u t w i t h s o m e m o d i f i c a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , d i e t s o n t h e m e d i c a l a n d h e a l t h l e v e l s i n v o l v e m o d e r a t i o n i n food i n t a k e a s w e l l a s o v e r a l l life-style a s w e l l a s t h e c o n s c i o u s u s e o f i n h e r e n t food q u a l i t i e s s u c h a s w a r m i n g , c o o l i n g , s i n k i n g , o r r i s i n g t o b a l a n c e s e a s o n a l c l i m a t e s , g e o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a t i o n s , a n d p e r s o n a l t e n d e n c i e s —either w o r k i n g i n h a r -m o n y w i t h t h e -m o r u s i n g food t o c o u n t e r a c t their t e n d e n c i e s a n d allevi-a t e their i m p allevi-a c t . P r allevi-a c t i t i o n e r s allevi-are e n c o u r allevi-a g e d t o allevi-a v o i d e x c e s s e allevi-a t i n g allevi-a n d h e a v y foods, t o eat p r o p e r l y c o o k e d m e a l s i n s m a l l p o r t i o n s , a n d t o b e m e n t a l l y c a l m a n d c o n s c i o u s l y a w a r e a s t h e y eat. A s t h e y a r e c o n s c i e n -t i o u s i n -their p r a c -t i c e , -their q i c o n -t i n u e s -t o b e c o m e s -t r o n g e r a n d -t h e y n e e d e v e r less food, until—in i m m o r t a l i t y p r a c t i c e — t h e y c a n c u t o u t all m a i n s t a p l e s a n d r e p l a c e food first b y h e r b a l a n d m i n e r a l c o n c o c t i o n s , t h e n b y t h e c o n s c i o u s i n t a k e o f q i t h r o u g h b r e a t h . T h i s t e c h n i q u e i s c a l l e d " a v o i d i n g g r a i n " {bigu ^f-fx) a n d is still u n d e r t a k e n t o d a y . S i m i l a r l y , h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s , s e l f - m a s s a g e s , a n d b r e a t h i n g t e c h n i q u e s s e r v e t o s t r e t c h and l o o s e n m u s c l e s , s t i m u l a t e t h e c i r c u l a t i o n , a n d aid t h e s m o o t h f l o w o f q i i n t h e b o d y . T h e y a r e n e v e r s t r e n u o u s , b u t c h a n g e i n n a t u r e a s p e o p l e p r o c e e d from h e a l i n g t o l o n g e v i t y a n d i m m o r t a l i t y levels, b e c o m i n g m o r e c o s m i c i n p a t t e r n a n d m o r e c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e . B r e a t h -i n g for h e a l t h a n d l o n g l-ife t h u s -i n v o l v e s -i n h a l -i n g all t h e w a y t o the d-ia- dia-p h r a g m , w h i c h e x dia-p a n d s a s o n e i n h a l e s . B r e a t h i n g for i m m o r t a l i t y , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a y l e a d t o s o m e t h i n g c a l l e d " r e v e r s e d b r e a t h i n g , " w h i c h u s e s t h e d i a p h r a g m t h e o p p o s i t e w a y , c o n t r a c t i n g i t o n i n h a l a t i o n . T h e p r a c t i c e l e a d s e v e n t u a l l y to a m e t h o d c a l l e d " e m b r y o r e s p i r a t i o n " (taixi

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§ P S ) / i n w h i c h n o o b v i o u s b r e a t h e n t e r s o r l e a v e s t h e n o s t r i l s . I n s t e a d , p r a c t i t i o n e r s a b s o r b qi t h r o u g h t h e i r e n t i r e b o d y a n d c i r c u l a t e it w i t h i n . S e x u a l t e c h n i q u e s , too, are u s e d on all levels, first with a p a r t n e r , later i n t e r n a l l y i n c e l i b a t e s o l o p r a c t i c e . I n all c a s e s , a d e p t s e x p e r i e n c e s e x u a l s t i m u l a t i o n b u t then, i n s t e a d l o s i n g i t t h r o u g h o r g a s m , r e v e r t t h e rising qi of a r o u s a l , c o m m o n l y c a l l e d e s s e n c e (jiiig ), and m o v e it up a l o n g t h e s p i n e w i t h t h e h e l p o f m e d i t a t i o n a n d m a s s a g e s . T h i s i s c a l l e d " r e -v e r t i n g t h e s e m e n t o n o u r i s h t h e b r a i n " a n d i s s u p p o s e d t o h a -v e s t r o n g l i f e - e x t e n d i n g effects. I n m o r e t e c h n i c a l D a o i s t p r a c t i c e o f later c e n t u r i e s , i t m i g h t e v e n l e a d t o t h e g e s t a t i o n o f a n i m m o r t a l e m b r y o (see W i l e 1 9 9 2 ; K o h n a n d W a n g 2 0 0 9 ) . B e f o r e o n e a t t a i n s a n y o f t h e s e h i g h e r s t a g e s , t h o u g h , o n e h a s t o l a y t h e g r o u n d w o r k . I t c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y o f b a l a n c i n g qi. C h i n e s e m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k m a y d i s c u s s qi in t e r m s of q u a n t i t y , s i n c e h a v i n g m o r e i n d i c a t e s a s t r o n g e r m e t a b o l i c function. T h i s , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t m e a n that h e a l t h o r l o n g e v i t y a r e a b y p r o d u c t o f s t o r i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f qi. M o r e c o m -m o n l y t h e y n o t e that t h e r e i s a n o r -m a l o r h e a l t h y a -m o u n t o f q i i n e v e r y p e r s o n , a n d h e a l t h m a n i f e s t s i n its b a l a n c e a n d h a r m o n y , its m o d e r a t i o n a n d s m o o t h n e s s o f flow. T h e t e x t s e n v i s i o n this flow a s a c o m p l e x s y s -t e m of w a -t e r w a y s w i -t h -t h e " O c e a n of Qi" ( Q i h a i MIS) in -t h e a b d o m e n ; r i v e r s of qi f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e u p p e r t o r s o , a r m s , a n d l e g s ; s p r i n g s of qi r e a c h i n g to the w r i s t s a n d a n k l e s ; a n d w e l l s of qi in t h e f i n g e r s a n d toes. E v e n a s m a l l s p o t i n this c o m p l e x s y s t e m c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e w h o l e , s o t h a t o v e r a l l b a l a n c e a n d s m o o t h n e s s are t h e g e n e r a l g o a l .

