Japanese Simplifiedgrammar

TRUENER'S

COLLECTION

OP

SIMPLIFIED

GRAMMARS

j

|CNI

!CD

|l

^CD

co

THE JAPANESE

LANGUAGE

presented

to

Xibrar?

ottbe

of

Toronto

/

IN

THE

PRESS,

BY

THE SAME

AUTHOK

ROMANIZED

JAPANESE

READER

PART

I.

JAPANESE

TEXT.

PART

II.

ENGLISH

TRANSLATION.

PART

III.

NOTES.

3

VOLUMES,

DEMY

LONDON:

TRUBNER

&

Co.

TEUBNEE'S

COLLECTION

OF

SIMPLIFIED

GRAMMARS

OF

THE

PRINCIPAL

ASIATIC

AND

EUROPEAN

LANGUAGES.

EDITED BY

REINHOLD

HOST,

L.L.D.,

PH. D.

XV.

JAPANESE.

YOKOHAMA

:

PRINTEDAT

THE

"JAPANGAZETTE"OFFICE,

A

SIMPLIFIED

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

JAPANESE

LANGUAGE.

(MODERN

WRITTEN

STYLE)

BY

BASIL

HALL

CHAMBERLAIN,

AUTHOR

OF

THE

CLASSICAL

POETEY

OF

THE

JAPANESE,"

ETC.

\

LONDON

t

ITRUBNEB

&

CO., 57

&

59,

LUDGATE

HILL*

YOKOHAMA

:

KELLY AND

WALSH,

No._28,

MAIN

STREET.

1880.

PBEFACE.

IN Japan, as inotherEastern countries,

two

dialects areused

simultaneously, one for speaking,the other for writing

pur-poses.

The

spoken or colloquial dialect is that to

which

consuls, merchants, missionaries,

and

others

who

are _brought

into daily relationswith the Japanese,

must

devote theirfirst

efforts. Their next _step should be to _acquire the written

language, without a

knowledge

of

which

_every book, every

newspaper, every post-card, every advertisement, everynotice

in a_{railway-station or}

on

board a steamer remains a mystery,

even

when

transliterated into

Eoman

characters.

Some

of

the differences affect the _vocabulary.

But

the constantly

recurring difficulties arerather inthe

grammar,

and

may

be

mastered ina

_{few weeks by}

those to

whom

the_colloquial is

familiar.

The

_{great obstacle hitherto} has

been

the absence of

any book

specially devoted tothe elucidation of the

modern

form

of_{the written language.}

Mr.

Aston's admirabletreatise

coversa

much

widerfield. Previous writers

had

left_Japanese

grammar

'achaos.

Mr. Aston

_brought light

and

order intoits

everypart.

But

most

persons

have

neithertime nor

inclina-tion to_{investigate every part.} Their concern is, not with

the Japanese classics

and

_philological research, but with the

language as

_commonly

written

now

;

and

they

weary

of

searching

through

the pagesofalearned

work

for_{the every-day}

forms,

which

alone to

them

are useful.

The

object of the

present little

book

istoputbefore suchpersons, in assimple

VI PREFACE.

contemporary

literature

and

_{correspondence.} All formsthat

are obsolete or_purelyclassical

have

beenomitted. Theoretical discussions

have

been dispensedwith, savein afewinstances (notably the passive verb),

where

a

knowledge

of_theory is, for

aforeigner, the only roadtocorrect practice.

A

word

astothehistory, affinities,

and

written system of

the Japanese language.

The

nearest of kin to _Japanese

on

the

mainland

of Asia isKorean, the structural resemblance

between

the

two

tongues reaching

down

even to minutiae of

idiom.

The

likeness ofthe _vocabulary is

much

fainter, but

still real.

Whether

both _Japanese

and

Korean

are to be

classed with the Altaic _tongues,

must

_{depend on}

the exact

sense given to the

word

"Altaic."

_{Judged from}

the _point

of

view

of _syntax

and

_general structure, they

have

as

good

a _right to be included in theAltaic

_group

as

Mongol

or

Manchu.

Traces of the

law

of "attraction,"

_{by which}

the vowels of successive _syllables tend to _uniformity, as in

ototoshi, foratotoxlti, "the yearbeforelast," point inthe

same

direction.

Ifthe

term

"Altaic'' be held toinclude

Korean and

Japan-ese, then Japanese

assumes prime

_importance as _being

_by

far

the_{oldest living representative of that great linguistic} group,

itsliterature _antedating

_by

_many

centuries the

most

ancient

productions of the

Manchus,

Mongols, Turks, Hungarians,

or Finns. Its earliest extant

documents

_go

back

in their

present shape to the beginning of _{the eighth century} ofour

era,

and

itsliterature

has

flourished uninterruptedly

from

that

time

downward.

_Japanese as written

now

differs, however,

considerably

from

the languageof_{the eighth century.}

While

the

_meagre

native _vocabulary

has

been enriched

_by

thou-sands of

words

and

_phrases

borrowed

from

the

more

PREFACE. VII

fallen into disuse.

One

_consequenceof this _long

and

varied

career ofthe Japanese languageisthe existenceat_{the present}

day

ofa

number

of _{styles distinguished}

_by

strongly

marked

peculiarities.

Leaving

aside_poetry

and

a certain

ornamental

kind of _prose cultivated chiefly

by

a

few

Shinto scholars,

there are four categories ofstylein

common

use, viz.

I.

The

Semi-Classical Style, distinguished

by

its_preference

for old native

_{words and grammatical}

forms.

The

standard

translation ofthe

New

Testament

isin this_style.

II.

The

Semi-Colloquial Style, into

which

the lower class,

newspaper

writers _occasionallyfall. Its_{phraseology savours}

largely,

and

its

grammar

slightly, ofthe peculiarities of the

modern

colloquialdialect.

III.

The

Chinese_{Style, orSinico-Japanese,}

which

isreplete

with Chinese

words and

idioms. It is

founded

on

theliteral

translations ofthe Chineseclassics,

which were

formerly the text-books ineveryschool. This styleis _{the ordinary}vehicle

of

_contemporary

literature.

IV.

The

Epistolary Style.

Almost

exclusively Chinese in

phraseology,this style

has grammatical

peculiarities

which

are so

marked

astonecessitatetreatmentina_{separate chapter.}

The

_systemof writing, thathashitherto

been

inusein_Japan,

is

an

_{extremely complicated} one, semi_-ideographic

and

semi-syllabic, founded

on

the ideographic writing of the Chinese.

But

the_language

_may

_easilybe writtenwith

Koman

characters.

