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Tuberculosis
Ma. Anna P. Bañez, M.D. Department of Child HealthMycobacteria
Classified into: a. M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) • M. tuberculosis: causes disease only in humans • M. bovis: causes disease in cattle, humans, other mammals • M. africanum • M. microtib. Nontuberculous mycobacteria (MOTT: Mycobacteria
Other Than Tuberculosis) • M. avium‐intracellulare • M. kansasii • Other species
Epidemiology
• WHO estimates that one third of the world’s population: 2 billion are infected with M. tuberculosis • Infection rates highest in Africa, Asia, Latin America • Contributory Factors: –Impact of HIV epidemics –Population migration –Increasing poverty –Social upheaval –Crowded living conditions –Inadequate healthcare –Inefficient TB control programsEpidemiology
• In 1998, Philippines ranked 2ndin Western pacific region next to China • DOH data: 1995: 5thleading cause of mortality (39.4/100,000) 1997: 5thleading cause of morbidity (219/100,00) • PPS data: 1998: PTB 10thleading causes of morbidity Extrapulmo TB 8thleading cause of mortalityTransmission of M. tuberculosis
• Spread by droplet nuclei • Expelled when person with infectious TB coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings • Close contacts at highest risk of becoming infected • Transmission occurs from person with infectious TB disease (not latent TB infection)Peculiarities of Childhood TB
• Greater the risk of developing TB disease • Greater risk of extrapulmonary disease e.g. miliary TB and TB meningitis • Rarely develop cavitary lesions • Lower bacillary load and bacteriologic confirmation more difficult • Tolerate higher doses of anti‐TB drugs per kilogram2 | B a c t ê - P e d i a TB infection TB disease • 5 ‐ 15 % during the first 10 years following primary infection • Infants – 50% within 3‐9 months • 1‐5 yr olds – 25% within 1‐2 years • Adolescents – 15% TB exposure TB infection TB disease Primary chemoprophylaxis Secondary chemoprophylaxis INH x 3 mos, then if PPD (+) + 6 mos INH x 9 mos
Clinical Manifestations
• Cough / wheezing > 2 weeks • Fever > 2 weeks • Painless cervical and / or other lymphadenopathy • Poor weight gain • Failure to make a quick return to health after an infection e.g. measles, tonsillitis or pertussis • Failure to respond to appropriate antibiotics as in AOM or pneumoniaClinical Manifestations
• Signs and symptoms are nonspecific • ~ One‐half of children with TB disease do not have signs and symptoms • Thus, the need for several criteria to be met to prevent over diagnosis • Signs and symptoms very helpful in the case of extrapulmonary TBClinical Forms of TB
Pulmonary / Endothoracic Tuberculosis Asymptomatic (Latent) TB infection (LTBI) Primary (Childhood) TB • The younger the patient, the greater risk of progressive disease until age 5 years old• Primary Complex:primary focus, lymphangitis & regional
lymphadenitis • Most common signs and symptoms: non‐productive cough, mild dyspnea, cervical lymphadenopathies, failure to gain weight Pleurisy with Effusion • Early complication of primary infection, localized / generalized, unilateral or bilateral • Abrupt onset like bacterial pneumonia: fever, chest pain, short breath
Clinical Forms of TB
Pulmonary / Endothoracic Tuberculosis Progressive Primary TB • Primary focus develops a large caseous center, more cough, malaise & weight loss; cavitation on chest X‐ ray Endobronchial TB • Enlarged peribronchial LN’s, compression : – Sudden death by asphyxia – Obstructive hyperaeration of a lobar segment, lobe, entire lung – Atelectasis specially right middle lobe, right upper lobe; maybe mistaken for asthma3 | B a c t ê - P e d i a Pulmonary / Endothoracic Tuberculosis Miliary Tuberculosis • A form of disseminated TB due to massive invasion of blood stream by TB bacilli • From discharge of a caseous LN into a blood vessel • Most common during 1st2– 6 months of infection especially in infants • Acute / gravely ill; usually insidious, with low fever, weight loss, anorexia, generalized lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly develops, high fever, dyspnea, cough, rales / wheezes, alveolar‐air block syndrome, respiratory distress, hypoxia, pneumothorax • CXR: millet seed density all over the lung fields • Meningitis or peritonitis in 20‐40% cases
Clinical Forms of TB
Clinical Forms of TB
Pulmonary / Endothoracic Tuberculosis Chronic Pulmonary TB • Adult TB • With apical or infraclavicular infiltrate often with cavitation, no hilar adenopathy • Most common in adolescent Tuberculoma • Can form with small caseous or granulomatous tissue surrounded by concentric fibrous tissue sometimes with calcification • Often confused with cancer Pulmonary / Endothoracic Tuberculosis Pericardial Tuberculosis • Secondary to direct spread from mediastinal glands by direct invasions or lymphatic spread • Uncommon, 0.4% of untreated tuberculous infection in children • Nonspecific symptoms: low fever, malaise, weight loss, chest pain, friction rub, distant heart sounds • Pericardiocentesis: sanguinous with lymphocytic predominance • (‐) AFB, (+) pericardial fluid /biopsy culture, (+) granulomasClinical Forms of TB