H u m a n life is t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of qi; d e a t h is its d i s p e r s a l . After r e c e i v -i n g a c o r e p o t e n t -i a l of p r -i m o r d -i a l q-i at b -i r t h , p e o p l e t h r o u g h o u t l-ife n e e d t o s u s t a i n it. T h e y d o s o b y d r a w i n g p o s t n a t a l q i i n t o t h e b o d y from air a n d food, a s w e l l a s from o t h e r p e o p l e t h r o u g h s e x u a l , e m o t i o n a l , a n d s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . B u t t h e y a l s o l o s e q i t h r o u g h b r e a t h i n g b a d air, o v e r -b u r d e n i n g t h e i r -b o d i e s w i t h food a n d d r i n k , a n d g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s a n d e x c e s s i v e s e x u a l o r s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . T o b a l a n c e qi, i t i s t h u s b e s t t o b r e a t h e d e e p l y a n d e a t m o d e r a t e l y i n a c -c o r d a n -c e w i t h t h e s e a s o n s , t o m o v e s m o o t h l y , e x e r -c i s e w i t h o u t e x e r t i o n , a n d m a t c h a c t i v i t i e s t o t h e b o d y ' s n e e d s . T h i s i s h o w o n e k e e p s h a r m o n y , m a i n t a i n s h e a l t h , a n d a c h i e v e s l o n g life. H e a l t h i n t h e v i s i o n o f C h i n e s e

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Introduction / 5

m e d i c i n e a n d D a o i s m i s t h u s m o r e t h a n t h e a b s e n c e o f s y m p t o m s : i t i s the p r e s e n c e o f s t r o n g v i t a l i t y a n d o f a s m o o t h , h a r m o n i o u s , a n d a c t i v e flow of qi, a state k n o w n as " p r o p e r qi" {zhengqi j E ^ ) .

Its o p p o s i t e is " w a y w a r d qi" {xieqi MMd< V that h a s l o s t t h e h a r m o n i o u s p a t t e r n o f f l o w a n d n o l o n g e r s u p p o r t s t h e d y n a m i c f o r c e s o f c h a n g e . W h e r e a s p r o p e r qi m o v e s in a s t e a d y , h a r m o n i o u s r h y t h m a n d effects daily r e n e w a l , h e l p i n g h e a l t h a n d l o n g life, w a y w a r d q i i s d i s o r d e r l y a n d d y s f u n c t i o n a l , c r e a t i n g c h a n g e t h a t v i o l a t e s t h e n o r m a l order. W h e n i t b e c o m e s d o m i n a n t , t h e (^i-flow c a n t u r n u p o n itself a n d d e p l e t e t h e b o d y ' s r e s o u r c e s . T h e n t h e p e r s o n n o l o n g e r o p e r a t e s a s p a r t o f a u n i v e r -sal s y s t e m and i s n o t i n t u n e w i t h t h e b a s i c life force. W a y w a r d n e s s typically a p p e a r s w h e n q i b e g i n s t o m o v e e i t h e r t o o fast o r t o o s l o w , i s e x c e s -s i v e o r d e p l e t e d , o r c r e a t e -s r u -s h e -s o r o b -s t r u c t i o n -s . I t d i -s t u r b -s t h e r e g u l a r t l o w a n d c a u s e s a i l m e n t s . M o r e specifically, q i c a n b e c o m e e x c e s s i v e t h r o u g h o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s s u c h a s t o o m u c h h e a t o r c o l d o r t h r o u g h i n s i d e p a t t e r n s s u c h a s t o o m u c h e m o t i o n o r s t i m u l a t i o n . E x c e s s i v e q i c a n b e m o v i n g t o o fast o r b e v e r y s l u g g i s h , a s i n t h e c a s e o f e x c e s s i v e d a m p n e s s . W h a t e v e r t h e c a s e , from a u n i v e r s a l p e r s p e c t i v e t h e r e is no a d d i t i o n a l or n e w qi c r e a t e d , b u t l o c a l i z e d d i s h a r m o n i e s h a v e a r i s e n b e c a u s e t h e qii\ow h a s b e c o m e e x -c e s s i v e a n d t h u s h a r m f u l . Still, e v e n d e s -c r i b i n g i t i n this w a y w e a r e t h i n k i n g in t e r m s of qi as an e n e r g e t i c s u b s t a n c e , w h i c h it r e a l l y is n o t . A b e t t e r w a y o f e x p r e s s i o n w o u l d b e t o s a y that t h e p r o c e s s itself o f t u r n i n g h o t o r a n g r y i s qi, that t h e w a y t h i n g s m o v e a n d c h a n g e i s w h a t c o n s t i -t u -t e s o u r b e i n g qi. S i m i l a r l y , q i c a n b e i n d e p l e t i o n . T h i s m a y m e a n that t h e r e i s a t e n s e f l o w of qi d u e to n e r v o u s n e s s or a n x i e t y , or t h a t the v o l u m e a n d d e n s i t y of qi h a v e d e c r e a s e d , w h i c h i s t h e c a s e i n s e r i o u s p r o l o n g e d illness. H o w e v e r , m o r e c o m m o n l y it m e a n s that t h e qi a c t i v i t y l e v e l is l o w e r , t h a t its f l o w is n o t q u i t e u p t o s t a n d a r d , that t h e r e i s less t h a n n o r m a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f qi in o n e or t h e o t h e r b o d y p a r t . In t h e s a m e v e i n , p e r f e c t i o n of qi m e a n s

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t h e o p t i m a l f u n c t i o n i n g of qi in t h e b o d y , w h i l e c o n t r o l of qi m e a n s t h e p o w e r t o c o n s c i o u s l y g u i d e t h e e n e r g e t i c p r o c e s s .

T h a t is to say, h e a l i n g is t h e c o r r e c t i o n of qii\ow from a d e v i a n t or w a y -w a r d p a t t e r n b a c k t o a h a r m o n i o u s o r c o r r e c t flo-w, m a t c h i n g t h e r h y t h m o f D a o , c r e a t i n g w e l l - b e i n g i n t h e p e r s o n , a n d a i d i n g s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . L o n g e v i t y i s t h e e n h a n c e m e n t a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e p r o p e r flow o f qi, a l l o w i n g p e o p l e t o fully g o a l o n g w i t h all t h e m o v e m e n t s o f D a o i n o r d e r t o e n j o y h e a l t h , r e t a i n v i g o r , a n d live l o n g a n d s u c c e s s f u l lives. I m m o r -tality, finally, i s t h e m o v e t o w a r d D a o a s t h e c r e a t i v e p o w e r a t the c e n t e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p r o p e r , h e a l t h y , a n d h a r m o n i o u s q i i n t o the s u b t l e r l e v e l s o f c o s m i c p o w e r , into a m y s t e r i o u s a n d ineffable s t a t e o f b e i n g that g o e s far b e y o n d t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . E a t i n g a n d d r i n k -i n g are a t t h e v e r y c e n t e r o f t h -i s q-i-work, a n e s s e n t -i a l w a y o f r e l a t -i n g t o n a t u r e a n d s o c i e t y , a k e y m e t h o d o f h e l p i n g o r h u r t i n g t h e b o d y ' s inter-n a l s y s t e m s a inter-n d t h u s e i t h e r e inter-n h a inter-n c i inter-n g o r d i m i inter-n i s h i inter-n g h e a l t h , l o inter-n g life, a n d i m m o r t a l i t y .

