London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London)
DECENTRALISATION ANIDST
POVERTY AND DISUNITY:
THE SUDAN, 1969-1983
by
Berhane Woldemichael B.Sc. (Hons), M.Sc.
UMI Number: U142633
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A B S T R A C T
T h i s t h e s i s is a s t u d y of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n in th e S u d a n b o t h as a m e c h a n i s m f o r the m a n a g e m e n t of e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y a n d for d e v e l o p m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e s t u d y f o c u s e s o n a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d ( 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 8 3 ) d u r i n g the N i m e i r i r e g i m e w h e n e x t e n s i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t w h i c h g a v e the S u d a n o n e of t h e m o s t d e c e n t r a l i s e d g o v e r n m e n t a l s y s t e m s in A f r i c a . A l t h o u g h d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w a s a p p l i e d in the S u d a n to a c h i e v e t h e s e t w i n o b j e c t i v e s , its e f f e c t i v e n e s s f l u c t u a t e d d e p e n d i n g o n t he p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n at c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t level. A c a s e s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d to i n v e s t i g a t e the i m p a c t of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n p o l i c y in o n e d i s t r i c t c o u n c i l , W a u . T h e r e s e a r c h w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o c u s e d o n e d u c a t i o n , o n e of the s e r v i c e s for w h i c h the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e . T h e f i e l d r e s e a r c h i n v o l v e d th e c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a t h r o u g h a s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e to i n v e s t i g a t e s u c h v a r i a b l e s as: e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s c h o o l m a n a g e m e n t , s c h o o l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A n a n a l y s i s of the d a t a r e v e a l s t h a t a l l w a s n o t w e l l w i t h d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n in the S u d a n . In l i g h t of t h e s e f i n d i n g s , t h e l a s t p a r t of the t h e s i s r e a s s e s s e s th e c o n d i t i o n s fo r e f f e c t i v e d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n p o l i c i e s g e n e r a l l y a n d th e S u d a n in p a r t i c u l a r . F i n a l l y , a r e a s fo r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e s u g g e s t e d b a s e d o n th e f i n d i n g s of the s t u d y .
T h i s t h e s i s c o n f i r m s t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s :
- T h e s u c c e s s of s t a t e - e t h n o r e g i o n a l c o h e P s i o n is l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t o n t he s t a t e ’s a b i l t y to i n i t i a t e i n t e g r a t i v e p o l i c i e s .
- A d e c e n t r a l i s e d s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t r e q u i r e s e f f e c t i v e a n d a c t i v e c e n t r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n to c o n t r o l a n d g u i d e its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
A F F I R M A T I O N
E x c e p t w h e r e I h a v e m a d e r e f e r e n c e to r e a d i n g s w h i c h I h a v e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d , n o p a r t of t h i s t h e s i s is the w o r k of a n y o n e e l s e b u t me.
P u b l i s h e d w o r k s o n R e l a t e d S u b j e c t s a n d a P a p e r P e n d i n g P u b l i c a t i o n :
1. "A C o m p a r a t i v e A n a l y s i s of the A r m e d C o n f l i c t s in E r i t r e a a n d S o u t h S u d a n ” . J o u r n a l of E r i t r e a n S t u d i e s , V o l II, N o 1, ( 19 8 7 ) , pp. 1-16.
2. " P r i n c i p l e s a n d M e t h o d s of P l a n n i n g for D e v e l o p m e n t in a n E n v i r o n m e n t of U n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t ” . P r o c e e d i n g s of the F i r s t C o n f e r e n c e o n R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t ( 1 98 8 ) , T h e R e s e a r c h a n d
I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t r e of E r i t r e a , H i m b o l , Er i t r e a .
3. " R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t in P o s t C o n f l i c t E r i t r e a : P r o b l e m s a n d P o l i c y O p t i o n s " , in M a r t i n D o o r n b o s et al e d s ., " B e y o n d C o n f l i c t in the H o r n " (1992). T h e
I n s t i t u t e of S o c i a l S t u d i e s , th e H a g u e , in A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h J A M E S C U R R Y , L o n d o n . 4. " E d u c a t i o n a l P l a n n i n g in t h e S u d a n :
L e s s o n s f r o m the N i m e i r i Y e a r s " . R I C E B u l l e t i n , V o l 2, N o 3, 1992.
5. " P r i m a r y E d u c a t i o n in E r i t r e a : I s s u e s , C h a l l e n g e s a n d P r o s p e c t s " . C o n s u l t a n c y R e p o r t f o r the D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n , E r i t r e a .
T o :
Liz, m y w if e , H a n n a a n d B e m n e t , o u r c h i l d r e n
CONTENTS
- List of figures and tables
7
- Preface
9
- Introduction
12
PART I: DECENTRALISATION:
CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS
1. What is Decentralisation?
21
- Meaning of Decentralisation
22
- Patterns of Decentralisation
27
- Centralisation Versus Decentralisation
51
2. The Multi-Ethnic State:
Political and Developmental Dimensions
67
- Ethnic-State Discourse and Nation-Building
67
- Politics and Decentralisation Policies:
Comparative Performances
85
PART II: BACKGROUND ON THE SUDAN
3. State Formation and the North-South Divide
117
- The Pre-Independence Period
117
- Post-Independence and
the South Sudan Question
147
4. The Evolution of Local Administration
173
- The Colonial Heritage
174
- The Nimeiri Regime and the Acceleration
of Decentralisation Reforms
198
5. Dimensions of Scarcity and Poverty
213
- Measures of Disparity
213
- The Extent of Poverty in South
Sudan
224
PART III: CASE STUDY: IMPLICATIONS OF DECENTRALISATION
POLICIES IN SOUTH SUDAN, 1972-1983
6. The Southern Region: Provisions,
Politics and Challenges
234
- Statutory Provisions
235
- Regional Politics
243
- Regional and Local Government Finances
253
- Development Administration and Planning
278
7. The Working of Decentralisation in
the Delivery
of Primary Education in South Sudan
286
- Background to Educational Development
286
- Case study: The Management of Primary
PART IV: BY WAY OF CONCLUSION: TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF
DECENTRALISATION FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
8. Approaches Towards Realism in the Sudan
337
- Causal Factors of State-ethnic Conflict
338
- Lessons of Experience: the Nimeiri Years
345
- Concluding Remarks:
the Choices for the Sudan
352
9. Decentralisation: a Reassessment
358
- Questions of National Integration
359
- Questions of Decentralisation as
Development Administration
370
- Conclusion and Future Research Needs
375
Epilogue 381
Notes and References 396
Bibliography:
- 1. Primary Sources 398
- 2. Unpublished Secondary Sources 399
- 3. Published Secondary Sources:
Books, Articles and Monographs 401
- 4. Periodicals and Newspapers 410
Appendices:
- Appendix I: Survey Questionnaire 413
- Appendix II: President Nimeiri*s Policy
Statement on the Southern Question, 1969 427
- The Addis Ababa Agreement on the
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figures
page
1.1 Political map of The Sudan, 1982 20
1.2 Patterns of decentralisation 27
3.1 Political map of the Sudan, at independence (1956) 116
4.1 The Structure of the decentralised governmental system,
1981 203
6.1 Southern Region: Local Government Area Councils, 1982 233
6.2 The government structure of the Southern Region, 1972-82 237
6.3 Line of administrative responsibilities of the executive
branch of the southern regional government, 1981 243
6.4 Sources of regional government finances 257
7.1 Progress in primary education in the Sudan in the period
1970/71 to 1982/83 292
7.2 Progress in primary education in the southern region in
the period 1972/73 to 1982/83 296
7.3 Research work schedule 298
Tables
2.1 Comparative Performances: Basic Economic Indicators
Tanzania,Kenya, India and China 98
2.2 Comparative Performances: Structure of Production
Tanzania, Kenya, India anf China 100
2.3 omparative Performances: Income Distribution in
Tanzania, Kenya, India and China 102
2.4 Comparative Performances: Health and Nutrition in
Tanzania, Kenya, India and China 104
2.5 Comparative Performances: Social Indicators in Tanzania,
Kenya, India and China 105
2.6 Comparative Performances: Rural Political Participation,
in India and China 109
3.1 Classification of principal languages in the Sudan 121
3.2 Seats Gained in the 1953 Elections for the House of representatives, by Province (Territorial Constituencies
only) 138
4.1 Evolution of decentralisation in the Sudan 194
4.2 Evolution of regionalisation in the Sudan 206
5.1 Sudan's comparative economic structure, 1982 216
5.2 Socio-economic indicators by province, 1977 219
5.3 Percentage regional distribution of high level
personnel, 1973 222
5.4 Vacant posts in the southern region public sector by
major occupational groups in 1976 223
6.1 Changing administrative divisions by region and province
since 1972, south Sudan 241
6.2 Election of regional president: distribution of MP votes
between diviSionists and unionists, June 1983 252
6.3 Local government revenues and central grants, 1979/80
Fiscal Year 255
-6.4 Financial transfers from central to the southern region
(in millions £s) 258
6.5 Central grants for special development budget (in million
fs) 260
6.6 Yields from indirect taxes of the southern region 263
6.7 Rate of growth of Chapter I between 1972/73 and 1977/78
Fiscal Year 266
6.8 Budgeted and actual expenditure of the Southern Regional
Government in the 1975/76 financial year. 267
6.9 Approved ordinary budget for 1975/76 ministry-wise for
the southern region of the Sudan 268
6.10 Local government revenue resources in south Sudan 270
6.11 Estimated and actual revenue sources of Yei Area Council
in 1982/83 274
6.12 Actual revenue sources of Yei Rural Council, 1983/84 275
6.13 Summaries of estimated and actual revenues and
expenditures in Yei Area Council, 1982/83 277
7.1 Development of Primary Education during the Amended 5
Year Plan in the Sudan 289
7.2 Education Expenditure by Level in 1975/76 289
7.3 Variables Identified for the Analysis of the Impact of Decentralisation on Primary Education Development in Wau
Area Council, South Sudan 299
7.4 Number of Primary Schools by Medium of Instruction, South
Sudan 307
7.5 Education Administrative Personnel of the Wau Area
Council in 1982/83 312
7.6 Teacher Absentism in Wau Ara Council 319
7.7 Teacher/class and student/teacher ratios in Wau Area
Council primary schools in 1982/83 320
7.8 Teacher's profile by age, teaching experience, sex and
qualification 322
7.9 Enrolment and Repeaters by Grade in 24 Primary Schools in
Wau Rural Council in 1982/83 327
7.10 Primary School Examination Results of Wau Area Schools in
1980/81 and 1982/83 328
7.11 Total Student Enrolment by Year in Wau Area Council 329
7.12 Responsibilities for Building Schools in Wau Area Council 330
7.13 Year Establishment of Primary Schools in Wau Area Council 331
-P R E F A C E
T h e c a s e s t u d y p a r t of t h i s t h e s i s is b a s e d o n d a t a c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g a c o n s u l t a n c y e n g a g e m e n t w i t h U N I C E F in the S u d a n . In 1 9 8 0 the G o v e r n m e n t of the S u d a n r e q u e s t e d U N I C E F to i n i t i a t e a p r i m a r y s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t in B a h r El G h a z a l p r o v i n c e , as a p i l o t p r o j e c t to p r o v i d e a m o d e l fo r e v e n t u a l r e p l i c a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y (Ref. M 0 / G . H . 1 ; 1 D e c 19 8 0 ) . It w a s in r e s p o n s e to t h a t 8 / 1 1 t h a t I w a s e m p l o y e d by U N I C E F , S u d a n c o u n t r y o f f i c e , in O c t o b e r 1 9 8 2 to i n v e s t i g a t e , r e p o r t a n d d e s i g n a p r o j e c t i n c l u d i n g c o s t i n g a n d a p l a n of a c t i o n . T h e i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t u d y r e v e a l e d a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h the e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m in th e S u d a n w h i c h t r i g g e r e d m y i n t e r e s t in th e p o l i c i e s of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n t h a t the g o v e r n m e n t of t h e t i m e w a s so e a r n e s t l y p u r s u i n g .
I w a s e n r o l l e d as a fu l l t im e s t u d e n t fo r a P h D d e g r e e at the L o n d o n S c h o o l o f E c o n o m i c s a n d P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e (LSE) in O c t o b e r 1985. I a m g r a t e f u l for m y a c a d e m i c s u p e r v i s o r s Dr s M i c h a e l H e b b e r t a n d B r e n d a n O ’L e a r y f r o m t h e d e p a r t m e n t s of G e o g r a p h y a n d G o v e r n m e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y for t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m y c o m m i t m e n t to the " E r i t r e a n S t r u g g l e " , w h i c h d i s t r a c t e d m e f o r s o m e time, a n d for t h e i r g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h o u t .