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of the Cervical LN (Scrofula) • Most common of extrapulmonary form in children • Unilateral or bilateral • Other sites: tonsillar, submandibular, supraclavicular • Painless, enlarged, initially firm and movable become adherent to each other and anchored to surrounding tissues • May resolve or progress to caseation and necrosis, rupture and form draining sinus tract (Scrofuloderma) • Tuberculin test usually reactive, CXR normal in 70% of casesClinical Forms of TB
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of the CNS: Tuberculous meningitis • Most common type of TB of the CNS which may develop 3‐6 mos after an initial infection• From a metastatic caseous lesion in the cerebral cortex / meninges following lymphohematogenous dissemination of primary infection • Accompany miliary TB in 50% 0f cases • Brainstem– most common site, frequent dysfunction of CN 3,6, 7 • Exudate interferes with CSF flow, communicating hydrocephalus • (+) vasculitis, infarction, cerebral edema and hydrocephalus results in severe damage • Most common between 6 mo‐4yr • Signs and symptoms progress slowly x weeks
Clinical Forms of TB
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of the CNS: Tuberculous meningitis 3 Stages:Clinical Forms of TB
I. Early stages of irritability, behavioral changes like apathy, vomiting, headache for 1‐2 wks.II. Pressure or convulsive seizure, meningeal signs, lethargy, neck stiffness, seizure, cranial nerve palsies
III. Paralytic or Terminal Stage – posturing, profound neurologic and sensorial changes with deterioration of vital signs, eventual death. In infants, encephalitic manifestations predominate • TT nonreactive in 50% of cases • 20‐30% with normal CXR • CSF Analysis:lymphocyte predominance, decreased sugar, markedly increased protein, AFB (+) 30%, (+) culture 50‐70% • CT Scan:basal enhancement, communicating hydrocephalus with cerebral edema, focal ischemia Tuberculoma
4 | B a c t ê - P e d i a Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of the Bone and Joints: • 1 ‐ 6% of children with untreated primary infection • Occurs 1 – 3 yrs after the initial infection • Most common sites: weight bearing bones and joint especially vertebra causing TB of spine (Pott’s disease) • Destruction of vertebrae: gibbus deformity & kyphosis Gastrointestinal TB: 1. TB peritonitis due to a rupture of caseous abdominal LN – Presents as fever, abdominal pain, weight loss, anorexia and ascites 2. Hepatobiliary TB – Two major forms: a. Hard nodular liver, fever and weight loss like CA b. Chronic recurrent jaundice
Clinical Forms of TB
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of the Skin: • Scrofuloderma • Erythema nodosum Renal TB: • Uncommon, up to 15 – 20yrs after primary infection • Suspected if with destructive pulmonary TB w/ persistentpainless sterile pyuria w/ associated albuminuria and hematuria Others: 1. Ocular TB 2. Genital TB 3. TB of the middle ear
Clinical Forms of TB
Perinatal Disease • Symptoms by 2nd‐3rdwk of life as respiratory distress, fever, hepatosplenomegaly, poor feeding, lethargy or irritability, lymphadenopathy, abdominal distention, failure to thrive• CXR: hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy and lung infiltrates, miliary pattern • Signs and symptoms: similar to bacterial sepsis, other congenital infections: Syphilis, Toxoplasmosis, CMV • Important clue: maternal or family history of TB • Tuberculin test initially negative, become (+) in 1‐3 mos
Tuberculosis: Classification
• TB exposure ‐ positive exposure Negative Mantoux test No signs and symptoms Negative chest X‐ ray • TB infection ‐ with or without exposure Positive Mantoux, but with Negative signs and symptoms and negative chest X‐rayTuberculosis: Classification
• TB disease ‐ has 3 or more of the following: • Exposure • Signs and symptoms suggestive of TB • Chest X‐ray suggestive of TB • Positive Mantoux • Laboratory findings suggestive of TB • TB inactive – (+/‐) previous chemotherapy •(+)radiographic evidence of calcified TB •(+) Mantoux tuberculin test •(‐) signs and symptoms of TB •(‐) smear / culture for M.TBDiagnosis: Chest X‐Ray
• Primary complex (Ghon): primary focus, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis • Rigor et al (1991): retrocardiac lymph nodes (70%), hilar adenopathy with infiltrates (20%) • Problem: low specificity• May remain visible 6‐12 months or longer following treatment
• Calcification may appear within 6 months following infection
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Diagnosis: Tuberculin Skin Test
• Delayed‐type hypersensitivity • Appears 3 weeks to 3 months (usually 3‐6 weeks) after an infection • Tuberculin reactivity following BCG wanes over time • Unlikely to persist beyond 10 years Mantoux test: •0.1 ml of solution containing or equivalent to 1g (5 TU PPD‐S) read at 48‐72 hours using ballpoint pen method •Measure only induration •Record reaction in millimetersTuberculin test