Indeed

the _general introduction of the

Koman

alphabet is

the questionofthe_day.

A

_{society entitled}the "

_Romaji

_Kai,"

or "

Romanization

_Society," has

been

formed,

and

includes

among

its

members

most

of the leaders in science

and

in

politics.

A

purely phonetic

system

of transliteration has

been

adopted,

and has

met

with acceptance both

among

natives

VIII PREFACE.

to _supersede all others, the spelling of the fallowing pages

conforms.

In

conclusion, it is

_my

_{pleasing duty} to

_acknowledge

_my

obligations to

Mr.

J. C. Hall, Acting Japanese Secretary to

H.

B.

M.

_{Legation, Tokyo,}

and

more

_{particularly to}

Mr. Ernest

Satow,

C.M.G.,

H.

B.

M.

Minister Eesident at

_Bangkok,

for

a

number

ofvaluable_suggestions.

_My

thanks are likewise

due

toLieutenant

M.

Takata, I.J.N., for

_smoothing

_away

certain

difficultieswith regardtothe_{publication of}the

book

in_Japan.

BASIL

HALL

CHAMBERLAIN.

IMPERIAL

NAVAL DEPARTMENT,

TOKYO.

February, 1886.

EEEATA.

p. 3,line 18; afterJc insert

"and

_#."

,, 52,the brace should unite, not yukazu

and

yukazaru,

but

yukazaru

and

yukanu.

69, line3

_{from bottom;}

for

"Section

6"

read

"Section

3." 70, line 14; for beskireadbeshi.

JAPANESE

GBAMMAB,

CHAPTER

I.

THE

PHONETIC

SYSTEM.

SEC. 1. ALPHABET

AND

PRONUNCIATION.

JAPANESE,

when

written with the

Roman

alphabet, requires

the

same

letters asEnglish, with the exceptionofI,q,v

and

x.

The

letter c occurs _only in the combination ch,

which

is

sounded

nearlylike_{English ch}in "church."

The

vowelsare

sounded

as in Italian; but are always short

unless

marked

with the_{sign oflong quantity,}

when

care

must

be taken to

_pronounce

them

long, thus:

do,

"a

degree "

; do,

" ahall."

torn, "totake"; tow,

"_to pass through." kuki,"a

stem

" ; kuki, " theair."

The

_only long vowels of

common

occurrence are6

and

u.

They

arefoundchiefly in

words

ofChineseorigin,

where

they

representsuch Chinese diphthongs

and

nasal soundsasao, ou,

any,ung,etc.

When

preceded

by

another vowel or

_by

n, e

sounds

very

nearly like ye, i like_yi,

and

o likewo.

Thus

ue, kon-in

and

shio_{are respectively}

_pronounced

uye, kon-yin,

and

shiwo.

The

vowels i

and

u

are

sometimes

inaudible or_nearlyso

in the

mouths

of

_Tokyo

_speakers, as shite, "

having

done,"

pronounced

shte; jinrikisha,

pronounced

jinriksha; tsuki,

"the

moon," pronounced

tski; takusan,

"much,"

pronounced

taxan;

Z

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

the_following

m

doubledin_{the pronunciation}ofthefour

words

uma,

"horse";

umaki,

"tasty";

umaruru,

"to

be

born";

ume, "plum-tree,"

pronounced

mma,

mmaki,

mmaruru, mme.

But

these deviations are slight

and

_unimportant. All the

above

words

willbe understoodif

_pronounced

as written.

The

diphthongs, such as ao,au, ei, ii,ou, callfor

no

_special

comment,

as each

vowel

retainsits

own

_{proper sound.}

The

consonantsare

_pronounced

approximatelyas inEnglish,

subject tothefollowing

remarks

:

/is

a _{true labial/,}not the

_English

labio-dental.

g

never

has

the

sound

of_j.

At

_{the beginning}ofa

word

it

is

_pronounced

hard, like the

_g

in give.

In

the

middle

of

a

word

it has the

sound

of _{English ng} in _"longing."

Thus

Kiga, the

name

ofaplace,-

rhymes

almost_{exactlywith "singer"}

(notwith "

finger").

The

words

ga, "of,"

and

gotoki, "like,"

also _{take the ng sound.}

h

beforeisounds nearlylikethe

German

ch in

"mich," and

sometimes

passes almostintosh.

n

atthe

end

ofa

word

is

_pronounced

_half-way

between

a

true

n

and

the

French

nasaln.

Nouns

_having

afinal

n

are

mostly ofChinese_origin.

y

is _{always a consonant.}

Thus

the_syllable

_my

a in

_myaku,

"the

_pulse," is

_pronounced

as one _{syllable, like}

mia

inthe

English

word

"amiable."

Care

must

be taken not to

confound

it with the _dissyllable insuch

words

as_miyako, "a

capitalcity."

%

has

almost the

sound

ofdz

when

preceding the vowel

u

;

thus _mizu, "water," is

_pronounced

almost midzu.

Double

consonants

must

bedistinctlysounded, as inItalian,

thus:

kite, "

having

come

"; kitte,

"

aticket."

PHONETIC SYSTEM.

8

Generally speaking, the Japanese pronunciation both of

vowels

and

of consonants is less broad

and heavy than

that

current in

most

European

languages,

and

especially in

English. This

remark

applies

more

particularly totheletters

ch,j, r,sh,

and

fe. Tones, suchas thoseof the Chinese, are entirely absent.

There

is little or

no

tonic accent,

and

only

a very slight rhetorical accent; that is to say, thatallthe

syllables of a

word

and

all the

words

of a sentence are

pronounced

equally, or nearly so. Students

must

beware

of

importing into _{Japanese the strong}

and

_{constantlyrecurring}

stress

_{by which}

we

in_Englishsingle out onesyllable in every

word,

and

the chief

words

ineverysentence.

All

_Japanese

words

end

either in a

vowel

or in the

consonant n.

There

are

no

combinations of consonants

excepting ts

and

the double consonants _{already mentioned,}

among

which

must

be countedssh

and

tch, standingfordouble

sh

and

doublech, as inkesshin, "resolve

"

; zetchd,

"

peak."

By

some

verycareful _speakers

a

w

is

_pronounced

after

/gin

many

words

taken

from

the Chinese.

Thus

kivannin, "

an

official";

Gwaimushd,

"the

_Foreign Office."

But

the _{pronunciation}

currentin

_{Tokyo and}

in

most

_{parts of the country} is _simply

kannin, Gaimusho, etc.

SEC. 2. LETTER-CHANGES.