M y t i m e w i t h U N I C E F in the S u d a n w a s a v e r y h a p p y a n d f r u i t f u l one. I a d m i r e d the e f f i c i e n c y of its o p e r a t i o n a n d the h e l p a n d th e c o l l a b o r a t i o n its r e g u l a r s t a f f r e n d e r e d to e x t e r n a l c o n s u l t a n t s . M y c o n s u l t a n c y w a s c o m p l e t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y , the r e p o r t I p r o d u c e d h a v i n g b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l in r a i s i n g f u n d s f o r e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t in B a h r El G h a z a l . S a d l y , the s e c o n d c i v i l w a r b r o k e o u t in s o u t h S u d a n s o o n a f t e r the c o m p l e t i o n of the r e p o r t a n d the p l a n n e d e d u c a t i o n a l p r o j e c t h a d to b e p o s t p o n e d . M y t h a n k s g o to al l th e U N I C E F s t a f f w h o w e r e at the K h a r t o u m , J u b a a n d W a u o f f i c e s at the time.
my counterpart. John is an old friend from previous work we
both were part of and I could not have been more lucky to work
with him. Eleven education officials from the same province
were also seconded to the consultant and did a marvellous job
under difficult conditions. Many education officials at
local, regional and central level have helped me a great deal.
All the chiefs, sub-chiefs, community elders, head teachers,
teachers and students interviewed helped me to understand-iiTg of
the educational system in Bahr El Ghazal, something that would
not have come out through formal interviews alone.
Mr Peter Dawson of the department of government, LSE, has read
an earlier draft of the first chapter and made useful
comments. Professor David Regan of the department of
politics, University of N o t t i n g h a m ,took time to introduce me
to people at the department of planning studies who allowed me
to attend and participate in their seminars. Dr Malcom
Norris, department of local government, University of
Birmingham, welcomed me at his office and directed me to the
vast literature available on the Sudan.
I have the greatest admiration for the library systems in the
UK. Wherever I went I was met with courtesy and received
help. The Library lending system is wonderful and saves a lot
of t i m e .
Acknowledgement is due to the Cett.faV* Research Fwnd
who offered me funds for a research trip to the Sudan in 1986.
The purpose of this trip was to collect secondary information
from government sources, teaching institutes and international
aid organisations to augment the information I already had.
My friends Drs Kamal M. Ibrahim and Berhane Kehase have helped
me with the production of computerised charts for which I am
thankful. Mrs Patricia Cantrell helped me with some typing,
formatting and printing. I am thankful for her prompt work.
-T h i s w o r k is d e d i c a t e d to L i z , m y w i f e , and, o u r c h i l d r e n H a n n a a n d B e m n e t , for t h e i r u n f a i l i n g s u p p o r t . L i z h a s r e a d t h r o u g h al l t he d r a f t s a n d c o r r e c t e d m y E n g l i s h a n d m a d e c o n s t r u c t i v e c o m m e n t s . M y m o t h e r in law, E i l e e n A d a m s o n , is a l w a y s h e l p f u l a n d l i f e in E n g l a n d w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n b e a r a b l y d i f f i c u l t w i t h o u t her.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
G e n e r a lT h e n o r t h - s o u t h d i v i d e of th e S u d a n , w h i c h is c u l t u r a l l y , h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , h a s p l a g u e d the c o u n t r y w i t h c h r o n i c c i v i l s t r i f e a n d p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y s i n c e it b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t in 1956. D u r i n g the N i m e i r i r e g i m e , 1 9 6 9 - 1985, s o m e p r o g r e s s w a s m a d e t o w a r d s a c c o m m o d a t i n g d i v e r s i t y r e s u l t i n g in th e n o r t h - s o u t h p e a c e a g r e e m e n t of 1972, b y w h i c h th e s o u t h S u d a n b e c a m e an a u t o n o m o u s s e l f - g o v e r n i n g r e g i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the s e l f -g o v e r n i n -g s t a t u s w a s u n i l a t e r a l l y w i t h d r a w n in 1 9 8 3 by P r e s i d e n t N i m e i r i , e v e n t u a l l y s p a r k i n g o f f th e r e s t a r t of the o n - g o i n g c i v i l war.
h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n g i v e n s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n in t h i s t h e s i s to d e m o n s t r a t e the " m a k e or b r e a k " r o l e the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t p l a y e d in the m a n a g e m e n t of s t a t e - e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s .
S o m e c l a r i f i c a t i o n is in o r d e r of t h e m a n y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m s that h a v e t a k e n p l a c e in the S u d a n s i n c e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d the w a y r e g i o n a l i s a t i o n a n d d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n h a v e a c q u i r e d d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s . A l t h o u g h the t e r m d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n in its g e n e r a l u s a g e r e f e r s to a n y t r a n s f e r of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m t he c e n t r e to l o w e r a u t h o r i t i e s of a g o v e r n m e n t s t r u c t u r e , as w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l in c h a p t e r one, it is u s e f u l to a p p r e c i a t e th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e g i o n a l i s a t i o n a n d d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e S u d a n . R e g i o n a l i s a t i o n in the S u d a n r e f e r s to t h e t r a n s f e r o f p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y b y d e v o l u t i o n e i t h e r in its a u t o n o m o u s form, as w a s the c a s e w h e n t h e s o u t h w a s a s e l f - g o v e r n i n g r e g i o n b e t w e e n 1 9 7 2 a n d 1983, or, the s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s type, w h e n the c e n t r e r e t a i n s s o m e s u p e r v i s o r y p o w e r s . S i n c e the u n i l a t e r a l a b r o g a t i o n of the 1 9 7 2 n o r t h - s o u t h p e a c e a c c o r d in 1983, th e w h o l e of th e S u d a n h a s b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s r e g i o n s w i t h K h a r t o u m p r o v i n c e , in w h i c h K h a r t o u m town, the c a p i t a l cit y, lies, a t t a i n i n g a s p e c i a l p r o v i n c i a l s t a t u s (see f i g u r e 1.1).
c o n s t i t u t e d a s i n g l e p r o v i n c e w h o s e e x i s t e n c e w e n t b a c k to c o l o n i a l times. In s o m e c a s e s , t h e r e f o r e , the p r e s e n t r e g i o n s h a v e s o m e h i s t o r i c a l b a s e in p r e - c o l o n i a l f o r m a t i o n s l i k e the K i n g d o m of D a r f u r .
