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CHAPTER 5

Introduction to Systems

Development and Systems

INTRODUCTION

• Questions to be addressed in this chapter

include:

– What are the phases in the systems development

life cycle?

– Who are the individuals involved in systems

development?

– What techniques are used to plan the development

of a system?

INTRODUCTION

• As the environment, technology, and

competition change, an information

system must continually undergo changes.

• These changes range from minor

adjustments to major overhauls.

INTRODUCTION

• Companies change their systems for a variety of

reasons:

– To respond to changes in user needs or business needs.

– To take advantage of or respond to technology changes.

– To accommodate improvements in their business process.

– To gain a competitive advantage and/or lower costs.

– To increase productivity.

– To accommodate growth.

– To accommodate downsizing or distribute decision making

– To integrate incompatible systems.

INTRODUCTION

• Developing quality, error-free software is difficult,

expensive, and time-consuming.

• Projects tend to deliver less than expected and consume

more time and money.

• A KPMG survey found that 35% of all major information

systems projects were classified as runaways—

hopelessly incomplete and over budget.

– Major cause of runaways: Skimping on systems development

processes.

INTRODUCTION

• This chapter discusses five topics:

– Systems development life cycle

– Planning activities during the systems

development life cycle

– Feasibility analysis

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• Whether systems changes are major or

minor, most companies go through a

systems development life cycle.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• The five stages in the systems

development life cycle are:

– Systems analysis

– Conceptual design

– Physical design

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• The five stages in the systems

development life cycle are:

–

Systems analysis

– Conceptual design

– Physical design

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• As organizations grow and change, they may

need more or better information.

• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:

–

Initial investigation



Involves gathering the information needed

to buy or develop a new system and

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• As organizations grow and change, they may

need more or better information.

• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:

– Initial investigation

–

Systems survey



If the system is a priority, survey the

existing system to define the nature and

scope of the project and identify the

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• As organizations grow and change, they may

need more or better information.

• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

–

Feasibility study

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• As organizations grow and change, they may

need more or better information.

• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

– Feasibility study

–

Determination of information needs and system

requirements



Involves finding out and documenting what

users and management need.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• As organizations grow and change, they may

need more or better information.

• Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

– Feasibility study

– Determination of information needs and system

requirements

–

Delivery of systems requirements



Involves preparation of a report

summarizing the systems analysis work.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• The five stages in the systems

development life cycle are:

– Systems analysis

–

Conceptual design

– Physical design

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• In the conceptual design phase, the company

decides how to meet user needs.

• Tasks in this phase include

:

–

Identify and evaluate design alternatives



Possibilities include:



Buying software

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• In the conceptual design phase, the company

decides how to meet user needs.

• Tasks in this phase include

:

– Identify and evaluate design alternatives

–

Develop design specifications



Involves writing up details of what the system is to

accomplish and how it is to be controlled and

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• In the conceptual design phase, the company

decides how to meet user needs.

• Tasks in this phase include

:

– Identify and evaluate design alternatives

– Develop design specifications

–

Deliver conceptual design requirements

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• The five stages in the systems

development life cycle are:

– Systems analysis

– Conceptual design

–

Physical design

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• In the physical design phase, the broad,

user-oriented requirements of the conceptual design

are translated into detailed specifications that can

be used by programmers to code the programs.

• Tasks include:

– Design outputs, database, and inputs

– Develop programs

– Develop procedures

– Design controls

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• The five stages in the systems

development life cycle are:

– Systems analysis

– Conceptual design

– Physical design

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• This is the capstone phase during which everything

comes together.

• Tasks include:

– Develop an implementation and conversion plan.

• Needed because of the complexity and importance of this phase.

– Install any new hardware and software.

– Train personnel.

• New employees may need to be hired and trained or existing

employees relocated.

– Test the system and make any needed modifications.

– Complete the documentation.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• The five stages in the systems

development life cycle are:

– Systems analysis

– Conceptual design

– Physical design

– Implementation and conversion

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• Once the system is up and running, operations

and monitoring continue.

• Tasks include:

– Fine-tune and do post-implementation review.

– Operate the system.

– Periodically, review and modify the system.