'7H<yctenaU<M-T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f b a l a n c i n g q i a n d e a t i n g t o o n e ' s b e s t a d v a n t a g e i s a p e a c e f u l a n d h a r m o n i o u s life ( H u a n g 2 0 0 7 , 4 0 ) . F r o m e a r l y on, a n d w e l l i n t o t o d a y (e.g., L i u 1 9 9 0 ) , b o o k s o n l o n g e v i t y , o f b o t h a r i s t o c r a t i c a n d D a o i s t o r i g i n , specify h o w t o g o a b o u t it. T h e y t e n d t o b e g i n w i t h m e n t a l a t t i t u d e s . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , S u n S i m i a o '^sWM- ( 5 8 1 - 6 8 2 ) , t h e f a m o u s p h y s i c i a n , D a o i s t , a n d a l c h e m i s t of t h e e a r l y T a n g d y n a s t y , in h i s Zhenzhong ji tf^f^ 1 2 ( P i l l o w b o o k R e c o r d , D Z 8 3 7 ) ' s p e c i f i e s that o n e s h o u l d m a i n t a i n a s e r e n e s t a t e o f m i n d b y c u l t i v a t i n g a n a t t i t u d e o f a w e a n d c a r e . H e refers to t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y Shenxian shiqi jin'gui miaolu ^$i\ll'^M,^Mtl^M ( W o n d r o u s R e c o r d o f t h e G o l d e n C a s k e t o n t h e Spirit I m m o r t a l s ' P r a c -tice o f E a t i n g Qi, D Z 8 3 6 ) t o d e f i n e t h i s a s " t h e g a t e w a y o f life a n d death, t h e k e y t o rites a n d g o o d t e a c h i n g , t h e c a u s e o f e x i s t i n g a n d p e r i s h i n g , t h e r o o t o f g o o d a n d b a d fortune, a s w e l l a s t h e p r i m e s o u r c e o f all a u s -p i c i o u s a n d i n a u s -p i c i o u s c o n d i t i o n s " ( 1 4 b ) .

I f a w e a n d c a r e a r e lost, " t h e m i n d will b e c o n f u s e d a n d n o t c u l t i v a t e d , t h e b o d y will b e h e c t i c a n d n o t a t p e a c e , t h e spirit will b e s c a t t e r e d , t h e q i

' Texts in the Daoist canon, abbreviated DZ, are cited according to Kom-jathy 2002; Schipper and Verellen 2004.

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Introduction / 7

2 It plays also a key role in Xi Kang's f^JS Yangsheng lun (On Nour-ishing Life). See Henricks 1983.

will g o b e y o n d all b o u n d s , a n d will a n d i n t e n t i o n will b e d e l u d e d " ( 1 4 b ) . T h i s c o n d i t i o n , w h i c h w e n o w call " s t r e s s , " i s t h e u l t i m a t e a n t i t h e s i s t o h e a l t h a n d l o n g life. A w e a n d c a r e c o m b a t i t effectively s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e b a s i s o f m o r a l a c t i o n a n d v i r t u o u s t h o u g h t s . T h e y p r o v i d e g r e a t benefit. A s S u n s a y s :

One who is able to realize awe and care is safe from harm by dragons when traveling on water and cannot be hurt by tigers or rhinoceroses when traveling on land. Weapons cannot wound him nor can contagious diseases infect him. Slander

cannot destroy his good name nor the poisonous stings of in- ' sects do him harm. (Sivin 1968, 118; Engelhardt 1989, 281)

T o live i n this m e n t a l s e r e n i t y o f a w e a n d c a r e , m o r e o v e r , o n e s h o u l d p r a c t i c e m o d e r a t i o n i n all a s p e c t s o f life a n d a v o i d o v e r i n d u l g e n c e i n food a n d d r i n k a s w e l l a s i n o t h e r s e n s u a l a n d s e x u a l p l e a s u r e s . M a n y l o n g e v i t y t e x t s i n the m i d d l e a g e s p l a c e a g r e a t e m p h a s i s o n m o d -eration.2 T h e y f r e q u e n t l y e x p r e s s i t i s i n t h e f o r m a t o f t w e l v e t h i n g s t o d o o n l y a " l i t t l e " b i t at a t i m e . T h e y are:

Think little, reflect little, laugh little, speak little, enjoy little, anger little, delight little, mourn little, like little, dislike little, engage little, deal little.

If you think much, the spirit will disperse. If you reflect much, the heart will be labored.

If you laugh much, the organs and viscera will soar up. If you speak much, the Ocean of Qi will be empty and vacant. If you enjoy much, gall and bladder will take in outside wind. If you get angry much, the fascia will push the blood around. If you delight much, the spirit and heart will be deviant and unsettled.

If you mourn much, the hair and whiskers will dry and wither. If you like much, the will and qi will be overloaded.

If you dislike much, essence and power race off and soar away. If you engage yourself much, the muscles and <ji-channels will be tense and nervous.

If you deal much, wisdom and worry will all be confused. All these attack people's lives worse than axes and spears; they diminish people's destiny worse that wolves and wolverines. '

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I n o t h e r w o r d s , h a r m o n y w i t h D a o m a n i f e s t s itself i n m e n t a l s t a b i l i t y a n d p h y s i c a l w e l l n e s s , a n d a n y f o r m o f a g i t a t i o n o r s i c k n e s s i n d i c a t e s a d e c l i n e i n o n e ' s a l i g n m e n t w i t h t h e forces o f n a t u r e . V a r i o u s m e n t a l a c -tivities a n d s t r o n g e m o t i o n s h a r m k e y p s y c h o l o g i c a l forces a n d t h u s b r i n g a b o u t a d i m i n i s h i n g o f qi, w h i c h t a k e s o n e further a w a y from t h e D a o a n d r e d u c e s life. A s t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y Yangsheng yaoji ^ ^ ^ ^ ( L o n g Life C o m p e n d i u m ) by t h e a r i s t o c r a t a n d official Z h a n g Z h a n ^M/g, b e s t k n o w n a s c o m m e n t a t o r to t h e D a o i s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l text Liezi

^iJiF

( B o o k o f M a s t e r L i e ; trl. G r a h a m 1 9 6 0 ) , s a y s : " D a o i s qi. B y p r e s e r v i n g q i y o u c a n attain D a o , a n d t h r o u g h a t t a i n i n g D a o y o u c a n live l o n g . Spirit i s e s s e n c e . B y p r e s e r v i n g e s s e n c e y o u c a n r e a c h spirit b r i g h t n e s s , a n d o n c e y o u h a v e spirit b r i g h t n e s s , y o u c a n live l o n g " {Ishinpd 2 3 . 1 7 a b ; S t e i n 1 9 9 9 , 1 7 2 ) . 4

A l o n g t h e s a m e lines, t h e Baopuzi yangsheng lunM^h^^^m ( N o u r i s h -i n g L-ife A c c o r d -i n g t o t h e M a s t e r W h o E m b r a c e s S -i m p l -i c -i t y , D Z 8 4 2 ) h a s a set o f six e x h o r t a t i o n s t o r e l e a s e m e n t a l strain a n d s e n s o r y i n v o l v e m e n t . It s a y s :

1. Let go of fame and profit. 2. Limit sights and sounds.

3. Moderate wealth and possessions. 4. Lessen smells and tastes.

5. Eliminate lies and falsehood. 6. Avoid jealousy and envy, ( l b )

W h i l e all t h e s e e n s u r e m e n t a l s t a b i l i t y a n d c a l m i n social i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l life, t h e t e x t s also r e c o m m e n d c o n c r e t e m e a s u r e s o f

3 The version translated here appears in the fourth-century Yangsheng yaoji (which survives in fragments and citations), as cited in chapter 29 of the Ishinpd W'ij-yj (Essential Medical Methods), a key Japanese collection of longevity sources, dated to 984 (Stein 1999, 170-71). It is also found in the Daoist sources Baopuzi yangsheng lun (DZ 842), lb-2a and the Shenxian shiqi jin'gui lu 16a. In the environment of Sun Simiao, it is cited as from the Xiaoyou jing /JN^IS (Scripture of Lesser Existence) in Ya^igxing yanming lu S ' l t S I ^ J i l (On Nourishing Inner Nature and Extending Life, DZ 838), 1.5b.