D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n in th e S u d a n , o n the o t h e r han d , s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r s to the t r a n s f e r of p o w e r to l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s . L o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a r e c o r p o r a t e b u d g e t a r y u n i t s w i t h p o w e r s to l e v y t a x e s a n d to e x p e n d t h e m as t h e y se e fit o n the s e r v i c e s for w h i c h t h e y a r e r e s p o n s i b l e . T h e " l o c a l n e s s " of loc a l g o v e r n m e n t s in the S u d a n , d i s t i n g u i s h e d in the w a y the c o r p o r a t e p o w e r is l e g a l l y a l l o c a t e d , h a s s h i f t e d b e t w e e n the p r o v i n c e a n d the d i s t r i c t . F o r e x a m p l e , th e c o r p o r a t e b a s e of l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s b e t w e e n 1 9 6 9 a n d 1981, d u r i n g the N i m e i r i r e g i m e , w a s at the p r o v i n c i a l level. In 1981, h o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g the m o t t o of " p o w e r to the p e o p l e " , the p r o v i n c e s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o a n u m b e r of d i s t r i c t s w h i c h b e c a m e the b a s e for c o r p o r a t e l o c a l a u t h o r i t y .
S t r u c t u r e a n d S y n o p s i s of t he T h e s i s
p o l i c i e s of the S u d a n as a p p l i e d in t h e S o u t h e r n R e g i o n d u r i n g the N i m e i r i r eg i m e . F i n a l l y , p a r t f o u r p r o v i d e s a c o n c l u d i n g d i s c u s s i o n o n t he p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s of the s o u t h S u d a n s t u d y for the S u d a n as a w h o l e a n d r e a s s e s s e s d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n in its a p p l i c a t i o n to the m a n a g e m e n t of e t h n i c i t y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in g e n e r a l . T h e f o l l o w i n g is a c h a p t e r b y c h a p t e r s y n o p s i s :
C h a p t e r one: S e e k s to d e f i n e w h a t th e t e r m d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n m e a n s b o t h in its c o n c e p t u a l a n d c o n t e x t u a l d i m e n s i o n s . C o n c e p t u a l l y , t h e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s a n d the p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e a s c r i b e d to d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a r e a n a l y s e d in d e t a i l . C o n t e x t u a l l y , t he f o c u s is o n t he a c t u a l e n v i r o n m e n t u n d e r w h i c h d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o p e r a t e s . T h e i s s u e s of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a n d c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d n o t in a b s t r a c t t e r m s b u t in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r e a l c o u n t r y s i t u a t i o n s .
C h a p t e r two: T h e t w i n o b j e c t i v e s of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n , as a m e c h a n i s m for n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n a n d f or d e v e l o p m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a r e d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l . T h e c h a p t e r is thus d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s e c t i o n s . In th e f i r s t s e c t i o n , i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g e t h n i c - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e c o n i n u i n g s e a r c h for p o l i t i c a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m s in p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e A f r i c a a r e e x p l o r e d . In the s e c o n d s e c t i o n , a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s of f o u r c o u n t r i e s is m a d e to m e a s u r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n as d e v e l o p m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
a n d o n the r o o t c a u s e s of the n o r t h - s o u t h d i v i d e . S i n c e the S u d a n w a s f o r g e d i n t o a s i n g l e e n t i t y b y t he T u r k o - E g y p t i a n r u l e w h i c h s t a r t e d in 1820, th e n o r t h - s o u t h r e l a t i o n s h i p has a l w a y s h a d a n e l e m e n t of i n e q u a l i t y a n d i n j u s t i c e a g a i n s t the s o u t h . W i t h the p o l i c i e s of a s s i m i l a t i o n s u c c e s s i v e g o v e r n m e n t s f o l l o w e d in the p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e p e r i o d , the
\
n o r t h - s o u t h d i v i d e w i d e n e d u n a b a t e d u n t i l the c o m i n g to p o w e r in 1 9 6 9 of P r e s i d e n t N i m e i r i , w h o i n i t i a l l y e m b r a c e d th e m o t t o of u n i t y w i t h d i v e r s i t y . A l t h o u g h the n o r t h - s o u t h p e a c e a g r e e m e n t w h i c h f o l l o w e d w a s s h o r t - l i v e d ( 1 9 7 2 - 1 9 8 3 ) , it n e v e r t h e l e s s o f f e r s , a m o d e l u p o n w h i c h f u t u r e n o r t h - s o u t h r e l a t i o n s c o u l d be b a s e d . H e n c e t h i s c h a p t e r is a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of the h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s of n o r t h - s o u t h r e l a t i o n s .
C h a p t e r four: T h e e v o l u t i o n of l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in the S u d a n , as o p p o s e d to the p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s c o v e r e d in c h a p t e r t h r e e , a r e t h e i s s u e s of c o n c e r n h e r e . In the f i r s t s e c t i o n of t h e c h a p t e r , t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is d i s c u s s e d and, in the s e c o n d s e c t i o n , w h i c h f o c u s s e s o n the p e r i o d of th e N i m e i r i r e g i m e , the d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a n d r e g i o n a l i s a t i o n p o l i c i e s w h i c h w e r e the h a l l m a r k of t h e r e g i m e a r e d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l .
a s s es s m e n t is made of the level of p o v e r t y in s o u t h Sudan.
C h a p t e r s i x : C o n t a i n s t h r e e s e c t i o n s ; the f i r s t d e s c r i b e s the 19 7 2 r e g i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t A c t b y w h i c h the s o u t h b e c a m e a s e l f -g o v e r n i n -g r e -g i o n . In the s e c o n d s e c t i o n a n a n a l y s i s is m a d e of the v i g o r o u s r e g i o n a l p o l i t i c s w h i c h d e v e l o p e d a p d , in the l as t s e c t i o n , h o w the r e g i o n as a w h o l e w a s m a n a g i n g its a f f a i r s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of e x t r e m e p o v e r t y is d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l .
