Plastics Technology Handbook, Volume 2

(1)

Plastics

technologY

handbook

edited by

donald V. Rosato

PhD, MBA, MS, BS, PE

Marlene g. Rosato

BASc (ChE), P Eng

nick R. schott

PhD, MS, BS (ChE), PE

UMASS Lowell Professor of Plastics Engineering Emeritus & Plastics Department Head Retired

V O L U M E 2

Manufacturing • coMposites • tooling • auxiliaries

ISBN: 978-1-60650-082-8 90000

Rosato

schott

VOLUME 2

P

l

a

s

t

ic

s

t

e

c

h

n

o

l

o

g

Y

h

a

n

d

b

o

k

Manufacturing • coMposites

tooling • auxiliaries

This comprehensive two-volume handbook provides a simplified, practical, and

innovative approach to understanding the design and manufacture of plastic products. It will expand the reader’s understanding of plastics technology by defining and focusing on past, current, and future technical trends. In Volume 1, plastics behavior is presented so as to help readers fabricate products that meet performance standards, low cost requirements, and profitability targets. In this second volume, all major plastics compounding and forming technolo-gies are presented—from mass production extrusion and injection processes to specialty techniques like rotational molding, compression molding, spray mold-ing, encapsulation, pottmold-ing, ink screenmold-ing, impregnation, and vacuum-assisted liquid injection molding, among many others. A chapter on Coating provides all the major forms of modifying surface properties of plastics for desired thermal, physical and chemical behavior. A chapter on Casting focuses in all major meth-ods of forming plastic melts in physical molds, including mold types, removal molds and quality control issues. A unique chapter on Mold and Die Tooling offers hard to find information on tool and die design specific to plastics manu-facture--including detailed explanation on die design and use, tooling materials, tool casting and machining, and a 41- page glossary of common die and tooling terms. Finally, an extensive chapter on Auxiliary and Supplementary machines and systems provides incredibly useful background—for everything from bond-ing, chemical etchbond-ing, cuttbond-ing, and decorating to plastics machinbond-ing, pelletiz-ing, printpelletiz-ing, polishpelletiz-ing, stamppelletiz-ing, vacuum debulkpelletiz-ing, weldpelletiz-ing, and many more processes involved in bringing desired plastics products to market. This chapter also extensively covers various means of mechanical assembly of plastics parts. Over 15,000 subjects are reviewed with 1800 figures and 1400 tables. This 2,500 page, two-volume handbook will be of interest to a wide range of plas-tics professionals: from plasplas-tics engineers to tool makers, fabricators, designers, plant managers, materials suppliers, equipment suppliers, testing and quality control personnel, and cost estimators. Moreover, this handbook provides an ex-cellent introduction to students studying the plastics field.

Contents Synopsis: Preface, Coating, Casting, Reaction Injection Molding,

Rota-tional Molding, Compression Molding, Reinforced Plastic, Other Processes, Mold and Die Tooling, Auxiliary and Secondary Equipment, Glossary, Further Reading.

Plastics technologY

handbook

VoluMe 2: Manufacturing • coMposites • tooling • auxiliaries

Edited by Donald V. Rosato • Marlene G. Rosato • Nick R. Schott

(2)

About thE AuthoRS v FiGuRES xvii tAblES xxxi AbbREViAtioNS xli AckNowlEDGMENtS xlix PREFAcE li 10. coAtiNG 1 OVERVIEW 1

Different Coating Aspect 8

TERM AND PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION 11

Paint 14

Water- Based Paint 16

Varnish 17 Lacquer 17 Solvent 17 PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS 21 Thermoplastic Coating 22 TS Coating 23

15. REiNFoRcED PlAStic 223 OVERVIEW 223 DEFINITION 225 Fibrous Composite 240 Laminar Composite 251 Particulate Composites 252 Fillers 252 PROPERTIES 254 ORIENTATION OF REINFORCEMENT 270 Directional Property 274 Hetergeneous/Homogeneous/Anisotropic 279 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 279 Prepreg 282

Sheet Molding Compound 283

Bulk Molding Compound 284

Compound 285 FABRICATING PROCESS 286 Preform Process 286 Type Process 288 Compression Molding 288 Hand Layup 291 Filament Winding 295 Injection Molding 306 Marco Process 307 Pultrusion 307

Reactive Liquid Molding 309

Reinforced RTM 310

Reinforced Rotational Molding 311

SCRIMP Process 311

Soluble Core Molding 312

(7)

xii Contents Stamping 314 SELECTING PROCESSES 315 DESIGN 317 Aspect Ratio 317 Tolerance 329 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 333 Design Theory 333 16. othER PRocESSES 335 INTRODUCTION 335 PVC PLASTISOL 336 Introduction 336 Processing Plastisol 338 Processing Organosol 340 Slush Molding 340 Rotational Molding 341 Spray Molding 342 Continuous Coating 342 Open Molding 342 Closed Molding 343 Dip Molding 343 Dip Coating 344 Heating System 344 INK SCREENING 344 ENCAPSULATION 344 POTTING 345

LIQUID INJECTION MOLDING 345

Vacuum- Assisted LIM 346

IMPREGNATION 346

CHEMICAL ETCHING 347

TWIN- SCREW INJECTION MOLDING 347

TEXTILE COVERED MOLDING 348

MELT COMPRESSION MOLDING 348

Back Injection 349

Melt Flow Compression Molding 351

Back Compression (Melt Compression Molding) 352

MCM- IML 352

(8)

Contents xiii

17. MolD AND DiE tooliNG 366

OVERVIEW 366 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 382 STEEL 393 ALUMINUM 399 Preheating 402 Aluminum Zinc 403 COPPER 403 Beryllium Copper 404 Copper Zinc 404 Other Alloys 404 METAL SPRAY 405 POROUS METAL 405 SOFT TOOLING 406 MANUFACTURING 406

Electric- Discharge Machining 408

Electroforming 408 SURFACE FINISH 408 POLISHING 410 Orange Peel 414 Art of Polishing 414 Hand Polishing 415 PROTECTIVE COATING/PLATING 416 Overview 416 Problems 418 Plating 422 Coating 423 Heat Treatment 425 Cryogenic Processing 426 MAINTENANCE/CLEANING 427 MOLD 429 Introduction 429 Basic Operation 460 Mold Components 460 Mold Type 462

Injection Mold Feed System 472

Sprue 472

Runner 473

Gate 475

(9)

xiv Contents Cold Runner 491 Hot Runner 502 Runner Overview 512 Material of Construction 516 Cooling 519 Cavity Venting 529 Ejection 533 Mold/Part Shrinkage 539 Mold Construction 544 Release Agent 553

Faster/Lower- Cost Mold Insert Approach 554

Manufacturing Mold Cavity 554

Polishing 556 Preengineering 557 Safety 567 Moldmakers 569 Imports 570 Directories 570 Summary 572 DIES 573 Material of Construction 574 Terminology 575 Design 585 Melt Flow 585 Extrudate Performance 594 Manifold 598 Process Control 598 Die Type 606 Tubular Dies 614

New Die Designs 633

COMPUTERS 634

Tool Analysis 635

Model Construction 635

Software 636

Material Selection Software 636

TOOLING AND PROTOTYPING 637

Rapid System 638

Rapid Tooling 640

Selecting Rapid Tooling 644

(10)