– Do ongoing maintenance.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE

• Eventually, a major modification or system

replacement is necessary, and the systems

development life cycle (SDLC) will start over.

• In addition to the preceding five phases, three

activities are performed throughout the life cycle:

– Planning.

– Managing behavioral reactions to change.

– Assessing ongoing feasibility.

• These three activities will be discussed in this

chapter.

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implementing an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• Top management’s role in systems development

is to:

– Provide support and encouragement a clear signal

that user involvement is important.

– Help align the systems with corporate strategies.

– Establish system goals and objectives.

– Review IS department performance and leadership.

– Establish policies for project selection and

organizational structure.

THE PLAYERS

• User management needs to:

– Determine information requirements for departmental

projects.

– Assist systems analysts with project cost-benefit

estimates.

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• Accountants also play an important role in

systems development:

– As MIS users, they must determine their information needs

and systems requirements and communicate them to

system developers.

– As members of project development teams or steering

committees, they help management in the development

process.

– They are also active in:

• Designing system controls and monitoring and testing these

controls.

• Ensuring the system is easy to audit.

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• The information systems steering committee is

an executive-level committee whose duty is to

plan and oversee the IS function.

– Consists of high level management, such as:

• Controller

• IS Manager

• User department managers

– Sets policies to govern the MIS and assure

top-management participation, guidance, and control.

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• The project development team includes systems

specialists, managers, accountants, auditors, and users

whose responsibility is to guide development.

• Their job:

– Plan each project.

– Monitor to ensure timely and cost-effective completion.

– Ensure the human element is considered.

– Communicate project status to top management and steering

committee.

– Communicate and meet with users to:

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• Systems analysts study existing systems,

design new ones, and prepare

specifications that are used by

programmers.

– They interact with technical personnel and

users to bridge the gap.

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• Computer programmers write the

computer programs, using the specs

developed by the systems analysts.

THE PLAYERS



Many people are involved in developing and

successfully implement an MIS, including:



Top management



Accountants



The information systems steering committee



The project development team



Systems analysts



Computer programmers

THE PLAYERS

• External players include:

– Customers

– Vendors

– Auditors

– Governmental entities

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• Several activities must be performed at various

times throughout the SDLC.

• One of these activities is planning.

• The organization should have plans for:

– The long range.

– Each systems development project.

– Each phase of each systems development project.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• We’ve all experienced the disasters that occur when we

fail to plan.

• When you got it home, you realized it wasn’t compatible

with your existing printer and scanner.

• Furthermore, it wasn’t equipped for broadband Internet

access and you had been hoping to switch to broadband.

• By the time you spend the money and buy the parts to

equip the computer to do what you want it to do, you find

that you could have bought a leading-edge computer for

less money.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• Systems development planning is an important

step for the following key reasons:

–

Consistency

with the organization’s strategic plan.

–

Efficiency

achieved through coordination of the

subsystems.

–

Cutting edge

technology and techniques.

–

Lower costs

due to lack of duplication, wasted effort,

time overruns, and cost overruns.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT



When a system is poorly planned, a company

must often return to a prior phase and correct

errors and design flaws.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT



Two types of systems development plans

are needed:

- Individual project plans developed by the

project teams.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT



Two types of systems development plans

are needed:

-

Individual project plans developed by the

project teams.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• Individual project plans contain:

– A cost-benefit analysis.

– Developmental and operational requirements,

including:

• Human resources

• Hardware

• Software

• Financial resources

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT



Two types of systems development plans

are needed:

- Individual project plans developed by the

project teams.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• A master plan specifies:

– What the system will consist of

– How it will be developed.

– Who will develop it.

– How needed resources will be acquired.

– Where the MIS is headed.

• It also provides:

– Status of projects in process.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• Projects with highest priority are first to be

developed.

– These decisions are made by top management.

• Planning horizon:

– About a 3-year horizon.

– With updates at least 2–3 times/year—even more

frequently in some companies.