C h a p t e r s e v e n ; Is a c a s e s t u d y of o n e A r e a ( D i s t r i c t ) C o u n c i l ; Wau, i n S o u t h S u d a n . It is b a s e d o n a f i e l d r e s e a r c h s t u d y of the m a n a g e m e n t of p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n , for w h i c h the l o c a l c o u n c i l s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e . T h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s s h o w t h a t W a u c o u n c i l , f a c e d w i t h a l l s o r t s of s h o r t a g e s f i n a n c i a l as w e l l as m a n p o w e r r e s o u r c e s - h a d s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s m a n a g i n g p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n . In th e c o n c l u d i n g d i s c u s s i o n , the w i s d o m of d e c e n t r a l i s i n g s u b s t a n t i a l p o w e r to a r e a s at a r u d i m e n t a r y s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t is q u e s t i o n e d .
C h a p t e r n i n e : B a s e d o n th e a r g u m e n t s d e v e l o p e d in the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , a r e - a s s e s m e n t is m a d e of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n p o l i c i e s in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e m u l t i - e t h n i c i t y a n d u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t a r e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e s . T h e n e e d fo r a c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t c a n p r o m o t e a p p r o p r i a t e p o l i c i e s in s u c h c a s e s is a d d r e s s e d . U s i n g e x a m p l e s of r e l a t i v e l y s u c c e s s f u l d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s , the k i n d of s t a t e -e t h n i c r -e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t m u s t -e x i s t to a v o i d d -e s t r u c t i v -e c o n f l i c t s a r e s u g g e s t e d . <?nly w i t h p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y c a n the d e v e l o p m e n t o b j e c t i v e s of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n be r e a l i s e d .
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D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is the l a t e s t f a s h i o n in d e v e l o p m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . It h a s u n i v e r s a l a p p e a l as a s u b j e c t of r e s e a r c h a n d a l s o as a p r a c t i c a l to o l t h a t c a n h e l p to a l l e v i a t e m a n y of the g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s , f o r e x a m p l e , the d e l i v e r y of s e r v i c e s . T h e n u m e r o u s w o r k s p u b l i s h e d in the l as t d e c a d e a r e i n d i c a t i v e of a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t ( C o n y e r s , 1984). A w i d e l y — h e l d v i e w a t t r i b u t e s t h e s h i f t in i n t e r e s t t o w a r d s d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n to the d i s a p p o i n t i n g r e s u l t s of c e n t r a l l y m a n a g e d d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s . In g e n e r a l , the n e w d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a d v o c a t e s a l l o c a t i o n to s u b - n a t i o n a l u n i t s of the n e c e s s a r y p o w e r s for d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g to e n a b l e t h e m to t a c k l e the m a n y p r o b l e m s of d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m the b o t t o m - u p . Bu t the a l l o c a t i o n of p o w e r , b e i n g a p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n , h a s v a r y i n g p a t t e r n s a n d d e g r e e s of c e n t r a l - s u b n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n e v i t a b l y , t h e r e a r e m a n y , a n d o f t e n c o n f l i c t i n g , t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s of a n d p r e s c r i p t i o n s for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of c e n t r a l a n d s u b n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
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T h i s c h a p t e r a i m s to a n a l y t i c a l l y r e v i e w s o m e of t h e c o n c e p t s , A
w i t h the m a n y m e a n i n g s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n a c c o r d e d to d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n . In t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s is m a d e of t he c o m p l e x p a t t e r n s of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a n d the t h i r d l o o k s at i s s u e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h c e n t r a l a n d l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t i t e s
T h i s r e v i e w d r a w s o n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h g o v e r n m e n t a l s y s t e m s . D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n a p p l i e d in b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f o r m s of o r g a n i s a t i o n s a n d t h e s e a r e o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of t h i s c h a p t e r . T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t h e r e is the p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t d e t e r m i n e 5 t h e e x t e n t of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n .
T H E M E A N I N G O F D E C E N T R A L I S A T I O N
s y s t e m s , "b y a c e n t r a l r u l i n g g r o u p [to] o t h e r g r o u p s , e a c h h a v i n g a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c a r e a of the s t a t e " ( M a w h o o d , 1 9 8 3 : 4 ) . B u t the t r a n s f e r of d e c i s i o n m a k i n g c a n be o r g a n i z e d in d i f f e r e n t w a y s a n d in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s w i t h the d e l e g a t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , e v e n in g o v e r n m e n t s y s t e m s , no t r e s t r i c t e d to the d o m a i n of the c e n t r a l r u l i n g a u t h o r i t y . S m i t h p e r c e i v e s the c o n c e p t of d e l e g a t i o n of d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , as i n d i c a t i o n t h a t " d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e e m p l o y e d w i t h i n u n i t a r y s t a t e s ; or w i t h i n the s t a t e s [or r e g i o n s ] of a f e d e r a l u n i o n " (Smith, 1 9 6 7 ; 1 ) . S m i t h w a s c l e a r at t he t i m e tha t d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n " d o e s n o t e n c o m p a s s th e d i v i s i o n of g o v e r n m e n t p o w e r s w i t h i n f e d e r a l o r c o n f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s " ( S m i t h 1 9 6 7 : 1 ; se e a l s o M a w h o o d 1 9 8 3 ; 4 - 5 ) . S m i t h h a s h o w e v e r s h i f t e d f r o m t h i s p o s i t i o n a n d l a t e l y a t t r i b u t e d to d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a m u c h w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n :
D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n e n t a i l s the s u b d i v i s i o n of the s t a t e ’s t e r r i t o r y i n t o s m a l l e r a r e a s a n d the c r e a t i o n of p o l i t i c a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h o s e a r e a s : . . . t h e c o u n t r i e s a n d d i s t r i c t s of E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s , o r the d e p a r t m e n t s a n d c o m m u n e s of F r a n c e , for e x a m p l e . A n o t h e r is f e d e r a l i s m , w h i c h p r e s e n t s e v i d e n c e of tw o of the m a j o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s w h i c h d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n c a n t a k e . . . E a c h of th e c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s of a f e d e r a t i o n , s u c h as the f i f t y s t a t e s of t he U S A or t h e n i n e t e e n s t a t e s of N i g e r i a , m a y b e r e g a r d e d as u n i t a r y s t a t e s e a c h w i t h its o w n i n t e r n a l s y s t e m of l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t . L o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s m a y e m p l o y v a r i o u s k i n d s of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w i t h i n the i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s of t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e p a r t m e n t s ( S mi t h , 1 9 8 5 : 1
-2) .