1. "

_Nigori"

i.e. "

_muddling,"

is the

name

_given

_by

the

Japanese to the substitution of sonants for surds.*

The

consonants affectedare:

ck] \-

which change

into_j. 8h ) 1

In contradistinction to the sonant _letters, the surd letters are

said to be _sumi, i.e. "clear."

The

two categories together are

termed _sei-daku, sei _being the Chinese equivalent for"clear,"and

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

which change

into b.

k _{changes g.}

[

_change

z.

t _changes ,, d.

N.B.

F

and

h also often

_change

into p, especially in

Chinese

_compounds.

This is called "_han-nigori" i.e. "half

muddling."

The

rule _regarding the _nigori, stated _broadly, is that

the initial surd of

an

_independent

word

_changes

into the

corresponding sonant

when

the

word

is used as the second

member

ofa

_compound,

thus:

kuni-ju, "throughout the land,"

from

kuni

and

chu. waru-jare, "apracticaljoke," ,, waruki

and

share, fune-bune, "allsorts of vessels," ,, _{funerepeated.} mushiba, "a carious tooth," ,, mushi

and

ha.

lumgoku, "native_country," ,, hon

and

koku.

ronzuru, "to discuss," ron

and

suru.

kanzume, "tinned," ,,

v

kan

and

tsume.

kondate, "abill of fare," kon

and

tote.

The

above rule is

_{by no}

means

an

absolute one, euphony,

and sometimes

thevarying caprice of individuals,decidingin

each case

whether

the

_change

shall or shallnot_{take place.}

F

and

//, however, _always

_change

either intobor into

p

ifthe

first

member

of the

_compound

ends in the consonant n,

thus:

nampu,

"thesouth wind,"

from nan &ndfu.

sam-ben, "threetimes," ,, san

and

hen.

2.

As shown

in the _{precedingexamples,}

n

_changesinto

m

beforealabial,

PHONETIC SYSTEM.

8.

The

_{following category} of

_changes

affects a _large

number

of

_compound

words

of Chinese origin,

and

notably

the

numerals

as

combined

with the "auxiliary

numerals

"

:

ch it-chd, for ichi chd, "one."

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

S _IS-SO, sanzo, has-sd, jis-so, sen-zo, sh is-shu, has-shu, jis-shu, t it-tsu, Iwt-tsu jit-tsu Similarly, as-sd, hak-lw, kessuru,

for icliiso, "one."

,, sanso, "three."

,, Tiachiso, "eight."

ju

so,

" ten."

,, senso,

"thousand."

,, ichishu,

"one."

,, hachi shu, "eight."

ju

shu, "ten."

,, ichitsu, "one."

,, hachitsu, "eight."

,,

ju

tsu, "ten."

atsu_set, "_tyranny."

,, liatsulw, "issuing." ,, Itttsusuru,

"to

resolve."

4.

The

_Japanese

cannot

pronounce

all their consonants

before all theirvowels. This leads tothe_{followingeuphonic}

laws

: _d,

j,

and

z are correlated insuch wisethatd stands only

beforethethreevowelsa,e,

and

o; j onlybeforea,i,o,

and

u

;

and

z _only before a, e, o, u.

Apparent

irregularities are

hereby

causedin_{the conjugation}of

_many

verbs, thus:

Indefinite Attributive

Form.

Present,

ide, izuru, "to_go forth."

dji, ozwru, "tocorrespond."

F

and h

are _{similarly correlated,}

_/

standing onlybeforeu,

and

_{h only}beforetheotherfour vowels, thus:

he, fiwu, "to pass."

8

and

sh are correlated, sh _{standing only} before i,

and

s

onlybeforethe otherfour vowels, thus:

PARTS

OF

SPEECH.

7

r, tst

and

ch are correlated,tstanding onlybeforea, e,

and

o; ts_onlybefore

u

;

and

chonlybefore#,i,o,

and

w, thus:

Indef. Attrib. Negative. Causative.

tachi, tatsu, tatazu, tatashimuru, "tostand."

5.

W

is inserted before

a

in verbal terminations

when

another

vowel

precedes, thus:

warai, warau, warawazu, warawashimuru, "to_laugh."

6.

Y

_disappearsbeforee

and

i, thus:

kie, kiyuru,

"

tomelt."

7.

A

_{few monosyllables}

and

dissyllables of pure native

originendingin e

_change

the eintoa

when

used as the first

member

ofa

_compound,

thus :

kana-gu, "

metal

work,"

from

kane

and

gu.

ta-makura, "the

arm

usedasapillow," ,, te

and makura.

uwa-zutsumi, "

an

outerwrapper,"

uem&tsutsumi*

CHAPTER

II.

THE

PAETS OF

SPEECH.

The

words

of

which

the

_{Japanese language}

is

_composed

fallinto

two

_{greatgroups, the} uninflected

and

theinflected.

The

uninflected

words

are: Ithe noun, which, besides the

substantive properly so-called, includes the pronoun, the

numeral,

and

many

words

_{corresponding}to

_English

_adjectives;

II the postposition, corresponding for the

most

_{part to} the

Englishpreposition.

In reality kana, ta, etc., are the original forms,which have

8 JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

The

inflected

words

are: I the _adjective; II the verb

(includingparticiples).

This

division is not

an

artificial one

made

forthe sakeof

convenience, but

has

itsfoundation inthe nature

and

_history

of the _language. In the _{following chapters} the

two

groups

of

words

are treated of inthe orderhereindicated.

What

we

term

adverbs in _English are replacedpartly

by

nouns, partly

by

one

of the inflections of the _adjective.

Conjunctions are _partly included

under

the _heading of

postpositions,

and

partlyexpressed

by

certain inflections ofthe

verb. Interjections exist, as in otherlanguages; but,_being

mere

isolated

words

without

_grammatical

connectionwith the

sentence, they call for

no

remark.

The

_{Japanese language}

has

no

article.

From

one

part of _{speech another}

_may

oftenbe

_{formed by}

adding certain terminations.

_Thus,

rashiki serves to

form

adjectives expressive of similarity,

and

malioshiJd adjectives

expressive of desire, while

more

rarely

nau

forms

verbs

expressive of action, as:

otoko,

"man";

otokorashiki,

_"manly."

tomo,

"company";

tomonau, "to

_accompany."

yuku, "to_go"; _{yukamaJwshiki,}

"

UNINFLECTED

WOBDS.

CHAPTEK

III.

THE

NOUN.

SEC. 1.

THE

SUBSTANTIVE

PROPERLY

SO-CALLED.

1.