Contents xv

Software Trend 645

REPAIR VERSUS BUYING 646

Welding 646

Storage 647

TOOL BUILDERS 647

GLOSSARY 648

APPENDIX 689

18. AuxiliARy AND SEcoNDARy EquiPMENt 738

INTRODUCTION 738

MATERIAL/PRODUCT HANDLING 756

Material- Handling System 757

Injection Molding 777

Extruding 786

DECORATING 805

JOINING AND ASSEMBLING 807

Adhesive and Solvent Bonding 807

Mechanical Assembly 835

Staking 849

Welding Assembly 863

MACHINING 892

Overview 892

Machining and Cutting Operations 897

Machining and Tooling 911

Machining Nonmelt TP 919

Laser Machining 922

Other Machining Methods 923

Machining Safety 924

GloSSARy 925

(11)

Figure 10.1 Example of industrial coating and drying apparatus. 20

Figure 10.2 The basic drying process and typical drying parameters. 20

Figure 10.3 Temperature distribution in strippable vinyl foam. 44

Figure 10.4 High- speed extrusion coating line. 48

Figure 10.5 Example of roller coating processes. 49

Figure 10.6 Knife spread coating. 50

Figure 10.7 Transfer coating of PUR (top) and PVC. 50

Figure 10.8 Cast coating line for coating by transfer from paper carrier. 51

Figure 10.9 Fabric dip coating line. 52

Figure 10.10 Example of a vacuum coater. 53

Figure 10.12 Electrodeposition for application of coating to magnet wire or strip. 53

Figure 10.11 In- mold coating used in the reaction injection molding process. 53

Figure 10.13 Floor covering coating line. 54

Figure 10.14 Foam plastic carpet backing coating line. 54

Figure 10.15 Vacuum- ultraviolet radiation effects on organic coatings. 63

Figure 10.16 Vacuum- ultraviolet radiation effects on stabilized organic coatings. 63

Figure 10.17 Relationship between solar absorbance, total hemispherical emittance,

and pigment ratios. 64

Figure 10.18 Relationship between solar absorbance and pigment ratios. 64

Figure 10.19 Vacuum- ultraviolet radiation effects on inorganic coatings. 65

Figure 10.20 Effects of vacuum- ultraviolet radiation on pigments. 65

Figure 10.21 Emission of VOCs in the life cycle of a varnish. 87

Figure 10.22 Pressure- temperature and pressure- density behavior of matter. 88

Figure 11.1 Example of the liquid casting process. 92

(12)

xviii Figures

Figure 11.2 Example of a LIM casting process. 95

Figure 11.3 Example of more accurate mixing of components for liquid injection

casting. 95

Figure 12.1 Example of typical PUR RIM process (courtesy of Bayer). 104

Figure 12.2 Diagram highlighting material use and handling in a PUR RIM process

(courtesy of Bayer). 104

Figure 12.3 Example of in- mold coating application. 105

Figure 12.4 Polyurethane RIM product for a computerized tomography (CT) device

Figure 12.5 Refrigerator with PUR foam door with no sheet metal (courtesy of Bayer). 107

Figure 12.6 RIM machine with mold in the open position (courtesy of Milacron). 110

Figure 12.7 RIM machine with mold in the closed position (courtesy of Milacron). 111

Figure 12.8 Example of an auto bumper RIM production line (courtesy of Milacron). 112

Figure 12.9 RIM machine with auxiliary clamping system (courtesy of Battenfeld). 113

Figure 12.10 Example of a RIM production line, where molds are on a moving track

permitting final cure of PUR (courtesy of Battenfeld). 114

Figure 12.11 Gating and runner systems demonstrating laminar melt flow and

uniform flow front (courtesy of Bayer). 115

Figure 12.12 Example of a dam gate and runner system (courtesy of Bayer). 116

Figure 12.13 Examples of triangular and quadratic fan gates (chapter 17; courtesy of

Bayer). 117

Figure 12.14 Example of melt flow around obstructions near the vent (courtesy of

Bayer). 118

Figure 12.15 Examples of various ribbing approaches to aid melt flow (courtesy of

Bayer). 118

Figure 12.16 Example of a low gate position with high vent for best results when

foaming (courtesy of Bayer). 119

Figure 12.17 Example of how to properly split a melt stream from the mixer

Figure 12.18 Basic schematic for mixing two liquid components to produce a PUR. 122

Figure 12.19 TDI is an isomer comprising toluene- 2,4- and 2,6- diisocyanate. 126

Figure 12.20 Diphenylmethane- 4,4- diisocyanate (MDI). 127

Figure 12.21 Examples of PUR RIM plastic products. 131

Figure 12.22 Density distribution across the thickness of a foamed part. 132

Figure 12.23 Molding pressure with RIM and RTM measures significantly less in other

processes (courtesy of Bayer). 138

Figure 13.1 RM’s four basic steps (courtesy of The Queen’s University, Belfast). 142

Figure 13.2 Rotational rate of the two axes is at 7:1 for this product. 146

Figure 13.3 Consumption of plastics for RM. 149

(13)

Figures xix

Figure 13.5 RM products in Europe. 149

Figure 13.6 Example of RM products including large tank. 150

Figure 13.7 The effect of maximum inner temperature on the impact strength of the

moldings (a = PE and b = PP). 156

Figure 13.8 Effect of heating rate on the optimum processing temperature of PE. 156

Figure 13.9 Effect of the grinding temperature on the optimum processing

temperature of PE. 156

Figure 13.10 Effect of extrusion on the thermal properties of PE. 157

Figure 13.11 Effect of pigmentation on the thermal properties of turboblended PE. 157

Figure 13.12 Effect of pigmentation and mixing on the impact strength of PE. 158

Figure 13.13 Examples of similar- mold RM machine schematics. 160

Figure 13.14 Dual system with different- sized molds. 160

Figure 13.15 Schematic example of a multilayer RM machine. 161

Figure 13.16 Transfer of additional heat using a heat pipe. 165

Figure 13.17 Schematic of a basic three- station RM machine. 166

Figure 13.18 Example of a shuttle machine. 167

Figure 13.19 Example of a clamshell molding machine. 167

Figure 13.20 Example of a rock- and- roll molding machine. 168

Figure 14.1 Schematic of the CM of a plastic material. 178

Figure 14.2 Compression molded ring- shaped part removed from the mold. 179

Figure 14.3 CM using a molding compound. 182

Figure 14.4 CM using an impregnated material. 182

Figure 14.5 Examples of flash in a mold: (a) horizontal, (b) vertical, and (c) modified

vertical. 184

Figure 14.6 Positive compression mold. 186

Figure 14.7 Flash compression mold. 186

Figure 14.8 Semipositive compression mold. 187

Figure 14.9 Example of mold vent locations. 187

Figure 14.10 Example of vent locations in a mold processing TPs. 188

Figure 14.11 Example of land locations in a split- wedge mold (courtesy of National

Tool and Manufacturing Association). 189

Figure 14.13 The left side is a better edge design when using a draw angle. 190

Figure 14.12 Optimum draft for shear edges in molding sheet- molding compounds. 190