o r g a n i z a t i o n : " D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n : t h i s t e r m r e f e r s to the t r a n s f e r of a u t h o r i t y o n a g e o g r a p h i c b a s i s , w h e t h e r b y d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n (i.e. d e l e g a t i o n ) of a u t h o r i t y to f i e l d u n i t s of the s a m e d e p a r t m e n t of l e v e l of g o v e r n m e n t , or b y d e v o l u t i o n of a u t h o r i t y to l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t u n i t s of s p e c i a l s t a t u t o r y b o d i e s " (U N p u b l i c a t i o n N o . S t / T A O / M / 6 2 / A d d . 2 . p . 92; s e e a l s o UN, 1961). R y b i c k i (1971), q u o t i n g the UN p u b l i c a t i o n a l s o , e x p r e s s e s a g r e e m e n t t h a t " d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is n o t f e d e r a l i s m " . P e r h a p s the m o s t far r e a c h i n g d e f i n i t i o n of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is t h a t g i v e n b y F r i e d m a n w h o r e f e r r e d to it as i n c l u d i n g " d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , d e l e g a t i o n , d e v o l u t i o n , or the a s s i g n m e n t of f u n c t i o n s to n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l b o d i e s " ( F r i e d m a n , 1 9 8 3 ; 3 5 - 3 6 ) . A d e f i n i t i o n n o t fa r f r o m F r i e d m a n ’s in the f i n a l a n a l y s i s b u t e x p r e s s e d w i t h a d d e d c l a r i t y is that p r o v i d e d b y R o n d i n e l l i :
D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is ... the t r a n s f e r or d e l e g a t i o n of l e g a l a n d p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y to p l a n , m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d m a n a g e p u b l i c f u n c t i o n s f r o m the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d its a g e n c i e s to f i e l d o r g a n i z a t i o n s of t h o s e a g e n c i e s , s u b o r d i n a t e u n i t s of g o v e r n m e n t , s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s p u b l i c c o r p o r a t i o n s , a r e a w i d e or r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s ; f u n c t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s , a u t o n o m o u s l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s or n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( R o n d i n e l l i , 1 9 8 1 : 1 3 7 ) .
W i t h i n the c e n t r a l l y d i r e c t e d h i e r a r c h y of p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ... it is n o r m a l p r a c t i c e to s h i f t o u t w a r d s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y the p o w e r to m a k e c e r t a i n t y p e s of d e c i s i o n . E v e r y d a y of h i s l i f e a f i e l d o f f i c i a l u s e s h i s d e l e g a t e d a u t h o r i t y to s e t t l e a r a n g e of i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , a n d to r e g u l a t e t h e w o r k of h i s o w n o f f i c e . It is a u s e f u l a r r a n g e m e n t , e v e r y c o u n t r y h a s it, a n d t h e r e is a u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d w o r d to d e s c r i b e it: d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ... F a r d i f f e r e n t f r o m this, in the s t r u c t u r e s o f g o v e r n m e n t , is the c r e a t i o n of b o d i e s s e p a r a t e d b y l a w f r o m the n a t i o n a l c e n t r e , in w h i c h l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r e g i v e n f o r m a l p o w e r to d e c i d e o n a r a n g e of p u b l i c m a t t e r s .... T h e i r a r e a of a u t h o r i t y is l i m i t e d , bu t w i t h i n t h a t a r e a t h e i r r i g h t to m a k e d e c i s i o n s is e n t r e n c h e d b y the l a w a n d c a n o n l y b e a l t e r e d b y n e w l e g i s l a t i o n ... T h i s is th e m e a n i n g of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n ( M a w h o o d , 1 9 8 3 : 1 - 2 ) .
W h a t e v e r m e r i t t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n to s t i c k to t h e "old" u s ag e , F e s l e r ( 1 9 6 8 : 3 7 0 ) is r i g h t to a s s e r t t h a t e f f o r t s to o b t a i n g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e of the n e a t F r e n c h d i s t i n c t i o n h a v e b e e n u n s u c c e s s f u l ( M a d d i c k , 1 9 6 3 : 2 3 ; M a c m a h o n , 1 9 6 1 : 1 5 - 1 6 ; C o n y e r s , 1 9 8 4 : 1 8 7 ; Bray, 1 9 8 4 : 5 ) . In m a n y A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s it is c e r t a i n l y the c a s e t h a t t h e t e r m d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is u s e d l o o s e l y to r e f e r to " a n y t r a n s f e r of a u t h o r i t y f r o m the n a t i o n a l l e v e l to a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n or a g e n c y at t h e s u b n a t i o n a l l e v e l ” ( C o n y e r s , 1 9 8 3 : 1 0 1 ) .
PATTERNS OF D EC EN TR A LISA TIO N
In p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s , t h e w a y in w h i c h d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n t a k e s p l ac e , or r a t h e r , t he w a y i n w h i c h a u t h o r i t y is d e l e g a t e d f r o m h i g h e r to l o w e r l e v e l s , i n e v i t a b l y d i f f e r s n o t o n l y f ro m c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y b u t a l s o w i t h i n a s i n g l e c o u n t r y . T h e n o t i o n of " a w a y f r o m t h e c e n t r e " i n h e r e n t in t h e m e a n i n g of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is, h o w e v e r , a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r in all of its d i f f e r e n t u s e s . S i x p a t t e r n s of d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n are d i s c u s s e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g s u b s e c t i o n s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m is b a s i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i r l e g a l status. As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e e x t e n t of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that is d e l e g a t e d c a n v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y . F o r e x a m p l e , the s a m e t e r m is u s e d to d e s c r i b e t h e f e d e r a l s y s t e m s
TVrp.n fra 1 isation
Devolution Deconcentration
1
Autonomous Semi - Autonomous Held Admin. Local Admin.
Integrated Unintegrated
Federation Delegation Assignment of function
nongovernmental bodies
[image:29.595.93.461.439.772.2]in N i g e r i a a n d the U n i t e d S t a t e s b u t the e x t e n t of p o w e r s d e l e g a t e d a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . S i m i l a r l y , f o r m s of loc al g o v e r n m e n t s d i f f e r f r o m c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y as t h e i r
an
r e s p o n i b i l i t i e s a r e d e p e n d e n t the d i s c r e t i o n of t he c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t (1.1).