The

substantiveis indeclinable, distinctionsof

number

and

_{gender being} left to _{be gathered}

from

the context,

and

case relations being, as inEnglish, indicated

_by

_independent

words.

_Thus,

the substantive uslii _signifies "bull,"

"ox,"

"cow,"

"bulls,"

"oxen,"

"cows,"

"cattle," according to

circumstances. In such a _phraseasuslii

wo kau

it _generally

signifies

"

to_keep cattle."

In

uslii ni noru it _signifies

"to

ride

on

a bull" if one rider is alluded to,

and

"toride

on

bulls" if several persons are

_spoken

of.

In

usld

wo kuu

it

signifies

"to

eat beef."

In

uslii no chichiit_signifies "cows'

milk."

In _{the extremely} rare cases in

which

it is _absolutely

indispensable to

mention

the sex of

an

animal, this

can

be

done by

prefixing

some

independent word, suchas o, "

male

"

;

me, "female."

Thus

: o-usld

"_abull"

; me-ushi,

"_a

_cow."

What

we

callthe _singular

number

is _occasionally indicated

by

the useof the

word

icldorhitotsu, "one."

Thus

ichi-nen,

" one_year"

;

tama

hitotsu,

"

_one

_ball."

Plurality is _occasionally indicated

_by

_{doubling the}

word

(thesecondhalf ofthe

compound

thus obtained usually taking

the _{"?i/#0n," see}

_page

3), thus:

hold, "allsides," "everywhere,"

from

ho, "side."

10

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

Or

_by

_{prefixing or suffixing}

some word

_{conveying the} idea

of

number.

Thus

:

ban-koku, " all _{countries," "international";}

from

ban,

"myriad," and

Icolcu, "country."

sho-lcun,

"gentlemen"

;

from

sho, "all,"

and

kun,

"gentle-man."

su-nen,

_"many

years";

from

su,

"number,"

and

nen, "year."

deshi-tachi, "disciples";

from

deshi,

"a

disciple,"

and

Utchi,

a

word

_{expressive ofplurality.}

onna-domo,

"women";

from

onna,

"woman,"

and

tomo,

"

companion."

shin-ra, "subjects,"

"we";

from

shin, "subject,"

and

ra, a

word

_{expressive ofvagueness.}

But

such locutions are

somewhat

_{exceptional, distinctions}

of

number

_{not being dwelt}

_upon

at_{every turn}

_by

_{the Japanese} as _theyare

_by

the

_Aryan

mind.

2.

_Compounds

are _very

common,

and

can be

formed

at

will.

As

in _English, the first

member

of the

_compound

generally defines thesecond, aswillbe seen

_by

the

numerous

examples

throughout this

_grammar.

_Occasionally the

two

members

are co-ordinated, as _kin-gin,

_"gold

and

silver."

This co-ordination

sometimes

_(in imitation ofChinese idiom)

assumes

a_peculiarform,

which has been termed

_{the "synthesis}

of contradictories,"e.g. cho-tan,

"long

or short,"i.e. _"length";

kan-dan,

"hot

or cold,"i.e. "temperature" ; nan-nyo,

"man

or

_woman,"

i.e. "sex"; yosJri-asJii,

"

good

orbad," i.e. "the

moral

character" of

an

action;

am-nadd,

"there

being or

not _being," i.e.

"the

_question of the existence of a thing."

Two

contraries thus

combined

do duty for a _{single English}

abstract word, thus: Inn no _ato-saki,

"

the context (lit. the

NOUNS. 11

When

one

member

ofthe

_compound

is_{a verb governing the}

other, it

comes

second if the

word

isof

_Japanese

_origin,

and

first if it is ofChinese_origin.

Thus

funa-oroshi, "a

launch

"

;

kami-Jiasami, "hair-cutting "

(Jap.) ; but ki-kyot

"

returning tothe_capital"; zo-sen,

"

building a ship," "shipbuilding

"

(Chinese).

Hyphens

are used in

Eomanized

Japanese for the sake of clearness in_{very long}

_{compounds, and}

inthose

whose

first

member

endsin

n

while the second

commences

with a

vowel

orwith y, as gen-an, "thedraft

"

of a

_document,

not tobe

confounded with _genan, "a

common

man."

In

_{the present}

work

_they areused alittle

more

_freely to illustratethe sense

and

derivation of

_many

words.

SEC. 2.

NOUNS

USED

AS ADJECTIVES

AND

ADVERBS.

1. _Japanese

has

_{comparatively fewtrue adjectives,}

and

in

a_great

number

ofcases uses

nouns

_{instead, just as inEnglish}

we

_say "_a

goldwatch," "a Turkeycarpet."

A

noun

may

do

dutyfor

an

_{adjective in three ways,}viz.:

I.

As

member

ofa

_compound,

thus:

Butsu-ji,

"a

Buddhist temple"; from

Butsu,

"Buddha"

or"

Buddhism

";

and

ji, "a temple."

Ei-koku-jin,

"an

Englishman";

from

Ei,

Eng;

koku,

1 '

land' '

;

and

jin,

' '

person."

tei-koku,

"an

imperial country,"

"an

empire"; from

tei,

"

emperor

";

and

koku,

"

country."

u-ten, "rainy

weather

";

from

u,

"rain"; and

ten,

"sky."

yoko-moji, "

European

writing

"

;

from

yoko, "crosswise";

and

_moji, "a written character."

n.

_{Followed by}

the_Postpositionno, "of," thus:

gaikoku nokdsai, "foreign intercourse

"

; lit.

"

intercourse of foreign countries."

12

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

Iwrimono no tsukue, " a carved table"; lit.

"

_{a table of}

carvings."

III.

_{Followed by}

the attributive

form

ofoneofthetenses of

theverbnaru, "to be," thus:

kenso

naru

michi, "a _steep road; lit." a steepness-being

road; nodoka

naru

tenki,

"

genial weather," lit. "

geniality-being weather

"

; shinsetsu narislii hito,

"

a_{kind person,"} lit.

"

kindness having-been person."

2.

Words

of this third class _correspondto_Englishadverbs,

if the _postposition ni

_(more

_rarely

to) is substitutedforthe

yerbnaru, thus: kenso_{ni, "steeply";} nodoka_ni, "_genially;

sliizen to"_naturally."

3.

_Many

words

_{corresponding} to _English adverbs are

formed by

reduplicating nouns, as taU-tabi, "often,"

from

tabi, " a time."

_Many

such reduplicated

words

are

onomatopes, similar to the _English

_"ding-dong,"

"pell-mell, etc.