Definitions of Positive Tubercullin Skin Test (TST) Results In Infants, Children, and Adolescents1 Induration =5 mm Children in close contact with known or suspected contagious people with tuberculosis disease. Children suspected to have tuberculosis disease: ‐Findings on chest radiograph consistent with active or previously tuberculosis disease ‐Clinical evidence of tuberculosis disease2 Children receiving immunosuppressive therapy3or with immunosuppressive conditions, including HIV infection. Induration = 10 mm Children at increased risk of disseminated tuberculosis disease: ‐Children younger than 4 years of age ‐Children with other medical conditions, including Hodgkin disease, lymphoma, diabetes mellitus, chronic renal failure, or malnutrition (see Table 3.70, p 683) Children with increased exposure to tuberculosis disease: ‐Children born in high‐prevalence regions of the world ‐Children frequently exposed to adults who are HIV infected, homeless, users of illicit drugs, residents of nursing homes, incarcerated or institutionalized, or migrant farm workers ‐Children who travel to high‐prevalence regions of the world Induration = 15 mm Children 4 years of age or older without any risk factors HIV indicates human immunodeficiency virus.1These definitions apply regardless of previous Bacille Calmette‐Guerin (BCG) immunization erythema at TST site docs not indicate a positive test result Tests should be read at 48 to 72 hours after placement. 2Evidence by physical examination or laboratory assessment that would include tuberculosis in the working differential diagnosis (eg, meningitis). 3Including immunosuppressive doses of corticosteroids (see Corticosteroids, p 692).
Factors that Decrease Skin Test
Reaction
• Very young age • Malnutrition • Immunosuppression by disease or drugs • Viral infections (measles, mumps, Varicella, influenzae) • Vaccination with live‐virus vaccines • Overwhelming TB –Up to 50% with TB meningitis & disseminated disease ~10% immunocompetent children with TB disease have false negative TTOther Diagnostic Tests
AFB smear • 3 early morning specimens • Sputum / gastric aspirate /other body fluids • Offers only a presumptive diagnosis; represents either M. tuberculosis or other non‐tuberculous mycobacterium Mycobacterial Culture • Low sensitivity in children • Not necessary if epidemiologic, tuberculin test and x‐ray compatible with disease • Indicated if DRTB is suspectedOther Diagnostic Tests
Histologic Examination • Classic pathologic lesion: caseating granulomas Newer Diagnostic Tests • Antibody detection • Antigen detection • DNA probes • PCR6 | B a c t ê - P e d i a
Recommended Anti‐TB drugs
• Isoniazid H) ‐ 5 to 10 mg/kg ( max 300 mg) • Rifampicin (R) ‐ 10 to 15 mg/kg (max 600 mg) • Pyrazinamide (Z) ‐ 15 to 30 mg/kg (max 2 gm) • Ethambutol (E) ‐ 15 to 25 mg/kg (max 2.5 gm) • Streptomycin (S) ‐ 20 to 30 mg/kg (max 1 gm) (Newborns of Tuberculous Mothers
• Mother (+) TT, no evidence of disease, give BCG • Mother with disease but with treatment >/= 2 wks: – Start INH – Do TT at 4‐6 wks. –Continue INH even if TT & CXR (‐) –Repeat TT after 3 mos, if (‐) discontinue INH and give BCG • If mother with disease without treatment: –Don’t separate –Start INH or Rifampicin depending on susceptibility of mom’s M. TB –Do TT & CXR on baby –If TT (‐): Repeat TT & CXR after 3 mos – if TT (+) but CXR (‐) : INH or Rifampicin x 6 mos –If TT & CXR (‐), and mom completed TX, give BCG • I mother with meningitis, miliary, bone / joint TB: – Consider Congenital TB – Do TT, CXR, AFB gastric aspirate & culture, LP – Quadruple treatmentTreatment
•• Compliance must be ensured ‐DOTS is the preferred strategy Evaluation of response to therapy mainly using clinical criteria: improvement of appetite, well‐ being, disappearance of signs and symptoms when present • Repeat chest x‐ray usually not necessary • For AFB (+) cases – monthly bacteriologic evaluation till negative (85% are negative after 2 months, persistently + smear suggests drug resistance) • Observe for drug adverse effects – jaundice, hepatomegaly • No need for liver function monitoring unless symptoms of drug‐induced hepatitis are present
Treatment
Suspect drug resistance when the following are present: • Previous intake of anti‐TB drugs > 1 month or previous inadequate therapy • Contact with drug‐resistant adult case • Residence in areas with high primary Isoniazid resistance (>10%) • Failure to improve despite compliance with therapy for at least 2 months • HIV / AIDSTreatment
7 | B a c t ê - P e d i a • When resistance is suspected use an initial regimen of 4 drugs with Ethambutol or Streptomycin as the 4th drug • Treatment of extrapulmonary TB similar to PTB but use longer course (up to 12 months) for TB meningitis, skeletal or joint TB and in immunocompromised patients • For all patients, contact assessment is essential