Figure 14.14 Knife shear edge. 190

Figure 14.15 Press with 4 × 4 in platens and ½- ton clamp pressure (courtesy of

Carver Press). 191

Figure 14.16 A 400- ton press with much larger than normal platens that measure 5 × 10 ft; the press has multiple zones of electrically heated platens, an automatic bump cycle, an audible alarm to signal the end of the cure

(14)

xx Figures

Figure 14.17 A 4000- ton press with 5 × 8 ft platens (courtesy of Erie Press). 192

Figure 14.18 A 400- ton press with 18 platens, each measuring 4 × 6 ft (courtesy of

Baldwin Works). 193

Figure 14.19 An 8000- ton press with 10 × 10 ft platens that have book- type opening

and closing action (courtesy of Krismer, Germany). 194

Figure 14.20 Processing sequence for compression stamping glass fiber– reinforced TP

sheets. 195

Figure 14.21 Heat- curing cycles for TPs go through A- B- C stages. 195

Figure 14.22 Transition point and linear thermal expansion of PTFE (courtesy of

DuPont). 199

Figure 14.23 Mechanism of sintering PTFE (courtesy of DuPont). 200

Figure 14.24 Example of a sintering cycle. 202

Figure 14.25 Example of a simple loading tray with a retractable slide plate to deliver

material to multicavity mold. 207

Figure 14.26 CM machine with preplasticizer. 208

Figure 14.27 Three screws of the preplasticizer have been retracted from their barrels

for viewing; not in the operating mode. 209

Figure 14.28 Preheated compounds exiting the preplasticizers prior to guillotine

slicing the required shot sizes. 210

Figure 14.29 Schematic of transfer molding. 211

Figure 14.30 Comparing IM, CM, and transfer molding. 211

Figure 14.31 Detail view of transfer molding with two cavities. 212

Figure 14.32 Example of a screw plasticizer preheating plastic that is delivered into

the transfer molding pot for delivery into the mold cavities. 212

Figure 14.33 A 64- cavity transfer mold about to receive electronic devices from a

work- loading frame. 215

Figure 14.34 Principal steps of isostatic molding. 217

Figure 14.35 Basic isostatic compaction process. 219

Figure 14.36 Three ways of molding PTFE tubes: (a) two flexible bags, (b) inner flexible bag with outer rigid cylinder, and (c) outer flexible bag with

inner rigid rod. 220

Figure 15.1 Effect of matrix content on strength (F) or elastic moduli (E) of RPs. 223

Figure 15.2 Properties versus amount of reinforcement. 224

Figure 15.3 Glass fiber- TS polyester- filament- wound RP underground gasoline

storage tank. 226

Figure 15.4 Complete primary and secondary bus structure hand layup of glass

fiber- TS polyester RP. 226

Figure 15.5 Glass fiber swirl mat- TS polyester RP vacuum hand layup boat shell. 227

(15)

Figures xxi Figure 15.8 Glass fiber- TS polyester filament wound RP tank trailer that transports

corrosive and hazardous materials. 228

Figure 15.7 Glass fiber tape- TS polyester hand layup smoke stack liner. 228

Figure 15.9 Pultruded glass fiber roving- TS polyester rods in a 370 ft long lift bridge

supports up to 44 T traffic load. 228

Figure 15.10 Glass fiber- TS polyester filament wound RP railroad hopper car body. 229

Figure 15.11 Monsanto House of the future all glass fiber- TS polyester RP hand layup has four 16 ft long U- shaped (monocoque box girders) cantilever

structures 90° apart producing the main interior. 229

Figure 15.12 Interface of a RP. 230

Figure 15.13 Examples of reinforcement types and processing methods. 230

Figure 15.14 Fishbone diagram for an RP process (courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 231

Figure 15.15 Review of different processes to fabricate RP products. 231

Figure 15.16 Modulus of different materials can be related to their specific gravities

with RPs providing an interesting graph. 232

Figure 15.17 Short and long glass fiber- TP RP data (wt% fiber in parentheses). 246

Figure 15.18 Short to long fibers influence properties of RPs. 247

Figure 15.19 Specific tensile strength to specific tensile modulus of elasticity data f

nylon RPs. 247

Figure 15.20 Flexural fatigue data of woven glass fiber roving RPs. 247

Figure 15.21 Common glass fiber- TS polyester resin RP fatigue data versus other

materials (chapter 19). 248

Figure 15.22 Comparing different fiber material strength properties at elevated

temperatures. 248

Figure 15.23 Comparing whisker reinforcements with other reinforcements. 249

Figure 15.24 Schematic example in the manufacture of glass filaments/fibers. 249

Figure 15.25 Staple glass fiber and continuous glass filament fiber process methods. 272

Figure 15.26 Fiber arrangements and property behavior (courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 272

Figure 15.27 RP density versus percentage glass by weight or volume. 273

Figure 15.28 Fiber orientation provides different directional properties. 274

Figure 15.29 Examples of how fiber orientation influences properties of RPs. 275

Figure 15.30 Parallel/bidirectional layup of woven fabric 181 glass fiber (courtesy of

Plastics FALLO). 280

Figure 15.31 Parallel/unidirectional layup woven fabric 143 glass fiber (courtesy of

Plastics FALLO). 280

Figure 15.32 Ply layup at 0° and 90° woven fabric 143 glass fiber construction

(courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 281

Figure 15.33 Ply layup at 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135° woven fabric 143 glass fiber

(16)

xxii Figures

Figure 15.34 Sheet molding compound (SMC) production line using chopped glass fiber including roving to provide bidirectional properties, cutting

continuous rovings for ease of mold- cavity fit. 282

Figure 15.35 These different SMC production lines produce by using chopped glass fibers (top), including roving to provide bidirectional properties, cutting continuous rovings so that they can fit easily in a mold cavity, and

producing thicker SMC (about 4 mm thick by 120 cm wide; bottom). 284

Figure 15.36 Flow of glass fiber rovings traveling through a plenum machine. 287

Figure 15.38 Flow of glass fiber rovings traveling through a water- slurry machine. 287

Figure 15.37 Flow of glass fiber rovings traveling through a direct machine. 287

Figure 15.39 Two- part compression mold. 289

Figure 15.40 Layout of reinforcement is designed to meet structural requirements. 293

Figure 15.41 Automated- integrated RP vacuum hand layup process that uses prepreg

sheets that are in the B- stage (chapter 1). 293

Figure 15.42 Schematic of hand- layup bag molding in an autoclave. 294

Figure 15.43 Early- twentieth- century tape- wrapping patent of a tube- making machine

by Hoganas- Billesholms A.B., Sweden. 297

Figure 15.44 Views of fiber filament- wound isotensoid pattern of the reinforcing

fibers without plastic (left) and with resin cured. 301

Figure 15.45 Box winding machine with position changes of clamp tooling. 301

Figure 15.46 Schematics of “racetrack” filament- winding machines. Top view shows machine in action; other view is a schematic of a machine built to

fabricate 150,000 gal rocket motor tanks. 304

Figure 15.47 Conventional single stage IMM. 306

Figure 15.48 IM with a preloader usually providing heat to the RP compound. 307

Figure 15.49 Schematics of ram and screw IMM. 308

Figure 15.50 Use is made of vacuum, pressure, or pressure- vacuum in the Marco

process. 309

Figure 15.51 Cutaway view of a reinforced RTM mold. 311

Figure 15.52 Lost- wax process fabricated a high- strength RP structural beam. 312