Thus

_{gasa-gasa orgoso-goso, representing arustling}

sound

; tobo-tobo, descriptive of the tottering steps of

an

old

crone. Occasionallytheyare derived

from

adjective stems, as sugo-sugo, descriptive of

low

spirits,

from

sugoki, "illatease."

4. AllChinese

words

are treated as

_{nouns by}

_{the Japanese,}

being used eitherI. as_{substantives proper,} e.g.kin

"

gold";

jitsu,

"truth";

ketsu,

"decision";

hatsumei, "discovery,"

"invention,"; or II. adjectively,accordingtooneorotherof

the three

methods

justmentioned, e.g. jitsu-butsu,

"

a genuine

article " ; jitsu

naru

oshie, " a true doctrine

"

; or III.

adverbially,

by

suffixing

m

orto, e.g. jitsuni "truly";orIV. as verbs,

by

suffixing

sum,

"to do," e.g. kes-suru,

"to

decide"; hatsumei suru,

"to

discover";

"to

invent," kinzuru,

"to

forbid"; or

V.

as _{onomatopes, e.g.} kai-kai, supposed to

represent the voice of the nightingale; _{yu-yu, descriptive of}

PRONOUNS.

18

CHAPTEE

IV.

THE

PEONOUN.

SEC. 1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

The

_Japanese

words

correspondingto_{the personal}

_pronouns

of

_European

_languages are simply

nouns

whose

original

significations are in

most

cases perfectlyclear,

and which

are

indeedstill oftenused with those _{significations.}

_They

answer

to such English expressions as

"your humble

servant"

(meaning

"I"). Self-depreciatory terms are naturally used

to _represent

what

we

should call the first _person,

and

complimentary terms

to represent the second person, thus:

boku, "servant'';

ses-sha, " the

awkward

person

"

;

shin,

"subject"

;

shd-sei, "small born,"

"

young

"; soregashi, "_acertain person " ;

ware, (original

meaning

uncertain);

u-atakushi, "selfishness";

i/o, (etymologyuncertain);

etc. etc.

Hei-ka,

"beneath

the steps ofthe

throne"

_(the idea being that a

subjectdoes not dare to address

the _{sovereign directly,} but _only

prostrates his petition at the

Im-perialFeet);

I.

Your

_Majesty.

Kak-ka

t

"_{beneath the}

council-cham-ber";

you.

14 JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

Ki-ka, "beneath augustness";

Kimi, "prince "

;

nanji, (believed to

have

originally

meant

"

renowned

"₎;

sok-ka, "beneath thefeet";

etc. etc.

N.B.

Some

of these are alsousedastitlessuffixed to other

nouns.

Thus

:

Tenno

Heika,

"

_His

Majesty the

Emperor."

Postpositions

can

be suffixed to the above, as to

_any

othernouns.

Thus:

soregasUno, "of

_me,"

"

_my

_;"soregashi

ico, "me."' Instead of ware no,

"of

me,"

"

my,"

the

form

waga

(forwarego)is in

common

use.

The

_plural suffixes are

more

often used with the

quasi-personal

pronouns

than

with

any

other class of nouns.

Thus

: _{sessJia-domo,shin-ra,} ware-ra

(orware-ware),

ivatakwhi-domo

_(sometimes also used for the _{singular), yo-ra,} "

we

;

"

Tdmi-tacU, sokka-tachi, nanjira,"you."

In

some

cases plurality

is otherwise _{expressed,e.g.}

_by

the

term

ivaga hai, lit. "our

company,"

the usual equivalent for the _English editorial

"

_we."

The

only

word

closelycorresponding toour

_pronouns

ofthe

third_personis hire, "that." Periphrases,

such

as kanohitot

"

_that person

"

(i.e.

"

_he

"

or"_{she"), are}

sometimes

employed,

as are also the honorific _designations

mentioned

above aa

equivalentsforthe second_person.

_Very

often the

word

sono,

which

_properly

means "that"

_(Frenchce), isusedtosignify

"his,"

"her,"

"its," thus: sonohalia,

"his

mother."

The

word

onore _{(plural onore-ra),} "self,"

may

be of

_any

person; butitis

most

commonly met

within thesense of

"_I."

The

quasi-personal

pronouns

are _very little _used, the

PRONOUNS.

15

the context in_ninety-nine cases out ofa

hundred

in

which

personal

pronouns would

be used

by

the speakers of

_European

tongues.

SEC. 2. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

The

nouns

_{corresponding}toourreflexive

_pronouns

are_jibun,

jishin, onore, "self"; onoga, "

own

"

; waga, properly

"

my,"

but alsoused

more

_{generally in} the sense of "

_own,"

"

one's

own."

_They

are_{comparatively} littleused.

SEC. 8. DEMONSTRATIVE

AND

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

The

_{words answering}

toour demonstrative

and

_{interrogative}

pronouns

are:

kore, "this" _(Latinhie,

French

celui-ci, celle-ci, ceci.)

sore,

"that"

₍ ,, iste, celui-la,_{celle-la, cela.)}

Icare,

"that","

"he," "she,"

"it," (Latin itte, French,

celui-la,celle-la, cela.)

tare,

"who?"

nani,

"what?"

.

izure,

"which ?"

The

_foregoing are the substantive forms, before leaving

which

the student should note the plurals kore-ra,

"these"

(ceux-ci, celles-ci), sore-ra

and

kare-ra (ceux-la, cellcs-la).

The

_{adjective forms,} i.e. those that are

_employed

to define

nouns, are:

kono,

"this"

_(Latinhie,

French

ce).

soiw,

_"that"(

,, iste, ce).

kano,

"that"

₍ ,, ille, ce),

The

forms kono, sono,

and

kano also _{do duty} for kore no,

"_ofthis"

; soreno

and

kare no,

"

of that," of

which

they are contractions.

Thus

konokuni, "this_country"; kono tameni,

"for the sake _of this." Sono also _frequently

means

"his,"

16

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

replace sono

and

tare no. Tareisusedof_persons only, naniof

things only (save in

one

or

two

compounds

such as nani-bito

or nam-pito,

"what

person?

"),izureofboth persons

and

things.

Before

words

of Chinese _origin,

"this" and

"that"

are

frequentlyexpressed

by

to.

Thus

: _toji,

"

thistime," "that time," "atthetime_{in question."}

"

_What

_kindof?"

is _expressed

_by

ikanaru, the

correspond-ing adverb ika ni

meaning

"

how

?"