• The CIO should determine:

– How soon technologies will be in wide use.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

•

_{Planning techniques}

– Two techniques for scheduling and

monitoring systems development

activities are:

• Program Evaluation and Review Technique

(PERT)

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

•

_{Planning techniques}

– Two techniques for scheduling and

monitor systems development activities

are:

•

_{Program Evaluation and Review}

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• A PERT diagram requires that all activities

in a project be identified along with the

activities that precede and follow them.

• These activities are used to draw a PERT

diagram, which consists of a network of:

– Arrows—representing activities that require

time and resources.

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• The critical path in a PERT diagram is the

path requiring the greatest amount of time.

• If an activity on the critical path is delayed,

the whole project is delayed.

Design

Birdhouse

(2)

(Bill)

Buy Wood

& Nails

(1)

(Bill)

Build

Base

(2)

(Bill)

Nail

Together

(2)

(Bill)

Paint &

Decorate

(3)

(Sara)

Sell

(2)

(Sara)

• SAMPLE PERT CHART

– For building and selling a birdhouse.

– Each block contains a task and a time estimate (may

include best time, worst time, and average time).

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

•

_{Planning techniques}

– Two techniques for scheduling and

monitor systems development activities

are:

• Program Evaluation and Review Technique

(PERT)

PLANNING SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

• A Gantt chart is a bar chart with project activities

on the left and time across the top.

• For each activity, a bar of expected time is

drawn.

• As activities are completed, the bar is filled in.

• The Gantt chart makes it easy to eyeball the

SAMPLE GANTT CHART

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Design birdhouse

Buy wood & nails

Buy paint

Build roof

Build base

Nail together

Paint & decorate

Period

Complete

Testing

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• During the systems analysis phase, a feasibility

study (aka, a business case) is prepared and is

updated during the remaining steps in the SDLC.

• The extent of the feasibility study depends on

the size and nature of the system.

• Feasibility team should include:

– Management

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• The feasibility study and its updates are

used by the steering committee as the

project proceeds to decide whether to:

– Terminate the project

– Proceed

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• Five aspects need to be considered during a

feasibility study:

–

Technical feasibility

• Is the technology there to do it?

–

Operational feasibility

• Do we have people who can do it, and will it get used?

–

Legal feasibility

• Does it comply with legal, regulatory, and contractual

obligations?

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

•

Calculating economic feasibility costs and

benefits

– Economic feasibility is probably the most important

and frequently analyzed aspect.

– This examination requires a careful investigation of

costs and benefits.

– It typically uses a capital budgeting model that

considers:

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• When possible, benefits and costs should

be estimated and included even if they are

not easily quantifiable.

• If some costs and benefits cannot be

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• Benefits might include:

– Cost savings.

– Improved customer service, productivity,

decision making, or data processing.

– Better management control.

– Increased job satisfaction and employee

morale.

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• Costs might include:

– Equipment costs

• Initial outlay plus ongoing operating costs.

– Software costs

• Costs of acquiring, maintaining, supporting, and operating.

– Human resource costs

• Salaries, as well as costs of hiring, training, and relocating staff.

– Site preparation costs.

– Installation and conversion costs.

– Supplies.

– Overhead.

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

•

Capital budgeting

– Most organizations use a capital budgeting

return on investment technique to evaluate

the economic merits of different system

alternatives.

– There are three commonly used techniques:

•

Payback period

•

Calculates the number of years before the new savings

from the project equal the initial cost of the investment.

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

•

Capital Budgeting

– Most organizations use a capital budgeting

return on investment technique to evaluate

the economic merits of different system

alternatives.

– There are three commonly used techniques:

• Payback period

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

•

Capital Budgeting

– Most organizations use a capital budgeting

return on investment technique to evaluate

the economic merits of different system

alternatives.

– There are three commonly used techniques:

• Payback period

• Net present value (NPV)

•

Internal rate of return (IRR)

•

Calculates the effective interest rate that would result in

a net present value of zero for the project.

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• The best system will fail without the

support of the people it serves.

• So the behavioral aspects of change are

crucial.

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

•

Why behavioral problems occur

– Employees will tend to view change as good if

they believe it will affect them positively and

vice versa.

•

The Department of Defense with 3.3 million employees

has faced tremendous resistance to change in the

course of over 20 years of system integration attempts.