^ The Yangxing yanming lu similarly notes: "Life is the foundation of spirit; the body is its tool. If you use spirit a lot, it will be exhausted; if you exert the body a lot, it will perish" (pref.la). For more on the Yangsheng yaoji, see Sakade 1986b, 10; Kohn 2008, 64-65.

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Introduction / 9

The method of nourishing long life consists mainly in not do- * ing harm to oneself. Keep warm in winter and cool in summer, ;

and never lose your harmony with the four seasons—that is how you can align yourself with the body. Do not allow sen-suous beauty, provocative postures, easy leisure, and enticing entertainments to incite yearnings and desires—that is how you come to connect to spirit. (Ishinpo 23.3a; Stein 1999, 169)

I n t e r m s o f diet, i t r e c o m m e n d s t h a t p r a c t i t i o n e r s a v o i d specific c o m b i n a -tions o f food, s u c h a s a n y t h i n g h o t a n d c o l d , s w e e t a n d r a w , o r m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y w h e a t a n d oats, o n i o n s a n d h o n e y , c e l e r y a n d p i g ' s liver, dried g i n g e r a n d r a b b i t (Stein 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 - 0 4 ) . T h e y s h o u l d u s e a l c o h o l s p a r i n g l y , b o i l w a t e r b e f o r e d r i n k i n g , a n d t a k e c a r e n o t t o g u l p d o w n c o l d d r i n k s w h e n hot. T h e t e x t also h a s specific r e c i p e s for b e n e f i c i a l food c o m b i n a t i o n s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e q u a l i t i e s a n d h e a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f h e r b s a n d food stuffs, as w e l l as a s e r i e s of i n s t r u c t i o n s for p r e g n a n c y ( 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 8 - 1 0 ) . I n m a n y c a s e s , i t p r o v i d e s r e m e d i e s for c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , n o t a b l y s t o m a c h a n d d i g e s t i v e p r o b l e m s , i n c l u d i n g c r a m p s , f l a t u l e n c e , c o n s t i p a t i o n , a n d d i a r r h e a ( 1 9 9 9 , 2 2 6 - 2 8 ) . E v e n i n t h e m i d d l e a g e s , t h e r e f o r e , w o r k i n g w i t h q i w a s s e e n v e r y m u c h i n t e r m s o f food r e g u l a t i o n . M e d i c i n a l d i e t s s e r v e d a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f h e a l t h y living, e x t e n d e d life e x p e c t a n c y , a n d t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f i m m o r t a l ity. D a o i s t dietetics, d e e p l y e m b e d d e d i n C h i n e s e c u l t u r e a n d t h e m e d i -cal tradition, t h u s a l w a y s b e g i n w i t h food c u r e s a n d t h e h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f eating. O n l y after t h e b o d y h a s a c h i e v e d b a l a n c e a n d h a r m o n y c a n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o h i g h e r l e v e l s b e g i n . p h y s i c a l m o d e r a t i o n . T h u s , c i t i n g t h e a n c i e n t i m m o r t a l P e n g z u a^lH, t h e Yangsheng yaoji p o i n t s o u t t h a t h e a v y c l o t h i n g a n d t h i c k c o m f o r t e r s , s p i c y f o o d s a n d h e a v y m e a t s , s e x u a l a t t r a c t i o n a n d a l l u r i n g w o m e n , m e -l o d i o u s v o i c e s a n d e n t i c i n g s o u n d s , w i -l d h u n t i n g a n d e x c i t i n g o u t i n g s , as w e l l as all strife for s u c c e s s a n d a m b i t i o n will i n e v i t a b l y l e a d to a \ s ' e a k e n i n g o f t h e b o d y a n d t h u s c a u s e a r e d u c t i o n i n life e x p e c t a n c y (Stein 1 9 9 9 , 1 7 8 ; a l s o in Yangxing yanming lu l . l O b - l l a ) . It says:

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C e r t a i n f o o d s are m o r e c o n d u c i v e t o t h e s e h i g h e r l e v e l s t h a n o t h e r s , a s v a r i o u s k i n d s o f n u t r i t i o n will e n h a n c e different c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d t h u s b e f a v o r e d b y different s p e c i e s i n n a t u r e . T h i s n o t i o n i s p a r t o f t h e g e n -eral C h i n e s e tradition, a n d a l r e a d y t h e Kongzi jiayu J L i F i c l p ( K o n g F a m -ily A n n a l s ) o f t h e first c e n t u r y C . E . s a y s :

Those who feed on water swim well and withstand cold. Those who feed on wood are strong but undisciplined. Those who feed on plants are good at walking but foolish. Those who feed on the mulberry are graceful and enterprising. Those who feed on meat are brave.

Those who feed on qi are pure and long-lived. Those who feed on grains attain superior intelligence. Those who do not feed become divine and immortal. (Despeux 2007, 28)5

C h i n e s e m e d i c i n e p i c k s u p t h e s a m e i d e a a n d classifies food i n t o four c a t e g o r i e s t h a t s e r v e different a s p e c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l h e a l t h . A s t h e Huangdi neijing suwen

M^l^l^&Mf'^

( T h e Y e l l o w E m p e r o r ' s I n n e r C l a s s i c : S i m p l e I s s u e s ) s a y s :

Poisonous drugs are good for attacking wayward qi while the five grains will nurture [proper qi]. The five kinds of fruit sup-port it, the five kinds of meat increase it, and the five kinds of vegetables complete it. As you combine these food groups with proper regard for their specific nature and their unique tastes and ingest them regularly, you supplement essence and en-hance qi. (22.4)

I n a d d i t i o n t o d r u g s , this d i v i d e s f o o d stuffs i n t o t h e four g r o u p s o f grain, fruit, m e a t , a n d v e g e t a b l e s , w h i c h e a c h h a v e a u n i q u e i m p a c t o n t h e p e r

-5 The same notion also appears in the Huainanzi ^Mi^ (Book of the Prince of Huainan, DZ 1184; 7.8b). See Major 1993, 172; Campany 2005, 108. Later the idea is picked up in Ge Hong's

gfit

Baopuzi

ffi^Fi^

(Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity, DZ 1185; dat. ca. 320): "Those eating greens are good at walking but foolish; those eating meat are strong and brave; those eating grains are wise but don't live long; and those eating qi have spirits within who never die" (ch. 15; Ware 1966, 243-44; see also MoUier 2000, 76-77). He continues by saying that none of these food methods ever guarantees true transcendence but that the concoction of an alchemical elixir is essential.