Figure 15.53 Nonatomized, dispensed Glass- Craft spray gun is easy to use and

produces low styrene emissions and is economic to maintain. 313

Figure 15.54 Example of the effect of shrinkage in the longitudinal and transverse

directions of a molded part. 319

Figure 15.55 Tensile stress- strain curves for epoxy- unreinforced and epoxy- reinforced

RPs and other materials. 322

Figure 15.56 Example of crack propagation to fracture that can occur, resulting in

product failure under load. 329

Figure 16.1 Effect of temperature on macromolecular characteristics of PVC plastisol. 337

(17)

Figures xxiii

Figure 17.1 Flow chart for typical tool activity. 379

Figure 17.2 Example of a steam chest mold for producing expandable polystyrene

(EPS) foams. 381

Figure 17.3 Examples of dimensional changes of tool materials subjected to heat treatment. 396

Figure 17.4 Terms identifying tool surface roughness per ASA B46.1 standard. 411

Figure 17.5 Symbols identified on tool per ASA B46.1 standard. 411

Figure 17.6 Illustrating roughness at a given point on a tool surface per ASA B46.1

standard. 411

Figure 17.7 Polishability versus hardness. 412

Figure 17.8 Comparison of polishing tool hardness. 413

Figure 17.9 Cost of polishing tool steels. 413

Figure 17.10 Flow of the molding from the process that includes the mold to the

product. 430

Figure 17.11 Mold operation and types. 430

Figure 17.12 Examples of mold layouts, configurations, and actions. 431

Figure 17.13 Sequence of mold operations. 433

Figure 17.14 Mold action during a fabricating molding cycle. 433

Figure 17.15 Examples of precision mold half alignment. 434

Figure 17.16 Examples to simplify mold design and action. 436

Figure 17.17 Examples of different actions in molds. 438

Figure 17.18 Examples of unscrewing molds. 447

Figure 17.19 Examples of mold parts and molds. 450

Figure 17.20 Examples of mold force based on determining clamp force required for

melt flow. 456

Figure 17.21 Examples of melt flow’s path length as a function of part wall thickness

and injection pressures. 457

Figure 17.22 Example of an IM mold and a listing of its principal component parts. 461

Figure 17.23 Examples of two- plate molds. 463

Figure 17.24 Examples of three- plate molds. 466

Figure 17.25 Examples of stacked molds. 469

Figure 17.26 Examples of micromolded products compared to a US coin. 471

Figure 17.27 View of plastic flow from sprue to runner to gate to cavity. 472

Figure 17.28 Examples of cold and heated sprue designs. 473

Figure 17.29 Examples of TP balanced cold runners that include primary and

secondary runners. 474

Figure 17.30 Example of a cold runner mold for processing TS plastics. 475

Figure 17.31 Examples of various gate types. 476

Figure 17.32 Melt flow pattern in cavity can relate to gate- flow pattern based on

(18)

xxiv Figures

Figure 17.33 Gate temperature/pressure/temperature relationships for amorphous

and crystalline plastics are shown. 478

Figure 17.34 Schematic of gate land location. 479

Figure 17.35 Schematic of heated single- edge gate. 481

Figure 17.36 Schematic of heated double- edge gate. 482

Figure 17.37 These molded test specimens highlight melt flow direction from a gate

or gates. 483

Figure 17.38 Cavity arrangement in balanced and unbalanced runner layouts. 489

Figure 17.39 Example of a melt flow fountain (or balloon) pattern across the thickness

in a mold cavity. 490

Figure 17.40 Examples of cold runner feed systems. 492

Figure 17.41 Common runner configurations. 493

Figure 17.42 Equivalent hydraulic diameters for common runner configurations. 494

Figure 17.43 Balanced cold runner with edge gates. 495

Figure 17.44 Example of dissimilar cavities in a family mold. 495

Figure 17.45 Examples of unbalanced cold runner molds. 496

Figure 17.46 Examples of melt viscosity data. 497

Figure 17.47 Balanced runner system in an eight- cavity mold. 498

Figure 17.48 Unbalanced runner system in a six- cavity mold. 501

Figure 17.49 Unbalanced runner system in a ten- cavity mold. 502

Figure 17.50 Schematics of hot runner mold systems. 503

Figure 17.51 Internally heated hot manifold. 504

Figure 17.52 Insulated hot runner systems. 505

Figure 17.53 Examples of direct hot runner gates. 506

Figure 17.54 Advanced types of hot runner gates. 506

Figure 17.55 Example of a hot manifold support system. 507

Figure 17.56 Example of a hot manifold stack mold with ninety- six cavities. 508

Figure 17.57 Example of a twelve- cavity hot manifold stack mold. 509

Figure 17.58 Heated manifold for TP hot runner system. 514

Figure 17.59 Cooling arrangements for cores of various sizes. 520

Figure 17.60 Cooling channel considerations. 521

Figure 17.61 Poor and good cooling channel layouts. 522

Figure 17.62 Schematic of laminar flow (left) and turbulent flow (right) in coolant

channels. 522

Figure 17.63 Heat- transfer characteristics in a typical hot runner mold (courtesy of

Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 525

Figure 17.64 Examples of mold- cooling components. 526

Figure 17.65 Nomogram guide for determining cooling channels. 527

(19)

Figures xxv Figure 17.67 Examples of recommended vent dimensions for PP (top view) and other

TPs. 530

Figure 17.68 Examples of vents. 531

Figure 17.69 Example of a vent pin used to break the vacuum between core and plastic. 532

Figure 17.70 Sequence in ejection molded parts using ejection pins. 534

Figure 17.71 Operation of ejector pins (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding

Systems Inc.). 536

Figure 17.72 Operation of stripper plate (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding

Systems Inc.). 536

Figure 17.73 Hydraulic operation of stripper plate (courtesy of Husky Injection

Molding Systems Inc.). 537

Figure 17.74 Chain operation of stripper plate. 537

Figure 17.75 Ejection system incorporating blades. 538

Figure 17.76 Flexible molded parts can easily be ejected from the mold cavity. 538

Figure 17.77 View of undercut that ensures molded part is retained in female cavity.