Note

alsoitsu,

"when?"

and

izuko,

"where?,"

words

which

are really nouns,

though

corresponding to _English

interrogative adverbs. Like other nouns, they take

postposi-tions to

_modify

_{their sense,} thus:

itsunokoto narishi?" lit. "it

was

a thingof

when

?" i.e.

"

_when

didit

_happen

?"

izukoye, lit. "to

where

?" i.e. " whither?"

izuko_yori, lit. "

from where

?" i.e. "

whence

?"

tareno,

"whose?"

nanino,

"what?"

izure no,

"which?"

SEC. 4. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

The

indefinite

_pronouns

are

formed

from

tare, nani,

and

izureinthe _following

manner

:

taremo,

"anyone,"

"everyone";

tarelea,

"someone."

nani mo, "anything," "everything"; nanika,

"something."

izuremo, "either," "both";" all"; izureka,

"one

or other."

SEC. 5. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The

_{Japanese language}

has

no

relative

_pronouns

or relative

words

of

_any

kind.

_{The way}

in

which

theirabsence is

made

good

willbe understood

from

_{the following}

_examples

:

shi hito, "the person

who

went

" (lit.

"

RELATIVES. 17

hisu-beki koto, "a thing

which

should be keptsecret" _(lit.

"

a_{should-keep-secret thing").}

As

seen

_by

these _examples, the verb or adjective of the

relativeclause

must

_{be put}in the attributive form. If there are severalrelativeclauses, then only the verbor adjective of thelastclause takes the attributive _form, all the _preceding clauses

_having

the verb _{or adjective in}theindefiniteform,*

Thus

:

Kokorozashi tesseki

wo

idald, gi

wa

sosetsu

wo

azamuld, fubo

saislii

wo

mo

on no tameni eivri shi, Idssld

wo

issenni kiiccaneshi

yushishi-ju-shichi nin, "Forty-seven heroes,

whose

determina-tion

was

asiron,

whose

devotion

was

not to be

_damped

_by

difficulty,

who

for their lord's sake

had

left father

and

mother, wife

and

children,

and

who

had

resolved tosacrifice

theirlivesin_{the attempt."}

Here

idaki, azamuld

and

shiare theindefiniteformsofthe

verbsidaku,

azamuku and

suru, while

UwamesU

isthe

attribu-tive

form

ofthefirst_{past tense of}kiwamuru.

Occasionally the Japanese equivalents of Englishrelative

clauses_appear

_ambiguous.

Thus

: mishi Mto, lit. "the

saw

person,"

may

signify either "the person

who

saw," or

"the

person

whom

I_{(you, he,}

etc.)

saw

"

; idasu tokoro, lit.

"_the send _place,"

_may

be either "the _place whence

_something

is

sent, or "the_place to which

_something

issent.

But

a glance

at the context _{generally leaves}

no

doubtas tothe

_meaning.

For

instance, sa_{omoishi wake,} cannot

mean

"the reason

which

thoughtso," as such a collocation of

words

would have no

sense. It_{can only be interpreted to signify} "the _{reason for}

whichI_(he,

etc.),thoughtso. Similarly, shuttutsuseshi toki

can

only

mean

"thetime

when

I,(he, etc.)started

"

As

seen

by

the

*_{For an}

explanation and illustrations of these _{very important}

18

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR,

above examples, the prepositions

which

often

accompany

an

English relative

_pronoun

are not _expressed in _Japanese."

Note

too that _{the English passive in}such contextsisalmost

invariably replaced

by

a Japaneseactive locution.

Not

_infrequentlythe

words

tokorono

_(more

_rarely no _alone)

are inserted

between

the attributive

and

the noun, asmishi

tokoro no liito instead of the shorter mishi hito, "the

man

I

saw

"; sude ninarerunonochi, forsude ninarerunocJii, "after

it

had

_{already been done."}

These

circumlocutions

add

_nothing

tothe sense. Their use_{originated in} theimitation ofChinese

idiom.

_Sometimes,

however, no legitimately represents the

English relative, thus: on hanashi no kenken, "the various

matters

mentioned

_by

_you"

_(lit.

"the

matter-matter of

the _{honourable speaking"); go zdyo} no bihin, "the

charming

present

you have

sent

me"

(lit.

"

the beautifularticlesofthe august sending").

CHAPTEE

V.

THE

NUMEBAL.

SEC. 1.

THE

CARDINAL NUMBERS.

There

are

two

sets ofnumerals, oneof native

and

the other

of Chinese _origin.

The

nativesetis

now

obsoleteexceptfor

thefirstten

numbers, which

are as follows:

1. Jiitotsu. 2._futatsu. 3. initsu. 4. _yotsu.

5. itsutsu. 6. mutsu. 7. nanatsu. 8. _yatsu.

9. kokonotsu. 10. to.

Comparesuch English expressionsas"dining-room," signifying

"_a

_room

in which people dine;

" "

shaving-brush," signifying, "_a

NUMERALS. 19

These numerals

_may

eitherbe used as _{independent words,}

or

_compounded

withsubstantives.

When

_{used independently,} they

may

eitherstand _{quite alone, or follow or (very rarely)}

precede a substantive, or stand in

an

attributive relation to

the substantive

by

means

of the _postposition no.

Thus

:

futatsuan,"there are

two

"; hakofutatsu, or futatsunoliako,

"

_two

boxes."

When

compounded,

theyinvariably precede thesubstantive.

In

this case the first nine _drop the _syllable tsu,

which

is

properly a suffix,

and

long to

becomes

short to.

Thus:

futa-twU, "

two

months

"

; to-tsuld,

"_ten

_months."

The

setof

numerals borrowed from

theChineseis:

1. ichi (oritsu). 2.

m.

3. san. 4. shi. 5. _go.

6. roku _{(or nfai).}

7. shichi. 8. Jiachi. 9. fat_(or kyti). 10. ju. 11._ju-ichi. 12. ju~ni. 13._jti-san. 14. _jii-sld. etc., etc. 20. ni-jii. 21. _ni-ju-ichi. 22. ni-ju-ni. etc. etc. 30. _san-ju. 40. _sld-ju. etc. etc.

100. hyahu, or ip-pyciku (lit.

"

one

[hundred").

200. ni-7iyaku.

etc. etc.

1,000. sen, oris-sen

(lit.

"onethou-[sand").

10,000.

man,

or ban, orichi-man_(lit* ["

one

myriad").

These numerals

_{cannot be used independently, but}

must

always precede a noun, forming a sortof

_compound

with the

latter.

Thus

ichi-nin,

"one

person";

it-ten

(foTichi-ten),

"one

point."