•

A more transparent system would likely expose

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

–

Personal characteristics and background

•

Employees are more likely to accept change if they are:

–

Young;

–

Highly educated; or

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

–

_{Manner in which change is introduced}

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

– Manner in which change is introduced

–

Experience with prior changes

•

Fool me once, shame on me . . .

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

– Manner in which change is introduced

– Experience with prior changes

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

– Manner in which change is introduced

– Experience with prior changes

– Top management support

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

– Manner in which change is introduced

– Experience with prior changes

– Top management support

– Communication

–

Biases and natural resistance to change

•

Employees may be too

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

– Manner in which change is introduced

– Experience with prior changes

– Top management support

– Communication

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

• To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,

it helps to understand why resistance

occurs:

– Personal characteristics and background

– Manner in which change is introduced

– Experience with prior changes

– Top management support

– Communication

– Biases and natural resistance to change

– Disruptive nature of the change process

–

Fear

•

May include fear of:

–

The unknown

–

Failure

–

Technology

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

•

_{How people resist MIS changes}

– Resistance to change often takes one of

three forms:

•

Aggression

•

Behavior intended to destroy, cripple, or weaken the

system’s effectiveness.

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

•

_{How people resist MIS changes}

– Resistance to change often takes one of

three forms:

• Aggression

•

_Projection

•

Blaming the new system for any and every unpleasant

occurrence, i.e., the system becomes a scapegoat.

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF

CHANGE

•

_{How people resist MIS changes}

– Resistance to change often takes one of

three forms:

• Aggression

• Projection

•

_Avoidance

•

“If I don’t use this thing, maybe it will go away!”

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

• Reactions to change can be improved by

observing the following guidelines:

– Meet user’s needs with respect to the form,

content, and volume of system output.

– Keep communication lines open. Managers

and users should be fully informed about:

• What changes are being made

• Why

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

– Maintain a safe and open atmosphere.

• If employees become hostile, it’s an uphill battle

you probably won’t win.

– Obtain management support.

– Allay fears.

• To the extent possible, reassure employees that

no major job losses or responsibility shifts will

occur.

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

– Solicit user participation.

• It is ego enhancing, challenging, and intrinsically

satisfying.

• Users who participate will be more committed to

using the system.

– Provide honest feedback.

• Explain which suggestions are and are not being

used and why.

– Make sure users understand the system.

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

– Humanize the system.

• Employees shouldn’t feel the computer is

controlling them or has usurped their positions.

– Describe new challenges and opportunities.

• The system can provide greater job satisfaction

and increased opportunities.

– Reexamine performance evaluation.

• Are performance standards and criteria realistic in

light of the change?

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

– Avoid emotionalism.

• Emotional issues should be allowed to cool, handled in

a non-confrontational manner, or sidestepped.

– Present the system in the proper context.

• Address the concerns of the people to whom you’re

speaking, not the concerns of management or

developers.

– Control the user’s expectations.

• Don’t oversell, and be realistic.

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS



Ignoring the preceding steps can leave to

behavior issues that are difficult or

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• When a new or improved system is

needed, a written request for systems

development is prepared. That request

describes:

– The current system’s problems.

– The reasons for the proposed changes.

– The goals and objectives of a proposed

system.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The project development team will conduct

the systems analysis in five steps:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

– Feasibility study

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The project development team will conduct

the systems analysis in five steps

–

Initial investigation

– Systems survey

– Feasibility study

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The initial investigation is conducted to:

–

Gain a clear picture of the problem or

need.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The initial investigation is conducted to:

– Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The initial investigation is conducted to:

– Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.

– Determine the viability of the project and

expected costs and payoffs.

–

Evaluate the scope and nature of the new

MIS.

•

A new MIS is useful when problems are a result of:

–

Lack of information

–

Inaccessibility of data

–

Inefficient data processing

•

A new MIS will not answer problems such as:

–

A manager who has too many subordinates

–

A manager who lacks organizational skills

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The initial investigation is conducted to:

– Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.

– Determine the viability of the project and

expected costs and payoffs.

– Evaluate the scope and nature of the new

MIS.