(52 Recipes :yr easil\- be : e ; ; a

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Introduction / 11

* This is also obvious in the Han manuscript Wushier bingfang fe'^ (52 Recipes for Diseases) which contains numerous concoctions that can just as easily be read as soup recipes (see Harper 1998; Engelhardt and Nogel 2009, 6).

s o n ' s qi-f\ow a n d o v e r a l l h e a l t h . E a c h k i n d of food in this s y s t e m is t h u s from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g m e d i c a l l y p o t e n t a n d s e e n i n t h e r a p e u t i c t e r m s , i ^ r \ i n g different a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n a n d a l s o different p e o p l e w i t h i n society.''

• a o i s t s a l s o c l a s s i f y foods, f o c u s i n g e v e n m o r e c o n s c i o u s l y o n t h e i r p o -rency for h e a l t h a n d i m m o r t a l i t y . A l t h o u g h o n e will e n c o u n t e r d r i n k i n g D a o i s t s t o d a y , m a n y h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s a r e a d a m a n t l y a g a i n s t t h e c o n -s u m p t i o n of m e a t a n d w i n e . T h e Huang-su -si-shi-sifangjing'MM^^VStlffS. I S c r i p t u r e o f F o r t y F o u r M e t h o d s o f Y e l l o w S i m p l i c i t y ) , c i t e d i n t h e s e v -e n t h - c -e n t u r y -e n c y c l o p -e d i a Sandong zhumng EiM^M ( P -e a r l y B a g of t h -e T h r e e C a v e r n s , D Z 1 1 3 9 ) , i s o n e o f t h e m o s t r a d i c a l :

The five kinds of meat are axes and hatchets that murder the organs. Wine and sex are inner and outer coffins that bury the body. Only if you eliminate the harm done by the axes, block the death represented by the coffins, and find irmer restfulness can you walk on the path to long life and gradually follow the road to immortality. (4.5a)

lust a s w i n e a n d m e a t a r e n o t c o n d u c i v e t o a d v a n c e d s t a t e s , s o different foodstuffs h a v e v a r y i n g effects a n d are c o n s u m e d b y different k i n d s o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s . As t h e a n c i e n t Taiping jing ( S c r i p t u r e of G r e a t P e a c e ; see H e n d r i s c h k e 2 0 0 6 ) , n o t e s i n its c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i m m o r t a l s a c c o r d i n g to t h e foods t h e y eat:

Question: The upper, middle, and lower [immortals] who at-tain the Dao and go beyond the world — what do they eat?

Answer: Those of the first level absorb wind and cji; those of the second level ingest medicinal flavors; those of the third level eat little, reducing what passes through their stomach and intestines. (Wang 1960, 716; Campany 2005, 109)

T h i s sets u p t h e b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n o f D a o i s t p r a c t i t i o n e r s : t h o s e i n t h e b e -g i n n i n -g s t a -g e s e a t v e -g e t a b l e s a n d s i m p l e -g r a i n s t h a t are d i -g e s t e d t h e n o r m a l w a y b u t s u p p o r t t h e b a l a n c e o f qi. M o r e a d v a n c e d folk p r a c t i c e a diet t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d i n c r e a s i n g r e p l a c e m e n t o f \ ' e g e t a b l e s t h r o u g h c o n c o c t i o n s o r " h e r b a l f o r m u l a s " {i/ao T h o s e w h o

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w o r k t o a c h i e v e o n e n e s s w i t h D a o a n d m o v e c l o s e r t o i m m o r t a l i t y , fi-nally, e l i m i n a t e all f o o d a n d m a t e r i a l i n t a k e a n d j u s t live b y a b s o r b i n g cji, a m e t h o d that r e o r g a n i z e s t h e i n t e r n a l s y s t e m o f t h e b o d y a n d b y p a s s e s n o r m a l d i g e s t i v e p r o c e s s e s ( s e e J a c k o w i c z 2 0 0 6 ) .

T h e s a m e s y s t e m is also, in s o m e m o r e detail, p r e s e n t e d in t h e Laozi shuo Fashi jinjie jing ^^M.I^'^^MM ( P r o h i b i t i o n s and P r e c e p t s on C e r e m o

-nial F o o d a s R e v e a l e d b y L a o z i ) , a T a n g - d y n a s t y m a n u a l o f D a o i s t food r u l e s f o u n d a m o n g D u n h u a n g m a n u s c r i p t s (P. 2 4 4 7 ) . I t n o t e s t h a t "in h i g h a n t i q u i t y , p e o p l e a t e o n l y p r i m o r d i a l q i a n d m a n a g e d t o live for m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , " a n d s t a t e s c a t e g o r i c a l l y that t h e h i g h e s t form o f e a t -i n g — a f t e r n o t e a t -i n g at all —-is l -i v -i n g on q-i.

B e y o n d that, h o w e v e r , t h e text r a n k s different k i n d s o f food, a d d i n g t h e o m n i v o r e o r " s e e f o o d " d i e t a t t h e b o t t o m , a d d i n g g r a i n s a n d m u s h -r o o m s a b o v e t h e v e g e t a b l e c a t e g o -r y , a n d -r e d e f i n i n g " h e -r b a l f o -r m u l a s " i n t e r m s o f m i n e r a l s :

Eating everything is not as good as eating vegetables. Eating vegetables is not as good as eating grains. Eating grains is not as good as eating mushrooms and excrescences.^ Eating mush-rooms and excrescences is not as good as eating gold and jade.* Eating gold and jade is not as good as eating primordial qi. Eat-ing primordial qi is not as good as not eatEat-ing at all. By not eat-ing at all, even though Heaven and Earth may collapse, one will survive forever. (Kohn 2004b, 124-25)

F o l l o w i n g this, t h e text s p e c i f i e s five b a s i c k i n d s of food in m o r e detail: qi, h e r b a l f o r m u l a s , grain, fruits, a n d v e g e t a b l e s . Qi as a f o r m of n o u r i s h m e n t , i t states, c o n s i s t s o f p r a c t i c i n g " h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s a n d e m b r y o r e s p i r a t i o n , e x p e l l i n g t h e old a n d t a k i n g i n t h e n e w , a n d g e n e r a l l y h a r m o -n i z i -n g t h e b o d y w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e six b r e a t h s , " f o r m s o f e x h a l a t i o -n that m a t c h i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n s a n d a r e t o d a y k n o w n a s t h e S i x H e a l i n g S o u n d s (see D e s p e u x 2 0 0 6 ; C h i a a n d C h i a 1 9 9 3 ) . H e r b a l f o r m u l a s , s e c o n d , inc l u d e b o t h m i n e r a l s a n d p l a n t p r o d u inc t s . T h e y r e p l a inc e o r d i n a r y n o u r i s h -m e n t a n d s e r v e t o " h a r -m o n i z e b l o o d a n d b o d y fluids, p r e s e r v e a n d

^ The term zhi refers to mushrooms in general as well as to the fungus growing on the sides of trees (Stuart 1976, 271). Ying § means "splendor" and can also refer to "excrescences," another non-cultivated natural product.