D e v o l u t i o n
D e v o l u t i o n o c c u r s w h e n s p e c i f i e d p o w e r s a r e d e l e g a t e d to s u b n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s "t o m a k e c e r t a i n d e c i s i o n s in s o m e s p h e r e s of p u b l i c p o l i c y " ( S m it h , 1 9 6 7 : 1 ) . T h e e s s e n c e of d e v o l u t i o n is " a u t o n o m y or s y s t e m s e p a r a t e n e s s i n v o l v i n g the l e g a l c o n f e r r i n g of p o w e r s to d i s c h a r g e s p e c i f i e d o r r e s i d u a l f u n c t i o n s u p o n f o r m a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d l o c a l a u t h o r i t y " (see in H a m i d , 1 9 8 6 : 1 2 2 ) . F o l l o w i n g a s i m i l a r line, M u l l e n (1985) u n d e r s t o o d d e v o l u t i o n to m e a n " t h e t r a n s f e r of f u n c t i o n s or d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a u t h o r i t y f r o m c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t to l e g a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d a n d a u t o n o m o u s l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s u c h as s t a t e s , r e g i o n s etc". T h e i m p l i c a t i o n i n this, a c c o r d i n g to M u l l e n , is " a n i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t in d i s c h a r g i n g the f u n c t i o n a n d e x i s t e n c e of p a r a l l e l s y s t e m s of a u t h o r i t y in a n o n - h i e r a r c h i a l o r d e r (and) o f t e n t a k e s p l a c e w h e n a f u n c t i o n e.g. e d u c a t i o n , is d e s i g n a t e d as a p r o v i n c i a l or l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t f u n c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t f u n c t i o n "
( M u l l e n , 1 9 8 5 : 2 9 ) .
the ’p u r e s t f o r m of d e v o l u t i o n ’ , h a s o n e c e r t a i n i d e n t i f i a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h is t h a t t h e l o c a l u n i t s of g o v e r n m e n t ar e a c c o r d e d p o w e r s w h i c h lie " o u t s i d e t h a t c o m m a n d of the s t r u c t u r e of c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t . . . t h e r e f o r e , i m p l i e s s e p a r a t e n e s s , or d i v e r s i t y of s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n th e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m " (Hyden, 1 9 8 3 : 8 5 ; s e e a l s o R o n d i n e l l i a n d C h e e m a , 1 9 8 3 : 2 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e r e p o r t of the R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n on the C o n s t i t u t i o n of S c o t l a n d , p r o d u c e d in 1 9 7 3 u n d e r the c h a i r m a n s h i p of L o r d K i l b r a n d o n , " t h e m o r e a d v a n c e d f o r m s of d e v o l u t i o n i n v o l v e d the e x e r c i s e of p o w e r b y p e r s o n s or b o d i e s who, a l t h o u g h a c t i n g o n a u t h o r i t y d e l e g a t e d by P a r l i a m e n t , a r e n o t d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e to it o r t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t for t h e i r a c t i o n s " ( q u o t e d b y H a m i d , 1 9 8 6 : 1 2 2 , H a m i d ’s e m p h a s i s ) . In B r i t a i n , t h e a u t o n o m o u s f o r m of d e v o l u t i o n is u s u a l l y d e b a t e d w i t h i n p a r t y p o l i t i c s in r e f e r e n c e to the e t h n i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e g i o n s of N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d , S c o t l a n d a n d W a l e s . H o w d e v o l u t i o n is p e r c e i v e d in the B r i t i s h c o n t e x t wa s h i g h l i g h t e d in the 1 9 8 7 g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n p a r t y p o l i t i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . T h e L a b o u r p a r t y m a n i f e s t o m a k e s t h e f o l l o w i n g p l e d g e :
W e s h a l l l e g i s l a t e in t h e f i r s t P a r l i a m e n t a r y s e s s i o n to e s t a b l i s h a d e m o c r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d S c o t t i s h A s s e m b l y in E d i n b u r g h . T h i s w i l l h a v e a w i d e r a n g e of p o w e r s o v e r h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n a n d h o u s i n g a n d o v e r s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s of i n d u s t r i a l a n d e c o n o m i c p o l i c y . It w i l l t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for c h a n g e s in t h e s t r u c t u r e of S c o t t i s h l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t " ( L a b o u r m a n i f e s t o , 1 9 8 7 : 1 1 ) .
s e l e c t e d terms, to r e c o g n i z e the g o v e r n m e n t s tructure.
W e w i l l d e v o l v e p o w e r to n a t i o n s a n d r e g i o n s of B r i t a i n . We a i m to e s t a b l i s h a n e l e c t e d S c o t t i s h P a r 1 i a m e n t , W e l s h S e n n e t a n d e l e c t e d r e g i o n a l a s s e m b l i e s t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d *' (The S D P / L i b e r a l A l l i a n c e P r o g r a m m e for G o v e r n m e n t , 1987, e m p h a s i s a d d e d ).
A m o n g the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , t he c a s e s of P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , w h e r e a s u b s t a n t i a l d e g r e e of p o l i t i c a l d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n at the p r o v i n c e l e v e l is g i v e n ( A x l i n e , 1 9 8 4 : 3 0 6 ; C o n y e r s , 1 9 8 1 : 1 1 1 ; B r a y , 1 9 8 4 : 3 2 ) , a n d t he a u t o n o m o u s r e g i o n a l s e l f -r u l e a g -r e e m e n t t h a t o p e -r a t e d in S o u t h S u d a n f -r o m 1 9 7 2 - 1983, a r e e x a m p l e s of the a u t o n o m o u s f o r m of d e v o l u t i o n . In b o t h ca s e s , a n e l e c t e d p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m h a v i n g l e g i s l a t i v e a n d e x e c u t i v e o r g a n s w a s i n s t i t u t e d w i t h its s o u r c e of p o w e r s e m b o d i e d in e a c h c o u n t r y ’s c o n s t i t u t i o n . B e c a u s e of the s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e of p o w e r d e v o l v e d in s u c h c a s e s s o m e w r i t e r s h a v e u s e d the t e r m q u a s i-f e d e r a l to d e s c r i b e it
( A x l i n e , 1 9 8 4 : 3 0 6 ; C o n y e r s 1 9 8 1 : 1 1 1 ) .