Data on undercuts that are strippable. 539

Figure 17.78 Examples of dimensional changes of annealed nylon 6/6 versus

temperature at various humidities. 540

Figure 17.79 Nylon 6/6 shrinkage due to annealing versus mold temperature. 541

Figure 17.80 This nomograph for nylon estimates shrinkages. 543

Figure 17.81 Shrinkage as a function of part thickness and gate area. 544

Figure 17.82 Molds can be cored to eliminate or reduce shrinkage. 544

Figure 17.83 Example of shrinkage control and mold dimensions. 545

Figure 17.84 Example of a simplified unscrewing bottle cap mold. 545

Figure 17.85 Examples of sprue pullers. 550

Figure 17.86 Example of the location for a mold pressure transducer sensor. 551

Figure 17.87 Guide to mold alignment. 551

Figure 17.88 Examples of only a few of the many preengineered mold component

parts and devices. 559

Figure 17.89 Preengineered spiral flow test mold. 567

Figure 17.90 Example of an extrusion line that includes a die and downstream

equipment. 573

Figure 17.91 Some identifying terms for dies; other terms are described in the text. 576

Figure 17.92 Location of the extrusion die land. 582

Figure 17.93 Examples of melt flow patterns in a coat hanger die. 586

Figure 17.94 Examples of melt distribution with die geometry via their manifold

channels. Each die has limitations for certain types of melts. 586

Figure 17.95 Examples of melt flow patterns based on minimum die and process

control. 587

(20)

xxvi Figures

Figure 17.97 Examples of nonstreamlined and streamlined entrances in dies. 590

Figure 17.98 Flow coefficients calculated at different aspect ratios for various shapes

using the same equation. 593

Figure 17.99 Calculation for the volumetric melt flow rate for this specific shape. 594

Figure 17.100 Shown are the (more conventional) rigid and die- lip lands. 595

Figure 17.101 Example of the land in an extrusion blow molding die that is usually

from 10:1 to 20:1 ratio. 596

Figure 17.102 Examples of different profiles that include using lands of different

configurations. 597

Figure 17.103 Honing extrusion coater die land. 599

Figure 17.104 Schematic of feedblock sheet die. 599

Figure 17.105 Example of a dual chamber of a feedblock and die assembly. 600

Figure 17.106 Specially designed Proteus feedblock (courtesy of EDI). 601

Figure 17.107 Example of heating different dies. 602

Figure 17.108 Melt flow rates versus melt pressure in die openings. 603

Figure 17.109 Examples of flat dies with its controls. 609

Figure 17.110 Examples of deckles that are adjusted during processing (top) and

manually adjusted off- line. 610

Figure 17.111 Examples of a flat die’s automatic control systems. 611

Figure 17.112 Cutaway view of a coat hanger sheet die with a restrictor bar. 612

Figure 17.113 Example of a straight coating or laminating manifold die. 613

Figure 17.114 Examples of a crosshead coating dies. 613

Figure 17.115 Examples of single- layer blown- film dies include side- fed typex (top

left), bottom- fed types with spiders (top center), and spiral- fed types. 614

Figure 17.116 Examples of different pipe die designs. 617

Figure 17.117 Different views of assembled and disassembled profile dies. 618

Figure 17.118 Examples of wire coating dies. 619

Figure 17.119 Schematic for determining wire coated DRB in dies. 620

Figure 17.120 Schematic for determining wire coating DDR in dies. 621

Figure 17.121 Examples of netting and other special forms. 622

Figure 17.122 Examples of underwater pelletizer dies. 624

Figure 17.123 Examples of coextruded dies. 625

Figure 17.124 Examples of feedblock multimanifold coextrusion dies. 629

Figure 17.125 Schematic of the RV feedblock showing melt paths and assembled

RV feedblock with layer control plates and skin flow inserts in the

foreground (courtesy of Davis- Standard). 630

Figure 17.126 Example of a coextrusion combining adapter. 631

Figure 17.127 Examples of layered plastics based on four modes of die rotation. 632

Figure 17.128 Example of the multilayer blown- film die. 632

(21)

Figures xxvii Figure 17.130 New coextrusion die design (left) is compared to the traditional flat-

plate die. 634

Figure 18.1 Example of AE required for plastics going from a railcar to a silo. 744

Figure 18.2 Closeup view of a piping system to and from silos, with each having a

capacity of 2000 lb. 745

Figure 18.3 Examples of plant layout with extrusion and injection molding primary

and AE. 746

Figure 18.4 Example of an extrusion laminator with AE. 747

Figure 18.5 Example of a blow- molding extruder with AE (rolls, turret winder, etc.). 748

Figure 18.6 Example of an extruder coater with AE. 749

Figure 18.7 Example of plant layout with injection molding primary and AE. 749

Figure 18.8 Example of extruded products requiring AE. 750

Figure 18.9 Example of ventilation AE used with an injection molding machine

(courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 751

Figure 18.10 Examples of material handling AE used with an injection molding

machine (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 752

Figure 18.11 Example of a pneumatic vacuum venturi flow system. 757

Figure 18.12 Example of continuous pressure pellets with rates based on polystyrene

at 35 lb/ft3_{(560 kg/m}3_). ₇₆₀

Figure 18.13 Example of continuous vacuum pellets with rates based on polystyrene

at 35 lb/ft3_{(560 kg/m}3_). ₇₆₁

Figure 18.14 Example of continuous vacuum powder with rates based on polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) at 35 lb/ft3_{(560 kg/m}3_). ₇₆₂

Figure 18.15 Example of a 10 hp vacuum system conveying polystyrene at 35 lb/ft3

(560 kg/m3_). ₇₆₃

Figure 18.16 Example of a 25 hp vacuum system conveying polystyrene at 35 lb/ft3

(560 kg/m3_). ₇₆₄

Figure 18.17 Example of a single pneumatic material- handling line- feeding hoppers. 768

Figure 18.18 Example of the front and side views of a basic hopper. 769

Figure 18.19 Introduction to hopper mixers. 770

Figure 18.20 Example of a dump- type hopper loader. 770

Figure 18.21 Example of a screw- controlled feeding loader (courtesy of Spirex

Corporation). 771

Figure 18.22 Detail view of a hopper screw- controlled feeding loader. 771

Figure 18.23 Example of components in a hopper blender. 772

Figure 18.24 Example of metering a color additive in a blender. 773

Figure 18.25 Example of a hopper power- pump loader. 773

Figure 18.26 Example of a vacuum hopper- loading cycle. 774

Figure 18.27 Systems utilizing a rotary air lock feeder to separate pressure and

(22)

xxviii Figures

Figure 18.28 Examples of coarse, dusty, and powder material- filtering systems. 776

Figure 18.29 Example of a positive take- out and transfer mechanism for molded

products (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 778

Figure 18.30 Example of a positive take- out system to handle and pack molded

Figure 18.31 Example of a free- drop take- out and transfer mechanism of molded

products. 780

Figure 18.32 Example of an unscramble- and- orient system for molded products

(courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 781

Figure 18.33 Example of bulk filling with automatic carton indexing of molded

Figure 18.34 Example of flow of material to shipping of molded products. 782

Figure 18.35 Example of a robot removing parts from a mold and depositing them in

orderly fashion in a container. 783

Figure 18.36 Mold base en route manually to injection molding press. 788

Figure 18.37 Mold base placed manually to the right in injection molding press. 789

Figure 18.38 Fully automatic horizontal mold change (courtesy of Staubli Corp.,

Duncan, South Carolina). 790

Figure 18.39 Fully automatic overhead- crane mold change. 790

Figure 18.40 Examples of tension- control rollers in a film, sheet, or coating line. 791

Figure 18.41 Example of laminating with an adhesive. 791

Figure 18.42 Example of roll- change- sequence winder (courtesy of Black Clawson). 791

Figure 18.43 Closeup view of a tension roll that is processing plastic film. 792

Figure 18.44 Example herringbone idler reducing wrinkles of web. 792

Figure 18.45 Examples of drum- cooling designs with shell cooling being the best

design. 793

Figure 18.46 Examples of matted and unmatted embossing rolls. 793

Figure 18.47 Example of a wood- grain embossing roll. 794

Figure 18.48 Example of ultrasonically sealing a decorative pattern. 794

Figure 18.50 Example of a dancer roll controlling tension in an extruded sheet line. 795