" Gold and jade, or metals and minerals, are at the base of the immortal elixir as described in the Baopuzi (Ware 1966; Huang 2008a).

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Introduction / 1 3

n o u r i s h b o d y a n d spirit, c a l m t h e spirit s o u l a n d settle t h e will, a n d i n g e n e r a l e x p e l all w i n d a n d d a m p n e s s , t h u s g r e a t l y e n h a n c i n g life a n d e x t e n d i n g o l d a g e " ( K o h n 2 0 0 4 b , 1 2 5 ) . N e x t , t h e t e x t d e f i n e s g r a i n s a s i n c l u d i n g " c o r n , millet, h e m p , w h e a t , w i l d a n d c u l t i v a t e d rice, a s w e l l a s v a r i o u s k i n d s o f b e a n s . " I t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e y c a n b e useful for s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e i n n e r o r g a n s , e n h a n c -i n g q-i, a n d -i n g e n e r a l h e l p -i n g t o h a r m o n -i z e t h e b o d y . T h e last t w o f o o d g r o u p s a r e fruits a n d v e g e t a b l e s , w h i c h s h o u l d all b e e a t e n i n a p p r o p r i -a t e p o r t i o n s -a n d well p r e p -a r e d . A l l t h e s e k i n d s o f food m -a k e u p w h -a t t h e text calls " c e r e m o n i a l f o o d " (zhaishi 'M'M) i-e., food e a t e n in D a o i s t i n s t i t u t i o n s a t t h e m a i n m e a l o f t h e day, u s u a l l y h e l d s h o r t l y b e f o r e n o o n a s p a r t o f a m a j o r c e r e m o n y that a l s o i n c l u d e s s c r i p t u r e r e a d i n g s a n d t h e f o r m a l s h a r i n g o f m e r i t s w i t h t h e d o n o r s , t h e g o d s , a n d all b e i n g s . E a t i n g i n t h e D a o i s t e n v i r o n m e n t t h u s i n v o l v e s all k i n d s o f f o o d s u s e d i n C h i n e s e dietetics, j o i n i n g i t i n its e x c l u s i o n o f d a i r y p r o d u c t s a n d c o l d foods, s u c h a s ice c r e a m o r s o d a s p o p u l a r i n t h e W e s t . I t f o l l o w s t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s a s C h i n e s e d i e t a r y t h e r a p y , s e l e c t i n g food c o m b i n a t i o n s a n d c o o k i n g m e t h o d s t o b a l a n c e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s q i b o t h i n t e r m s o f p e r s o n a l t e n d e n c i e s a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l o r s e a s o n a l v a r i a n t s . A l s o l i k e C h i -n e s e d i e t e t i c s , D a o i s t c o o k i -n g u s e s h e r b s a -n d s p i c e s , s e l e c t e d for t h e i r q u a l i t i e s a s m u c h a s for their taste, a n d e m p h a s i z e s life-style b a s i c s , s u c h a s s e r e n i t y o f m i n d a n d m o d e r a t i o n i n s e n s o r y a n d c u l i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s . W h i l e b u i l d i n g o n a solid b a s e o f t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e d i e t e t i c s a n d m e -d i c i n a l foo-ds, D a o i s t e a t i n g also h a s its o w n p e c u l i a r i t i e s . F o r o n e , i t fa-v o r s t h e u s e o f m o r e s u b t l e h e r b s a n d a fa-v o i d s h i g h l y h e a t - p r o d u c i n g a g e n t s , s u c h a s garlic a n d o n i o n s . F o r a n o t h e r , i t s e e s its g o a l a s r e a c h i n g b e y o n d h e a l t h a n d l o n g life t o a s t a t e o f e n e r g e t i c a n d m e d i t a t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n d e s c r i b e d a s i m m o r t a l i t y . T o this e n d , i t e n c o u r a g e s p r a c t i t i o -n e r s t o r e d u c e a -n d e v e -n t u a l l y e l i m i -n a t e t h e i -n g e s t i o -n o f g r a i -n s , r e p l a c i -n g t h e m i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h m e d i c i n a l c o n c o c t i o n s a n d b r e a t h i n g t e c h n i q u e s . U l t i m a t e l y D a o i s t e a t i n g b e c o m e s n o n - e a t i n g , t h e p u r e a b s o r p t i o n o f q i i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e g r e a t e r u n i v e r s e , t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f o n e n e s s w i t h D a o a n d a s u b t l e r , m o r e s p i r i t u a l f o r m o f self-identity.

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The root cause of the hundred diseases and untimely death in many cases lies with food and drink. The afflictions people suf-fer due to their indulgence in food and drink are worse than those caused by sights and sounds. Sights and sounds people can give up for years together, but food and drink they cannot do without for even a single day. (Yangsheng yaoji 6)

U n l i k e W e s t e r n n u t r i t i o n i s t s w h o s e e f o o d i n scientific t e r m s a s q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d m e a s u r a b l e e n t i t i e s a n d classify i t a c c o r d i n g t o c a l o r i e s , c a r b o h y d r a t e s , a n d p r o t e i n s , C h i n e s e m e d i c a l w r i t e r s u s e t r a d i t i o n a l p a r a m e -t e r s a n d f o c u s o n i-ts q u a l i -t a -t i v e c h a r a c -t e r i s -t i c s . T h e i r m a i n c o n c e r n s are w h e t h e r c e r t a i n foodstuffs will h a v e a w a r m i n g o r c o o l i n g , r i s i n g o r s i n k i n g , e x p a n d i n g o r c o n t r a c t i n g , c a l m i n g o r s t i m u l a t i n g effect o n t h e qi-ilow i n t h e b o d y a n d w h e t h e r this i s c o n d u c i v e o r d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e o v e r a l l h e a l t h o f t h e p e r s o n . F o o d i n C h i n a i s t h u s from t h e v e r y o u t s e t a m e a n s o f t h e r a p y r a t h e r t h a n j u s t a n u t r i t i o n a l s u b s t a n c e t h a t h a s m o r e o r less f a v o r a b l e i n g r e d i e n t s ( s e e K l e i n m a n 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f diet i n C h i n a w o r k s a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n k e y prin-c i p l e s . M o s t f u n d a m e n t a l are the prin-c o s m o l o g i prin-c a l prin-c o n prin-c e p t s o f yin a n d y a n g , t e r m s t h a t d e s c r i b e t h e a l t e r n a t i n g t e n d e n c i e s of qiilow a n d a l l o w a c l a s -sification o f f o o d s i n t o t h r e e m a i n c a t e g o r i e s (yin, y a n g , a n d n e u t r a l ) , e a c h a p p l i e d u n d e r s e v e r a l k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s u c h a s t e m p e r a t u r e a n d