As

seen

by

these _{examples, the}

nouns

with

which

20

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

origin. Similarly,Japanese

and

Chinese

numerals

cannot be

usedtogether. Shi, "four," is

however

often_replaced

_by

_yo, thenative_{Japanese word, as inju-yo-nin,} "fourteen_persons"; ni-ju-yokka, "the24th

day

ofthe

month."

SEC. 2. AUXILIARY NUMERALS.

"

Auxiliary

numeral

"

is the

name

_giventoacertain class

of

nouns

with

which

the Chinese

numerals

_constantly

com-bine.

_They

have

_English analogues in such expressions as

"a

hundred

headofcattle,"

"so

_many

panesofglass"; butare

much

more

extensively used.

Thus

"one war-vessel" is

gun-Jean is-so; "

one

soldier" is heishiichi-mei_(or

ichi-nin)',

"

one

pen

" is_fudeip-pon

(lessfrequentlyisso_{no gurikm,} ichi-ninno

heishi, etc.).

The

followingarethe

most

importantauxiliary

numerals

:

chd, forvarious things with handles, such astools,muskets,

and

jinrikishas.

fu,for letters.

fuku, for scrolls, sips oftea,

and

whiffs of tobacco.

hai, forcupfuls

and

glassfuls.

hiki, for

most

living creatures except

human

beings

and

birds; alsoforcertain quantities ofcloth,

and

sums

of

money.

hon,forcylindricalthings, suchas sticks, trees,

and

fans.

lea,or_{ko, forthingsgenerally, that}

have

no

auxiliary

numeral

speciallyappropriatedto

them.

ken, for _buildings.

mat, *, flatthings generally*

met,

human

beings.

nin, ,,

human

_beings*

saisti, *, volumes.

85) ,, ships,

tsti) documents*

NUMERALS. 21

N.B.

For

the euphonic changes

which

these auxiliary

numerals undergo

in _{composition with the}

numerals

_proper,

see_pages 5

and

6.

Wa

suffersthe_{following irregularchanges}:

8am-ba($)trop-pa (6),jip-pa (10),hyap-pa(100), sem-ba(1,000).

By

the Japanese themselves the

names

of _weights

and

measures, such askin, "a

pound",

areincludedin the

same

category.

Thus:

ik-kin,

"one

pound";

liyak-Un,

"a

hundred

pounds."

Formerly

there existed

many

native

_Japanese

_auxiliary

numerals,

which were

used in combination with the native

numerals

proper.

The

only

words

of this class that

have

remained

in

common

useare:

soroe, for setsof_things;

suji, rope-likethings;

tomai,

"godowns"

(e.g. dozo mu-tomai,

"six

mud

go-downs")

;

and

the isolated expressions hitori,

"

_one

person"; futari, "

_two

persons " ;

and

_yottari, "

four_persons,"

which

often replaceichi-nin, ni-nin,

and

yo-nln.

Thus

: _{suifu futari,}

"

_{two seamen."}

The

native auxiliary

numerals

suffer

no

_{euphonic changes.}

SEC. 8. ORDINAL NUMBERS, ETC.

Japanese

has

no

separate forms for

what

we

term

the

ordinals.

Sometimes

thecardinal

numbers

_{do duty}for

_them,

thus: Meijiju-ku-tien,

"the

nineteenth yearof Meiji,i.e.

A.D.

1886."

At

other times the

word

dai, "series," is _prefixed,

or

bamme

suffixed, to the cardinal

numbers,

as dai-ichi or

ichi bamme, "thefirst." Observe suchlocutions as

san-do, "thrice." san-do me, "thethirdtime."

san-cJidme, "thirdstreet."

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

ichi, "one-third." xtiin-bu

"three

_percent."

sanu-ari "_thirtypercent."

mitsu \

sam-inm

.

Y zutsu, "three atatime;"

sam-bon

etc. _j

and

_similarlywith the other numerals.

CHAPTER

VI.

THE

POSTPOSITION.

SEC. 1.

THE

SIMPLE POSTPOSITION.

Japanese postpositions correspond for the

most

_part to

English prepositions.

But

some words which

we

should call

adverbs

and

_{conjunctions,}

and

others for

which

_English

has

no

_equivalents are included_{in this category,}

When

suffixed

to a verb or adjective, postpositions require such verb or

adjective to beinoneof the attributiveforms, a general rule

which

is _{subject to exceptions}

mentioned

in the courseofthe

present chapter.

Postpositions are of

two

kinds,simple

and compound.

The

chief simple postpositions, with their

most

usual

significations, are:

Ga,

I "of," or the _possessive case: Oislii _{gafiikusliyu,}

"

Oishi's _revenge; "...ga tame ni,

"for

the sakeof." II.

phrase-SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS.

23

ologyapproximates tothat of the _colloquiaj, as a_{sign of}

what

we

shouldcall thenominativecase: _{Suyiura Shi ga} shdJiai u-o

juyo su, "

Mr.

Sugiura distributed the prizes." III.

When

suffixed totheattributive

form

ofa verbatthe

end

ofaclause,

ithas

an

_{adversative force generally best} rendered

_by

"yet,"

"but,"

or "still'

1

prefixed to the following clause. (See

wo,

which

is_preferred

_{by good}

writers to_ga in such _contexts.)

Ka, an

interrogativeparticle,generallycorrespondingtoour

point of interrogation,but

sometimes

onlyto

an

_expression of

uncertainty:

Aru

_ka, "Isthere?";

Nani

ka,

"

Something

or

other"; Sono so-dan no matomarishi to hanite, kondo ,

"

_An

agreement

having, as it

would

seem, been arrivedat,

they are

now

"

When

repeated, lea _{usuallycorresponds}

to "either or."

Followed

_by

ira at the

end

of a

sentence, ka_{expressesa merely}rhetorical_question: Shika

nomi

kawa, "Isit_{only so?"}i.e., "

Of

courseitis_{not only}so."

When

suffixed as it _occasionally is to _{a gerund,} ka

combines

with

the gerundial termination te_{to signify} "doubtless because,"

"

probably

on

account of."

Thus

: _Seifu

mo

koko ni

mini

tokoro ante ka, Jionjitsu no kanreirannai ni aru gotoku

tori-sJiimari-kisokuICQ mokeraretari, "

The

government

too,

doubt-less

_having

certain views

on

the _subject, has

drawn

up

regulations, as

_may

be seen inthe official

column

ofour

to-day's issue."

Kara,

"from,"

"since": korekara,

"henceforward."