Figure 18.51 Example of an extruded sheet line turret wind- up reel change system. 795

Figure 18.49 Guide to sheet- polishing roll sizes with a 450°F (230°C) melt temperature. 795

Figure 18.52 View of a large single winder at the end of an extruder sheet line

(courtesy of Welex). 796

Figure 18.53 View of a large dual- turret winder at the end of an extruder sheet line. 797

Figure 18.54 View of a sheet roll stock extruder winder with triple fixed shafts

(courtesy of Welex). 798

Figure 18.55 View of downstream extruder- blown film line going through control rolls and dual wind- up turrets (courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher

(23)

Figures xxix Figure 18.56 Examples of pipe- extrusion caterpillar puller with rollers and conveyor

belts. 800

Figure 18.57 Description of a caterpillar belt puller used in an extruder line (courtesy

of Conair). 801

Figure 18.58 Description of a vacuum sizing tank used in an extruder line (courtesy of

Conair). 801

Figure 18.59 Description of a water- and- spray tank used in an extruder line (courtesy

of Conair). 802

Figure 18.60 Description of a rotary knife cutter used in an extruder line (courtesy of

Conair). 802

Figure 18.61 Description of a pneumatic- stop rotary knife cutter used in an extruder

line (courtesy of Conair). 803

Figure 18.62 Description of a traveling up- cut saw used in an extruder line (courtesy

of Conair). 803

Figure 18.63 Description of a product takeaway conveyor used in an extruder line

(courtesy of Conair) 804

Figure 18.64 Examples in the use of masking for paint spraying. 814

Figure 18.65 Examples of paint spray- and- wipe. 815

Figure 18.66 Examples of screen printing. 815

Figure 18.67 Example of hot stamping using a roll- on technique. 815

Figure 18.68 Example of pad transfer printing. 816

Figure 18.69 Joining and bonding methods. 830

Figure 18.70 Examples of joint geometries. 831

Figure 18.71 Examples of corona treatments in extrusion lines. 839

Figure 18.72 Guide for molding threads. 852

Figure 18.73 Examples of assembling all plastic and plastic to different materials where thermal stresses can become a problem when proper design is not

used (chapter 19). 853

Figure 18.74 Examples of self- tapping screws. 855

Figure 18.75 Molded- in insert designs. 856

Figure 18.76 Examples of metal- expansion types of slotted and nonslotted inserts. 859

Figure 18.77 Examples of press- fit- stress analyses (courtesy of Bayer). 861

Figure 18.78 Examples of cantilever beam snap- fits. 863

Figure 18.79 Example of cold staking of plastic. 864

Figure 18.80 Example of hot staking of plastic. 864

Figure 18.81 Example of hot- plate welding. 869

Figure 18.82 Film- welded, 8- ply arrangement using a Doboy thermal welder. 872

Figure 18.83 Example of a manual hot- gas welding. 874

Figure 18.84 Example of an automatic hot- gas welder; hot gas blown between sheets,

(24)

xxx Figures

Figure 18.85 Example of design joints for hot- gas welding. 875

Figure 18.86 Examples of visually examining hot- gas weld quality. 875

Figure 18.87 Example of linear- vibration welding. 876

Figure 18.88 Penetration- versus- time curve showing the four phases of vibration welding. 876

Figure 18.89 Spin welding, where one part does not move and the other part rotates. 881

Figure 18.90 Example of a joint used in spin welding. 881

Figure 18.91 Components of an ultrasonic welder. 882

Figure 18.92 Stages in ultrasonic welding. 883

Figure 18.93 Examples of plastic mating joints to be ultrasonically welded. 884

Figure 18.94 Example of induction heat produced during induction welding. 886

Figure 18.95 Example of induction welding a lid to a container. 886

Figure 18.96 The three steps in resistance welding. 890

Figure 18.97 Example of an extrusion- welding system, where the hot air melts the

plastic to be welded prior to the extruded melt flows into the area. 891

Figure 18.98 Examples of cutting and punching in- line, extruded TPs. 895

Figure 18.99 Example of extrusion in- line shear cutter with sheets being stacked. 897

Figure 18.100 Guide to slitting extruded film or coating. 909

Figure 18.101 Schematics of cutting- tool actions. 911

Figure 18.102 Basic schematic of a cutting tool. 913

Figure 18.103 Example of forces acting on a tool. 914

Figure 18.104 Example of wear pattern. 915

Figure 18.105 Nomenclature for single- point tools. 918

Figure 18.106 Nomenclature of twist drills. 918

Figure 18.107 Nomenclature of milling cutters. 919

(25)

table 10.1 Examples of different coating materials 3

table 10.2 Important coating compounds and applications 6

table 10.3 Environmental performance of some coating materials 9

table 10.4 Survey of often- used coating systems for concrete 11

table 10.5 Wet coating materials for metals 11

table 10.6 Examples of coating materials including those containing solvents 12

table 10.7 Typical release coating systems and applications 14

table 10.8 Example of paint and varnish coating compositions 16

table 10.9 Examples of solvents and their behaviors 18

table 10.10 Examples of coating performances 21

table 10.11 General performance comparisons 29

table 10.12 General composition of dispersion coatings 30

table 10.13 Example of advantages using dispersion coatings 30

table 10.14 Examples of properties for Parylenes N and C 38

table 10.15 Effect of various sterilization methods for Parylenes N and C 38

table 10.16 Guide for applying paint coatings to plastic substrates 40

table 10.17 Surface energy of plastics as a result of fluorination 40

table 10.18 Typical plastics used in coil coatings 41

table 10.19 Coil coating plastic characteristics and applications 42

table 10.20 Plastic properties of coil coatings 43

table 10.21 Coating methods related to performances 46

table 10.22 Examples of spray coating methods related to transfer efficiency 55

table 10.23 Plastic coating property guide 66

table 10.24 Examples of acids and bases pH 76

(26)

xxxii Tables

table 10.25 Color indicators of acids and bases pH 77

table 10.26 Classifications and definitions of solvents 81

table 10.27 Examples of basic calculations of VOC- emissions during applications of

emulsion paints 86

table 10.28 Critical properties of solvents 89

table 12.1 Information on computerized tomography (CT) devices (courtesy of

Bayer) 106

table 12.2 Information on GMP’s patented refrigerator door technique 108

table 12.3 Calculations for determining dimensions for a dam gate (courtesy of

Bayer) 120

table 12.4 Calculations for determining dimensions for a quadratic gate (courtesy

of Bayer) 121

table 12.5 Terminology of chemical and other terms 125

table 12.6 Structural foam information for large, complex products 128

table 12.7 John Deere rear shield made from a soy- based structural foam PUR RIM

formulation 129

table 12.8 Chemical reaction review 135

table 12.9 Example of cost analysis of PUR RIM and injection molding of products

with large surface areas 139

table 13.1 Comparison of different processes 141

table 13.2 Tack temperatures for different plastics 142

table 13.3 Relative time to reach two tack temperatures at different oven

temperatures 143

table 13.4 Heat transfer coefficients during mold cooling 143

table 13.5 Steps taken during the RM fabrication process 144

table 13.6 Effect of oven heat time on RM plastics 145

table 13.7 Examples of rotational ratios for different shapes 146

table 13.8 Effect of oven condition on foaming high- density PE (HDPE) 147

table 13.9 Examples of RM products 148

table 13.10 Examples of PVC plastics used in RM 150

table 13.11 Sieve sizes 151

table 13.12 Classifying particle shape for irregular particles 151

table 13.13 Typical powder bulk density 152

table 13.14 Comparing powders with micropellets 153

table 13.15 Types of powder flow 154

table 13.16 Property changes with increasing PE density (chapter 2) 159

table 13.17 Property changes with increasing melt index (chapter 22) 159

table 13.18 Recommended draft angles for RM plastics 163

table 13.19 Recommended draft angles for smooth and textured (0.1 mm texture

(27)