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1 8 / M e d i c i n a l Diets

m o v e m e n t . A s e c o n d m a j o r p r i n c i p l e is that of the five p h a s e s , a s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t o f yin a n d y a n g , s y m b o l i z e d b y five m a t e -rial e n t i t i e s n o t u n l i k e t h e e l e m e n t s o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e a n d I n d i a . A c o r e n o t i o n o f C h i n e s e c o s m o l o g y , t h e five p h a s e s a l l o w a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f f o o d a c c o r d i n g t o taste a n d a n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h r e l e v a n t b o d y o r g a n s , s e n s e s , a n d o t h e r p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s , w h i c h in t u r n c o n n e c t to t h e qi-c h a n n e s l o f C h i n e s e m e d i qi-c i n e a n d link d i e t e t i qi-c s t o a qi-c u p u n qi-c t u r e a n d h e r b a l t r e a t m e n t s . B e y o n d t h e m a i n c o s m o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , food i n C h i n a i s a l s o classified a c c o r d i n g t o m a i n food g r o u p s o u t l i n e d earlier, e a c h further d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of t h e r a p e u t i c effect. A final p r i n c i p l e is t h e w a y of p r e p a r a t i o n , w h i c h c o m e s i n five m a j o r f o r m s ( c o o k e d c e r e a l s , s t e w s , stir-fries, s o u p s , a n d d e c o c t i o n s ) a n d m o d i f i e s t h e e n e r g e t i c i m p a c t . arc. Y i n a n d y a n g a r e a t t h e r o o t o f t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e c o s m o l o g y . " O n e yin, o n e y a n g , that i s t h e D a o , " s a y s t h e Yiiing ( B o o k o f C h a n g e s ) , t h e a n c i e n t d i v i n a t i o n m a n u a l o f t h e Z h o u d y n a s t y {XVH-'ITL B . C . E . ) that still s e r v e s t o tell f o r t u n e s t o d a y . Y i n a n d y a n g a r e c o m m o n l y p r e s e n t e d i n t h e w e l l - k n o w n c i r c l e w i t h t w o b l a c k a n d w h i t e c u r v e d h a l v e s , p l u s a w h i t e dot i n t h e b l a c k s e c t i o n a n d a b l a c k dot i n t h e w h i t e s e c t i o n . T h e i m a g e s h o w s t h e b a l a n c e a n d yet i n t e r l o c k i n g n a t u r e o f yin a n d yang, the fluidity o f their i n t e r c h a n g e . T h e a m o u n t o f w h i t e o r b l a c k o n e a c h s i d e o f t h e d i a g r a m starts n a r r o w a n d b e c o m e s w i d e r , t h e n e n d s in a n a r r o w line. W h e r e t h e w h i t e p a r t i s largest, t h e b l a c k b e -g i n s t o e m e r -g e . T h i s s h o w s h o w t h e t w o c h a n g e i n t o e a c h other, h o w y a n g e m e r g e s a t t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t o f yin, a n d v i c e v e r s a . T h e s y m b o l e m p h a s i z e s t h e n e e d for b e i n g i n c l u s i v e a n d w h o l e , t o s t r i v e for b a l a n c e y e t b e r e a d y t o c h a n g e . Y i n a n d y a n g f o r m t h e b i p o l a r b a s e o f a c o m p l e x s y s t e m o f c o r -r e s p o n d e n c e s , a n u m e -r i c a l w a y t o e x p l a i n t h e w o -r l d . T h e y p -r o v i d e t h e

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Principles of Chinese Diet / 19 o r g a n i z i n g c o n c e p t s for all a n c i e n t p r o t o - s c i e n c e s , s u c h a s a s t r o n o m y , m u s i c , d i v i n a t i o n , m e d i c i n e , a n d d i e t e t i c s . Y a n g a n d y i n o r i g i n a t e d from g e o g r a p h i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g t h e s u n n y a n d s h a d y s i d e s o f a hill. F r o m t h e r e t h e y a c q u i r e d a s e r i e s o f a s -s o c i a t i o n -s : b r i g h t a n d dark, l i g h t a n d h e a v y , -s t r o n g a n d w e a k , a b o v e a n d b e l o w , h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , r u l e r a n d m i n i s t e r , m a l e a n d f e m a l e , a n d s o o n . I n c o n c r e t e a p p l i c a t i o n , m o r e o v e r , t h e y i n d i c a t e different k i n d s o f action:

yang active birth impulse move change expansion yin structive completion response rest nurture contraction

T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e i n t u r n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t e m s i n d a i l y life: yang heaven spring summer day big states ruler man yin earth fall winter night small states minister woman

father life unfolding noble marriage soldiers speech give mother death stagnation common funeral laborers silence receive

I t m a y a t first g l a n c e s e e m t h a t y a n g i s " b e t t e r " t h a n yin. I n t h e C h i n e s e v i e w , h o w e v e r , n e i t h e r i s b e t t e r , s t r o n g e r , b r i g h t e r , o r m o r e p r e f e r a b l e , a n d t h e t w o f o r c e s d o n o t r e p r e s e n t g o o d a n d e v i l . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e yin a s p e c t o f t h i n g s i s j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e y a n g , b e c a u s e o n e c a n n o t e x i s t w i t h o u t t h e o t h e r . T h e y a r e n o t o p p o s i t e s b u t c o m p l e m e n t a r y p h a s e s o f qiilow, o n e b r i n g i n g forth t h e o t h e r i n c l o s e m u t u a l i n t e r d e -p e n d e n c e I n t e r m s o f food, t h i s m e a n s t h a t o n e s h o u l d p a r t a k e o f b o t h y i n a n d y a n g s u b s t a n c e s . Y i n foods t e n d t o g r o w i n t h e e a r t h a n d i n dark, s h a d y l o c a t i o n s ; t h e y a r e s w e e t i n flavor, fatty i n c o n s i s t e n c e , a n d rich i n p o t a s -s i u m . Y a n g food-s g r o w i n air a n d -s u n -s h i n e ; t h e y are -s a l t y i n flavor, l e a n i n c o n s i s t e n c e , a n d rich i n s o d i u m . Y i n foods i n c l u d e r a w food, leafy v e g e t a b l e s , fish, a n d m e l l o w t a s t i n g s u b s t a n c e s ; w i t h their c o o l i n g , m o i s -turizing, a n d d e c o n g e s t i n g effect, t h e y p r o m o t e fluid p r o d u c t i o n w h i l e m i t i g a t i n g h e a t a c c u m u l a t i o n . Y a n g f o o d s i n c l u d e a n y t h i n g fried, b o i l e d , fatty, o r spicy, a s w e l l a s m e a t s ; t h e y a r e w a r m i n g , d r y i n g , a n d s t i m u l a t -i n g -i n n a t u r e . A b s o r b -i n g t h e c o o k -i n g f-ire, t h e y g e n e r a t e h e a t -i n t h e b o d y a n d s t i m u l a t e c i r c u l a t i o n (see A n d e r s o n 1 9 8 8 , 1 8 8 - 8 9 ; F a r q u h a r 2 0 0 2 , 6 5 ) . W i t h i n this g e n e r a l s y s t e m , food h a s t h r e e m a j o r p r o p e r t i e s :