Koso, a _highly

_emphatic

_{particle, corresponding} to

an

unusually strong

emphasis

in _English, or to

an

inversion

which

_puts at _{the beginning} of the _English sentence the

word

to

which

the writer desires to

draw

attention. In

classical _{Japanese each} of the indicative tenses of verbs

and

adjectives has a special

form

in e, called

by Mr. Aston

the

"

24 JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

form

atthe

end

of

_any

sentenceorclause in

which

koso occurs,

thus:

yuke for _yuku.

yukitare yuUtari.

yukame

yukan.

yukane ,, yukazu.

are ,, ari.

bekere

(i.e. bekuare) beshi.

liayakere (i.e.

Uayaku

are) lutyaslii, etc. etc.

Examples

of the use of these formsin e _{are occasionally}

met

withinthe

modern

written_style, thus:

_Kydho

wa

shiseino

tasuke koso sure _(forindefinite

slii), samatageivaseji,

"

_A

help,

and

not a hindrance, is

what

educationwillbetothe

adminis-tration." Koso or ni koso is

sometimes

placed at the

end

of a sentence, to _give

_{an emphatic and}

_exclamatory force

to the whole, thus:

Makoto

ni aramahoshiki koto ni koso,

"

_Ah

! it isindeed a thing one

would

like tosee

_happen."

In

such

cases

no

_change

is

_produced

in

_any

verbal _{or adjective}

form.

Made,

"till," "asfaras," "

down

to," "to":

Kore

_made,

"

_Thus

far," "hitherto."

Such

phrases asmydgonichi made,

may

signify either "tillthe

_day

after

to-morrow

;" "or

by

the

day

after

_{to-morrow ";}

but the latter

_meaning

is the

more

usual.

Made

sometimes has

the _exceptional signification of

"

only," "merely," thus:

Kono dan

kihomade,

"_This

just as

an

answer," " This

_may

suffice as

an

answer." _(Epistolary

style).

Mo,

properly"also," "even "

; but veryfrequentlya

mere

expletive not needing to be translated:

_En-ryo

mo

naku,

" Without

_[even]

_any

_{feeling of diffidence."} Itisoften used

expletively

between

the

two

members

of a

compound

verb:

Yuki

mo

tsukanu

ucU

ni, "Before

he

had

reached

"

SIMPLE POSTPOSITIONS. 25

means

"to arrive at a_placeoneis_goingto_").

Mo

likewise

serves to

form

the _hypothetical concessive

mood

of verbs.

mo

mo

_{repeated signifies} "both":

Mukashi

mo

ima

mo, "

Both

in ancient

and

modern

times."

]\lotte, "thereby," "

and

thus." See

wo

motte, page37. Xagara,suffixed tonouns,signifies "justas itis," "without

change," "tel _{quel" thus:}

Mendo

_nagara, "Tedious asitis,"

"

though

abore."

More

.oftenit followsverbs (alwaysin the

indefinite, notinthe _{attributive form),}

and

then

has

the sense

of"while," "during," thus: _yuki-nagara,

"

while going."

Xi, "in," "into,"

"to."

Xi

has

a _great

number

of

idiomatic uses, of

which

_{the following} are the

most

note-worthy

: I.

What

in

_English

is called the _subject of

a sentence is often

marked

_by

ni followed

_by

wa

or oite.

This_{givesthe expression}

an

_{honorific tinge,}

which

is

general-ly

emphasized

by

putting the verb in the potential form,it

being considered

more

polite to _{say that such}

and

such a

thing is ableto_happenina_person,

than

_bluntlyto assert that

the person did it.

Thus

:

_Kaigunkyo

ni

wa

sannuru

mikka

kikyoseraretari, "the Ministerof

Marine

returnedto

Tokyo on

the 3rd instant." II.

With

a _passive verb, ni _corresponds

to

_"by,"

_denoting asit_{does the person}

_by

whom

theactionis

performed:

Zoku

ni obiyakasaruru, "

To

be scared

_by

thieves."

III.

With

a causative verb, ni denotes _{the person}

who

is

caused to_{perform the}action, thus: lin nikoto

wo

_giseshimuru,

"

_To

_{cause the}

_committee

_todeliberate

upon

amatter," i.e. "

To

leave a matter to the

committee

to deliberate _upon." IV.

Following theattributive

form

ofaverb atthe

end

ofaclause,

ni serves to indicate a contrast or difference

between

two

consecutive actions or states.

_"Whereupon"

or

"on,"

prefixed to the following clause, isthe

most

literal_English

26

JAPANESE

GRAMMAR.

ichi-jonoshikabaneivo _{hiki-agetari,} "

_They

caused search tobe

made

_{by competent}

divers,

whereupon

thebodies of

two

men

and

one

woman

were

recovered."

But

more

_{frequently ni in}such

contexts

must

be rendered

by "but,"

there _{being hardly}

_any

difference

between

it

and wo

_{similarly placed,} thus: _Zenjitsu

oyoU

yoktgiteukdunarisldni, kono Id

nomi

u-akinraimare

naru

kdtenki nite, "

Both

the

_day

before

and

the

_day

after

were

_rainy; but

on

this

day

only

was

the

weather

finer

than

almost

_any

we

have had

oflate,

and

so ".

V.

Ni

suffixed

to

nouns sometimes

means

"

and

besides," " and." VI.

Xi

sometimes

follows a

word

which

according to

_English

ideasshould be in the accusativecase, as: Hitoni au, "

To

meet

_{a person."} VII. Suffixed to the indefinite

form

of the

verb, ni _signifies "in order to" "to": Torini_yuku,

"To

_go

tofetch."

Nite_{(sometimes corrupted}into_de) I.

_"by

means

of,"

"by,"

"with":

Kore

nite sJiiru-beshi, "It

_may

_{be hereby}

known."

II. "in,"

"at"

:

Osaka

nite, "at

Osaka."

N.B.

The

_postposition nite

must

not be

confounded

with

nite, the indefinite

form

of the verb naru,

which

signifies

" being."

Xo

"of," or the _possessive case, thus:

_Tokyo

no jumin,

"the

inhabitants of

_Tokyo";

boku nozonjiyori,

"my

humble

opinion "

; Iciini ico

osamuru

no konnan,

"_the

difficulty of

governing the country"; kisJia no tsilkd

sum,

"the passing

of the train," "the train _passing."

_{In examples}

likethe

last, the

word

followed

_by

no almost

comes

to _correspond

to our nominative or accusative rather 'than to our

geni-tive case,

and

the

noun

to

which

it issuffixed

must

often

be turned into the _{subject of}a clause inEnglish.

Thus

:

Waga

liai no tsune ni ikan to

sum

tokoro

nan,

"It

is a