–

Recommend whether to proceed.

•

Either:

–

Initiate the project as proposed.

–

Modify it.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• If the project is approved:

– A proposal to conduct systems analysis is

prepared.

– The project is assigned a priority and added

to the master plan.

– The development team begins a survey of the

existing MIS.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The project development team will conduct

the systems analysis in five steps

– Initial investigation

–

Systems survey

– Feasibility study

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• A systems survey involves an extensive study of the

current MIS which could take weeks or months.

Objectives are:

– Gain a thorough understanding of:

• Company operations, policies, and procedures.

• Data and information flow.

• MIS strengths and weaknesses.

• Available hardware, software, and personnel.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Data can be gathered from:

– Employees.

– Documentation such as organization charts

and procedure manuals.

– External sources such as:

• Consultants

• Customers

• Suppliers

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Four common methods of gathering data

are:

– Interviews

– Questionnaires

– Observation

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Four common methods of gathering data

are:

–

Interviews

– Questionnaires

– Observation

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Advantages of interviews:

– Can answer “why” questions.

– Can allow for follow-up and clarification.

– Provides opportunity to build positive relationships

with interviewees and support for new system.

• Disadvantages of interviews:

– Time-consuming.

– Expensive.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• When you do interviews:

– Make an appointment.

– Explain the purpose ahead of time.

– Indicate the amount of time needed.

– Be on time.

– Be familiar with the interviewee’s responsibilities.

– Make notes on points to cover.

– Put the interviewee at ease and let him/her do the

talking.

– Pay attention to nonverbal cues.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Four common methods of gathering data

are:

– Interviews

–

Questionnaires

– Observation

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Questionnaires can be used when:

– The amount of information to be gathered is

small and well defined.

– The information is to be obtained from many

people or from those who are remotely

located.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Advantages of questionnaires:

– Can be anonymous.

– Not time-consuming to complete.

– Inexpensive.

– Allows the subject time to think about responses.

• Disadvantages of questionnaires:

– Does not allow in-depth questions or answers.

– Does not allow follow-up or clarification.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Four common methods of gathering data

are:

– Interviews

– Questionnaires

–

_Observation

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Advantages of observations:

– Can verify how the system actually works

rather than how it should work.

– Results in greater understanding of systems.

• Disadvantages of observations:

– Time-consuming.

– Expensive.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• When you do observations:

– Identify what is to be observed and estimate

the time required.

– Obtain permission.

– Explain what will be done and why.

– Don’t make value judgments.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Four common methods of gathering data

are:

– Interviews

– Questionnaires

– Observation

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Advantages of systems documentation:

– Describes how the system

should

work.

– Written form facilitates review and analysis.

• Disadvantages of systems documentation:

– Time consuming.

– May be elusive.

• When you examine systems documentation:

– Keep in mind that the system doesn’t always work as

it should per the documentation.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Once the data is gathered, document

findings and model the existing system.

– Documentation consists of:

• Questionnaire copies

• Interview notes

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Another form of documentation is a

system model:

–

Physical models illustrate how a system

functions by describing:

• Flow of documents.

• Computer processes performed and the people

doing them.

• Equipment used.

• Any other physical elements.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• When documentation is complete, analyze

the existing system:

– Evaluate the MIS’s strengths and weaknesses

to develop ideas for designing and structuring

the new MIS.

• Try to retain strengths.

• Correct weaknesses.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• At the end of this phase, prepare systems

survey report:

– Outlines and documents the data gathered.

– Provides recommendations that result from

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The project development team will conduct

the systems analysis in five steps:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

–

_{Feasibility study}

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• After the systems survey, a more thorough

feasibility analysis is conducted.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The project development team will conduct

the systems analysis in five steps:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

– Feasibility study

–

Information needs and systems

requirements

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

-

Processes

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

-

Data elements

•

Describes name, size, format,

_{source, and significance of}

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

- Data elements

-

Data structure

•

A preliminary structure showing

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

- Data elements

- Data structure

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

- Data elements

- Data structure

- Outputs

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

- Data elements

- Data structure

- Outputs

- Inputs

-

Constraints

•

A description of deadlines,

schedules, security requirements,

staffing limitations, and legal

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

- Data elements

- Data structure

- Outputs

- Inputs

- Constraints

-

Controls

•

Controls that are needed to

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS



Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company

identifies the information needs of MIS users and

documents systems processes, including:

- Processes

- Data elements

- Data structure

- Outputs

- Inputs

- Documentation constraints

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Issues:

– There is much to be specified, even for a

simple MIS.