Tables xxxiii

table 13.20 Examples of warpage standards for RM plastics 164

table 13.21 Guide for inner and outer radiuses in RM dimensions 164

table 13.22 Properties of mold materials 169

table 13.23 Plaster casting materials 169

table 13.24 Heating cycle times for aluminum molds 170

table 13.25 Steel sheet- metal gauge 170

table 13.26 RM mechanical design aspects 173

table 13.27 Wall- thickness range for RM plastics 176

table 13.28 Guide to linear shrinkage values for RM plastics 176

table 14.1 Example of applications for compression molded thermoset (TS) plastics 180

table 14.2 Comparing compression molded properties with other processes 180

table 14.3 Relating materials to properties to processes 181

table 14.4 Examples of the effect of preheating and part depth of phenolic parts on

CM pressure (psi) 183

table 14.5 Examples of OD, ID, height, and weight relationships of different PTFE

billet CMs 197

table 14.6 Examples of PTFE sintering conditions 201

table 14.7 Effect of cooling rate on crystallinity, typical for granular molding

powders (courtesy of DuPont) 202

table 14.8 Effect of CM processes on properties (courtesy of DuPont) 204

table 14.9 Guide to wall- thickness tolerance for CM different plastics 205

table 14.10 Guide in the use of reinforcements and fillers in different molding

compounds 206

table 14.11 Transfer molding compared to CM 213

table 14.12 Transfer molding compared to reinforced plastic molding 214

table 14.13 Examples of isostatically molded parts 217

table 14.14 Isostatic mold design considerations 222

table 15.1 Types of composites 224

table 15.2 Examples of composite ablative compounds 224

table 15.3 Examples of reinforcement types and processing methods 232

table 15.4 Examples of RTP properties 233

table 15.5 TP- glass fiber RPs injection molding (IM) temperatures 234

table 15.6 Examples of properties and processes of RTS plastics 235

table 15.7 Properties of the popular TS polyester- glass fiber RPs 235

table 15.8 Different properties of RTPs and RTSs per ASTM standards 236

table 15.9 Properties of fiber reinforcements 240

table 15.10 Reinforcement thermal properties 240

table 15.11 Properties of glass- fiber RPs 241

table 15.12 Comparative yarn properties 242

(28)

xxxiv Tables

table 15.14 Aramid fiber- TP RP properties 242

table 15.15 Properties of unidirectional hybrid- nylon RPs 243

table 15.16 Charpy impact test results of square woven fabric using hybrid fibers-

nylon RPs 244

table 15.17 Damage propagation of aramid and E- glass RPs using tensile- notched

test specimens 244

table 15.18 Examples of different glass fiber yarns 244

table 15.19 Examples of glass fiber staple fiber yarn data 245

table 15.20 Examples of glass fiber cloth constructions 246

table 15.21 Examples of fillers used in TP RPs (chapter 1) 253

table 15.22 Examples of fillers used in TS RPs (chapter 1) 253

table 15.23 Comparison of tensile properties in RPs, steel, and aluminum 254

table 15.24 Mechanical properties of resins that are reinforced to increase properties 255

table 15.25 Properties per ASTM of 30 wt% glass- fiber RTPs 256

table 15.26 Properties of glass- fiber RTPs with different glass fiber contents and

other reinforcements 257

table 15.27 Properties of short and long glass fiber- nylon 6/6 RPs at elevated

temperatures 257

table 15.28 Examples of obtaining desired properties of TP- RPs 258

table 15.29 Properties of RPs with 30 wt% to 50 wt% glass fiber- TS polyester based

on fabricating process 259

table 15.30 Properties of TS polyester RPs with different amounts of glass fibers 260

table 15.31 Properties of glass fiber mats RPs with different types of TS polyesters 261

table 15.32 General properties of TS RPs per ASTM testing procedures 262

table 15.33 Examples of mechanical properties of TS RPs at ambient and elevated

temperatures 264

table 15.34 Flexural modulus of glass- polyester– RPs exposed to various

environmental elements 265

table 15.35 Strength and modulus for glass fiber- TS RPs at low temperature 266

table 15.36 Coefficients of thermal expansion for parallel glass fiber- TS RPs 267

table 15.37 Example of TS RPs for electrical applications 268

table 15.38 Mechanical properties of glass fabric- TS polyester RPs exposed to

various intensities of near- UV radiation in a vacuum 269

table 15.39 Mechanical properties of glass fiber fabric- TS polyester RPs after

irradiation at elevated temperatures 270

table 15.40 Properties of different materials 271

table 15.41 Properties of unidirectional RPs using different types of fibers 276

table 15.42 Properties of unidirectional graphite fiber-thermoplastic RPs varying in resin content by weight and varying in void content by volume (at 72°F

(29)

Tables xxxv

table 15.43 Comparing properties of SMC with steel 283

table 15.44 Filament- wound structures for commercial and industrial applications 296

table 15.45 Filament- wound structures for aerospace, hydrospace, and military

applications 297

table 15.46 Different FW patterns meet different performance requirements 298

table 15.47 RP processing guide to RP process selection 316

table 15.48 RP processing guide to RP size 317

table 15.49 Examples of a few processes to material comparisons 318

table 15.50 RP resin transfer, SMC compression, and IM processes compared 319

table 15.51 Examples of RTS plastic processes 320

table 15.52 Comparing uses of different plastics with different RP and other processes 321

table 15.53 Examples of interrelating product- RP material- process performances 322

table 15.54 Comparison of RP design aspects and processes to cost 323

table 15.55 Examples of processing variables 325

table 15.56 Product design versus processing methods 326

table 15.57 Other product design considerations versus processing methods 327

table 15.58 Product design shapes versus processing methods 328

table 15.59 Examples of the efficiency RPs fiber orientation 329

table 15.60 Example of TS polyester volume shrinkage during curing 330

table 15.61 RPs wall- thickness tolerances 331

table 15.62 Comparing unreinforced and RP mold shrinkage rates 332

table 15.63 Composite efficiency of RPs 334

table 15.64 Examples of loading conditions 334

table 16.1 Example of a PVC blend formulation 343

table 16.2 Automotive industry objectives for decorative plastics 349

table 16.3 Definitions applicable to low- pressure decorating molding 350

table 16.4 Example of an MCM- IML molding cycle 352

table 16.5 Examples of MCM- IML advantages and applications 353

table 16.6 Examples of valid reasons for using MCM- IML 354

table 16.7 Examples of invalid reasons for using MCM- IML 354

table 16.8 Process and materials composition 355

table 16.9 Processing, materials, and geometry 355

table 16.10 Geometry function and complexity 356

table 16.11 Listing of abbreviations used in the following tables 357

table 16.12 Reactive liquid composite molding 358

table 16.13 Multimaterial multiprocess (MMP) technology 359

table 16.15 TP sheet composite 360

table 16.14 Fusible core IM 360

table 16.16 Gas- assisted IM: process and simulation 361

(30)