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20 / Medicinal Diets 1. s t i m u l a t i n g ( y a n g / h e a t i n g / ( j f e n h a n c i n g ) — e . g . , a p r i c o t s , b a r -ley, c h e r r i e s , p i n e a p p l e , p l u m s , c e l e r y , c o c o n u t ; 2 . c a l m i n g ( y i n / c o o l i n g / < / i c a l m i n g ) — e . g . , b a n a n a s , tofu, c u -c u m b e r s , e g g p l a n t , lettu-ce, m u s h r o o m s , p u m p k i n s , t o m a t o e s , w a t e r m e l o n ; 3 . n e u t r a l ( n e i t h e r y i n n o r yang/tyi-maintaining)—e.g., a p p l e s , c a b b a g e , c a r r o t s , p a p a y a , grain, b e a n s , e g g s ( L u 1 9 9 6 ; 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e four s e a s o n s , w i t h p e o p l e ' s a g e s , a n d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r m e n t a l s t a t e s . T h u s , f o o d s e a t e n i n s p r i n g s h o u l d b e s t i m u l a t i n g a n d n e u t r a l ; i n s u m m e r , t h e y s h o u l d h a v e a c a l m i n g a n d c o o l i n g effect; i n t h e fall, t h e y s h o u l d s e r v e t o retain fluid ( m o r e m e a t s ) ; a n d i n w i n t e r t h e y s h o u l d s t i m u l a t e a n d w a r m t h e b o d y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , f o o d i s u s e d t o b a l a n c e t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e s e a s o n s , a n d p e o p l e s h o u l d fa-v o r yin foods i n y a n g t i m e s a n d y a n g foods i n y i n times.i H o w e fa-v e r , a t all t i m e s o n e s h o u l d a v o i d r a w a n d c o l d s u b s t a n c e s , s i n c e t h e i r e x t r e m e yin p r o p e r t i e s d e p l e t e t h e s y s t e m , w e a k e n t h e s p l e e n , a n d h a r m t h e s m a l l intestine.2

A n o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f o o d i n t a k e i s a c c o r d i n g t o a g e . Y o u n g p e o -p l e t e n d t o b e w a r m e r , m o r e e n e r g e t i c , a n d m o r e y a n g i n q u a l i t y , w h i l e o l d e r folks h a v e i n c r e a s e d yin. S m a l l c h i l d r e n , b e i n g the m o s t y a n g , often c r a v e s w e e t s t o m e l l o w t h e i r yang-qi. O l d e r p e o p l e , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t e n d t o l i k e m e a t s , s t e w s , a n d w a r m i n g f o o d s t o c o u n t e r a c t their y i n - n a t u r e . B e y o n d this, f o o d a l s o h a s a n effect o n t h e m e n t a l attitude. I f w e l a c k i n c o n f i d e n c e a n d d e p e n d m u c h o n o t h e r s , m o r e y a n g food m a y b e indi-c a t e d ; i f w e t e n d t o b e a g g r e s s i v e , a s s e r t i v e , a n d s t u b b o r n , a m e l l o w i n g y i n - r i c h diet w o u l d b e b e n e f i c i a l . O v e r a l l , y a n g foods i n c r e a s e v a l o r a n d s t r e n g t h , w h i l e y i n f o o d s will h a v e a c a l m i n g a n d s l o w i n g effect ( C r a z e a n d J a y 2 0 0 1 , 1 9 , 2 3 ) .

1 By the same token, foods also balance the geographic situation of a person, so that people in hotter climates should take more yin foods, while people living in colder, more northern, places should eat more yang.

2 This is already emphasized in the fourth-century Yangsheng yaoji. See Stein 1999, 188-93.

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Principles of Chinese Diet / 21 T"re \ i n - y a n g s y s t e m b e c o m e s m o r e c o m p l e x a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h r o u g h :5 s u b d i v i s i o n i n t o five p h a s e s : m i n o r y a n g — m a j o r y a n g — y i n - y a n g — — inor y i n — m a j o r yin. In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n of r i s e a n d i n c l i n e i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f e x c h a n g e i s finely t u n e d . T n e c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n o f h e a t a n d c o l d i n t h e c o u r s e o f a d a y m a k e s a c o o d m e t a p h o r . A s m o r n i n g rises, t h e s u n b e g i n s t o w a r m t h e e a r t h a n d •. a n g is in its m i n o r p h a s e . As t h e s u n c o m e s c l o s e r to its zenith, it gets b r i g h t e r a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e s : t h e m a j o r p h a s e o f y a n g . After r e a c h i n g t h e zenith, j u s t as t h e s u n b e g i n s its d e s c e n t , t h e r e is a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n yin a n d y a n g , n e i t h e r q u i t e o n e n o r yet t h e other. I n t h e c o u r s e ? f the afternoon, a s t h e s u n b e g i n s t o sink, light g e t s less a n d t h e t e m -r e -r a t u -r e c o o l s : t h e p h a s e o f m i n o -r yin. W h e n n i g h t falls, finally, t h e s u n : i not v i s i b l e a n y m o r e , d a r k n e s s a n d c o o l n e s s p e r v a d e , i n d i c a t i n g t h e ?:ate o f m a j o r yin. F r o m h e r e , t h e n e x t s u n r i s e c o m e s a n d t h e c y c l e r e -r e a t s . A s m u c h a s d a y a n d night, y i n a n d y a n g a-re i n c o n s t a n t m o t i o n , -^ne part n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w i n g from t h e o t h e r w i t h o u t p a u s e —a p a t t e r n that also a p p l i e s to t h e r h y t h m of d a i l y life in t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y , the c y c l e o f t h e s e a s o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, a n d t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n s o f g r o w t h a n d d e c a y i n n a t u r e a n d t h e h u m a n life c y c l e .

T h i s s y s t e m o f five m i n o r a n d m a j o r s t a g e s o f y i n a n d y a n g i s t h e n l i n k e d with five o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s that s y m b o l i z e s t a g e s i n t h e p r o c e s s :

minor yang major yang yin-yang minor yin major yin

wood fire earth metal water

T h e s e a r e k n o w n a s t h e "five p h a s e s " (wuxing I i f T ) . T h e y a r e often a l s o referred t o a s t h e "five e l e m e n t s , " b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e a s u p e r f i c i a l s i m i -larity w i t h t h e G r e e k o r I n d i a n e l e m e n t s — w a t e r , fire, earth, a n d air. H o w e v e r , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g t h e a p p e l l a t i o n " e l e m e n t " i s i n c o r r e c t , s i n c e u n l i k e i n I n d i a a n d G r e e c e w h e r e t h e y refer t o s o l i d s u b s t a n c e s a n d firm, u n c h a n g i n g b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f t h e w o r l d , i n C h i n a t h e y i n d i c a t e p h a s e e n e r g e t i c s a n d d y n a m i c p r o c e s s e s i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . In t h e e a r l y H a n d y n a s t y , a r o u n d 2 0 0 B . C . E . , t h e five p h a s e s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d p h y s i c a l entities, i n c l u d -i n g d -i r e c t -i o n s , c o l o r s , a n d s e a s o n s , a s w e l l a s v a r -i o u s f u n c t -i o n s -i n t h e h u m a n b o d y , s u c h a s y i n ( s t o r i n g ) o r g a n s , y a n g ( p r o c e s s i n g ) o r g a n s , s e n s e s , e m o t i o n s , a n d f l a v o r s T h e b a s i c chart, w h i c h h a s b e e n a t t h e r o o t