– It may be difficult to get employees to

accurately articulate their needs.

– Errors are best caught early, as the cost to

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

•

Systems objectives and constraints

– Many entities take a systems approach to

determining information needs and systems

requirements.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

-

Usefulness

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

-

Economy

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

-

Reliability

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

-

Availability

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

-

Timeliness

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

- Timeliness

- Customer service

-

Capacity

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

- Timeliness

- Capacity

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

- Timeliness

- Customer service

- Capacity

- Ease of use

-

Flexibility

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

- Timeliness

- Capacity

- Ease of use

- Flexibility

-

Tractability

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

- Timeliness

- Customer service

- Capacity

- Ease of use

- Flexibility

- Tractability

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Systems objectives must be identified, so

analysts and users can focus on those elements

most vital to success of the MIS. These may

include:

- Usefulness

- Economy

- Reliability

- Availability

- Timeliness

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• There are often trade-offs between objectives.

• Organizational constraints make it impossible to

develop all parts of an MIS simultaneously.

– You divide it into modules that are analyzed,

developed, and installed independently.

– When changes are made, only the affected modules

need to be changed.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Success often depends on the project

team’s ability to cope with organizational

constraints, including:

– Requirements of governmental agencies.

– Managerial policies and guidelines.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

•

Strategies for determining

requirements:

– One or more of the following four strategies

are used to determine MIS requirements:

•

Ask users what they need

•

This is the simplest and fastest strategy.

•

But many people don’t realize or understand their true

needs.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

•

Strategies for determining

requirements:

– One or more of the following four strategies

are used to determine MIS requirements:

• Ask users what they need

•

Analyze existing systems

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

•

Strategies for Determining

Requirements:

– One or more of the following four strategies

are used to determine MIS requirements:

• Ask users what they need

• Analyze existing systems

•

Examine existing system use

•

Certain modules:

–

May not be used as intended

–

May be augmented by manual tasks

–

May be avoided altogether

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

•

Strategies for Determining

Requirements:

– One or more of the following four strategies

are used to determine MIS requirements:

• Ask users what they need

• Analyze existing systems

• Examine existing system use

•

Create a prototype

•

Entails roughing out a system for users to critique.

•

When they see something on a screen, it’s easier to

identify what they like and don’t like.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

•

Documentation and approval of user

requirements:

– Detailed requirements for the new MIS should

be created and documented.

• How to produce the required features is

determined during the design phases of the SDLC.

• The requirements list should be supported by

sample input and output forms and charts that

make it easier to conceptualize.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Once user requirements have been

determined and documented, the project

team:

– Meets with users.

– Explains the requirements.

– Obtains their agreement and approval.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The project development team will conduct

the systems analysis in five steps:

– Initial investigation

– Systems survey

– Feasibility study

– Information needs and systems requirements

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• The last step in systems analysis is the systems

analysis report.

– Summarizes and documents the activities.

– Serves as a repository of data from which designers

can draw.

– Outlines:

• Goals and objectives of the new system.

• Scope of the project.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• A go-no-go decision is usually made three

times during systems analysis:

– During the initial investigation to determine

whether to go ahead with a systems survey.

– At the end of the feasibility study to determine

whether to proceed with the information

requirements step.

– At the completion of the analysis phase to

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• When systems analysis is completed, the

project can move on to:

– Conceptual design phase

– Physical design phase

SUMMARY

• You’ve learned about the five phases in the

systems development life cycle, with a particular

emphasis on systems analysis.

• You’ve learned who the players are in the

systems development process.

• You’ve learned about various techniques that

are used to plan the development of a system.

• You’ve reviewed some techniques for

determining system feasibility.

• You’ve learned about behavioral responses to

systems changes and how dysfunctional