xxxvi Tables

table 16.18 Advanced blow molding 363

table 16.19 Microcellular plastic: formation and shaping 364

table 16.20 Lamellar IM 365

table 17.1 Types of tools and materials 367

table 17.2 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and some BS numbers without their “B” prefix (BH10A/H10A) with comparable Werkstoff numbers

and their mean (average) chemical compositions 371

table 17.3 Werkstoff numbers with comparable AISI numbers or a near- matching

chemical composition 374

table 17.4 Elements and their symbols 376

table 17.5 Examples of different metals used in tools 377

table 17.6 Examples of mold and die tools for different fabricating processes 378

table 17.7 Examples of cost comparison of molds in terms of the properties of plastic 380

table 17.8 Typical properties of various RP mold bag materials 381

table 17.9 Examples of the properties of different tool materials 383

table 17.10 Guide to different tool materials, where 5 is best 384

table 17.11 Examples of improving/changing properties of tool materials via alloying 384

table 17.12 Example of costs and properties of tool materials, including alloys 385

table 17.13 Hardness of tool materials for a few different plastic materials and

processes 385

table 17.14 Example of tool materials arranged in order of hardness 386

table 17.15 Different hardness conversions 387

table 17.16 Thermal conductivity of tool materials 388

table 17.17 Thermal- expansion coefficients of tool materials 389

table 17.18 HRC file check 389

table 17.19 Example of a schedule, in weeks, for purchasing of a mold 390

table 17.20 Guide for mold construction 390

table 17.22 Example of a mold progress report 391

table 17.21 Example of a mold checklist 391

table 17.23 Example of a detailed mold progress report 392

table 17.25 Properties of the more popular tool materials 394

table 17.26 Examples of tool steels with applications 395

table 17.27 Examples of tool steel alloys (first two digits denote type of steel; second

two digits indicate carbon weight percentage) 396

table 17.28 Property comparison of aluminum and steel 401

table 17.29 Strength of aluminum based on thickness 401

table 17.30 Wrought aluminum performance 402

table 17.31 Properties of beryllium copper versus other tool materials 404

table 17.32 Various heat treatments versus finish of Uddeholm tool steels 409

(31)

Tables xxxvii table 17.33 Different grain standards used for surface finishes 409

table 17.35 Diamond- particle compound relates to surface finish 410

table 17.36 Polishing sequences 412

table 17.37 Examples of coatings based on material used 418

table 17.38 Examples of coatings based on process used 419

table 17.39 Guide to tool surface enhancements and coatings commonly used

(courtesy of Eastman Chemical Co./431) 420

table 17.40 Examples of coating materials for tools 423

table 17.41 Examples of cleaning methods 428

table 17.42 Examples of tapers for cavity sidewalls 434

table 17.43 Examples of pressures applied to molds 456

table 17.44 Examples of plastic mold temperatures and pressure requirements 456

table 17.45 Basic mold component operations 458

table 17.46 Guidelines for melt shear rates (courtesy of Synventive Molding Solutions) 485

table 17.47 TP melt temperatures (°C) 486

table 17.48 Guide to size of round runners 493

table 17.49 Property comparison of some mold construction materials 517

table 17.50 Applications of principal mold steels 518

table 17.51 Guide to cooling channel diameters for PP (see Fig. 17.61) 522

table 17.52 Examples of factors that influence PP shrinkage 545

table 17.53 Guide for mold shrinkage of ¼ and ½ in thick specimens per ASTM

D 955 546

table 17.54 Guide for mold shrinkage for different thickness dimensions 547

table 17.55 Examples of error in mold size as a result of using incorrect shrinkage

formulas 548

table 17.56 Checklist and guideline for operating a mold 568

table 17.57 SPI Moldmakers Division quotations guide 571

table 17.58 Examples of operational effects and geometrical variables on melt flow

conditions in a die 592

table 17.59 Examples of melt shear rates 604

table 17.60 Examples of the effect of shear rate on the die swell of TPs 604

table 17.61 Examples of extrusion dies from Extrusion Dies Inc. 607

table 17.62 Guide to different pellets that are fabricated from different performing

dies 623

table 17.63 Examples of blown- film applications for coextrusion 628

table 17.64 Rapid prototyping processes 638

table 17.65 Checklist procedure for mold repair (courtesy of Synventive Molding

Solutions) 670

table 17.66 Example of SPI’s moldmakers directory for services 671

(32)

xxxviii Tables

table 18.1 Example of manufacturing cycle that includes equipment 739

table 18.2 SPE auxiliaries buyer’s guide (courtesy of SPE) 740

table 18.3 Introduction to auxiliary and SE performances 754

table 18.4 Examples of auxiliary and SE 755

table 18.5 Estimated annual savings for energy- efficient electric motors (Electrical

Apparatus Service Association) 765

table 18.6 Examples of the usual functions of robots and perimeter guarding 784

table 18.7 Examples of comparing robots with other parts- handling systems 786

table 18.8 Examples of types of robots manufactured 787

table 18.9 Examples of different rolls used in different extrusion processes 806

table 18.10 Guide to decorating 808

table 18.11 Examples of methods for decorating plastic products after fabrication 810

table 18.12 Examples of methods for decorating plastic products in a mold 811

table 18.13 Guide in comparing a few decorating methods from size to cost 812

table 18.14 Review of a few decorating methods 813

table 18.15 Examples of joining methods 817

table 18.16 Examples of joining TPs and TSs 817

table 18.17 Examples of descriptions for different joining methods 818

table 18.18 Directory of companies that provide joining and assembling methods 820

table 18.19 Examples of adhesives for bonding plastics to plastics 826

table 18.20 Examples of bonding TPs to nonplastics 829

table 18.21 Examples of bonding TS plastics to nonplastics 829

table 18.22 Adhesive terminology 832

table 18.23 Example of adhesives classified by composition 834

table 18.24 Plasma treatment 836

table 18.26 Peel strength of plastics after plasma treatment per ASTM test methods 837

table 18.25 Lap shear strength of plastics after plasma treatment per American

Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) test methods 837

table 18.27 Shear strength of PP to PP adhesive bonds in psi (MPa) per ASTM D 4501 838

table 18.28 Shear strength of polyethylene (PE) to PE in psi (MPa) 840

table 18.29 Shear strength of ABS to ABS in psi (MPa) 841

table 18.30 Shear strength of PP to PP in psi (MPa) 842

table 18.31 Shear strength of PVC to PVC in psi (MPa) 843

table 18.32 Shear strength of polycarbonate (PC) to PC in psi (MPa) 844

table 18.33 Shear strength of PUR to PUR in psi (MPa) 845

table 18.34 Shear strength of PA to PA in psi (MPa) 846

table 18.35 Shear strength of polyimide to polyimide in psi (MPa) 847

table 18.36 Shear strength of acetal to acetal in psi (MPa) 848

table 18.37 Shear strength of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) to PMMA in