T h e s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s f o r m of d e v o l u t i o n is m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e , in t h a t th e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r the f r a m e w o r k of l e g i s l a t i o n a n d fo r m a j o r p o l i c y i s s u e s . T y p i c a l of the s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s f o r m is th e B r i t i s h l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s y s t e m w h e r e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t u n i t s e n j o y p o w e r s , w i t h i n the l i m i t s d e l e g a t e d to them, of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d th e p a s s i n g of o r d i n a n c e s h a v i n g a l o c a l a p p l i c a t i o n ,
A
( M a d i c k , 1 9 6 3 : 2 3 , S e e l e y , 1 9 7 8 : 3 6 ) . T h e s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s f o r m
k
o r g a n i z a t i o n in the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w h e r e " l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t u n i t s a r e g i v e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s o m e f u n c t i o n s o v e r w h i c h the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t o f t e n r e t a i n s s o m e s u p e r v i s o r y p o w e r s a n d in w h i c h it m a y p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t f i n a n c i a l r o l e " ( R o n d i n e l l i a n d C h e e m a , 1 9 8 3 : 2 3 ) . F i n a n c i a l c o n t r o l is in fac t o n e of the i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t a l l c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t s u s e to s e c u r e a g e n e r a l c o n f o r m i t y to t h e i r p o l i c i e s a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . In B r i t a i n , the j u s t i f i c a t i o n for s u c h c e n t r a l c o n t r o l o v e r l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t f i n a n c e s w a s s p e l t o u t b y L o r d B e l l w i n , the g o v e r n m e n t s p o k e s m a n in the H o u s e of L o r d s :
S u r e l y it is r i g h t for the G o v e r n m e n t to s p o t l i g h t t h o s e a u t h o r i t i e s w h o a r e n o t w i l l i n g to c o n f o r m to n a t i o n a l p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s . I a m s u r e t h a t the c o u n t r y at l a r g e t h i n k s ^ r i g h t a n d p r o p e r t h a t t h o s e a u t h o r i t i e s w h o r e f u s e to c o - o p e r a t e s h o u l d b e a r the c ost. T h e G o v e r n m e n t a r e e n t i t l e d to e x p e c t the c o o p e r a t i o n of l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w h o s e i n d i v i d u a l l o c a l i n t e r e s t s m u s t be s u b o r d i n a t e to th e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t ( q u o t e d b y D u n c a n a n d G o o d w i n , 1 9 8 5 : 2 0 ) *
D e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
s p e c t r u m to the t r a n s f e r of c e r t a i n d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o w e r s to f i e l d s t a f f " to m a k e r o u t i n e d e c i s i o n s a n d a d j u s t the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of c e n t r a l d i r e c t i v e s to l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s " , at th e o t h e r e n d (R o n d i n e l 1 i 1 9 8 1 : 1 3 7 ; s a w a l s o M u l l e n , 1 9 8 5 : 2 9 ) .
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , the f i e l d s t a f f r e m a i n r e s p o n s i b l e to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c e n t r a l m i n i s t r i e s , t h a t is, t h e y m a y be h i r e d a n d p a i d b y th e c e n t r e . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y , h o w e v e r , t h e y a r e a c c o u n t a b l e fo r th e e f f i c i e n t p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e i r d u t i e s to the c h i e f e x e c u t i v e w h o a l s o h a s the p o w e r to c o n f i r m a n d r e n d e r r e p o r t s o n them. T h e F r e n c h p r e f e c t o r i a l s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t is u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d to be th e ’’c l a s s i c " c a s e of the i n t e g r a t e d form.
In a p r e f e c t o r i a l s y s t e m , s u c h as t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d b y N a p o l e o n , the n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t d i v i d e s the c o u n t r y i n t o a r e a s [ d e p a r t m e n t s ] a n d p l a c e s a P r e f e c t i n c h a r g e of each. T h e P r e f e c t r e p r e s e n t s the w h o l e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d a l l s p e c i a l i s e d f i e l d a g e n t s in the a r e a a r e u n d e r h i s s u p e r v i s i o n . T h e s e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or t h r o u g h a c e n t r a l a g e n c y i s s u e i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e P r e f e c t , w h o t h e n i n s t r u c t s h i s s p e c i a l i s e d s u b o r d i n a t e s , a f t e r a d a p t i n g h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s to th e c o n d i t i o n s of h i s are a . S i m i l a r l y , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u p w a r d to the m i n i s t r i e s f l o w t h r o u g h the p r e f e c t , .... [The p r e f e c t o r i a l s y s t e m ] h a s b e e n w i d e l y a d o p t e d in r e c e n t t i m e s a n d h a s b e e n th e d o m i n a n t p a t t e r n in c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( F e sl e r , 1 9 6 8 : 3 7 4 ) .
the c h i e f e x e c u t i v e ? " W h y s h o u l d " , as S m i t h (1967) a s k s , for e x a m p l e " t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a p p o i n t a g e n e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r to a p r o v i n c e w h e n m o s t c e n t r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t b y i n d i v i d u a l d e p a r t m e n t s a n d m i n i s t r i e s " ? A c c o r d i n g to S m i t h , th e a n s w e r is p a r t l y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d p a r t l y p o l i t i c a l :
It is s t i l l p o l i t i c a l l y e x p e d i e n t fo r s o m e c o u n t r i e s to m a i n t a i n a n o f f i c e w i t h g e n e r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for p e a c e , o r d e r a n d s t a b i l i t y in th e p r o v i n c e . T h e l o n g e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n s of h i s o f f i c e a n d th e f a c t tha t for m o s t p e o p l e t h a t o f f i c e is a l m o s t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m th e o r d i n a r y p e r s o n ’s c o n c e p t of " t h e G o v e r n m e n t " m e a n s t h a t t he P r e f e c t ( k n o w n as g o v e r n o r or c o m m i s s i o n e r in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ) m a y e n j o y g r e a t a u t h o r i t y , a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o w e r in h i s a r e a , d e s p i t e t h e a b s e n c e of l e g a l s u p r e m a c y . T h i s m a y be e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l for a n a t i o n a l e x e c u t i v e w i s h i n g to " d a m p e n d o w n " l o c a l p r o v i n c i a l l o y a l t i e s (Smi t h , 1 9 6 7 : 9 0 ) .
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n d i r e c t r u l e " p r e s c r i b e s g o v e r n m e n t b y the c o - o p e r a t i o n of i n d i g e n o u s p o l i t i c a l e l e m e n t s " (Smith, 1 9 6 7 : 8 5 ) or, a c c o r d i n g to L u g a r d , its p r i n c i p a l p r o m o t e r , the i d e a w a s to l e a v e the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n to " m a n a g e t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s , t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n r u l e r s , p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y to t h e i r d e g r e e of a d v a n c e m e n t , u n d e r the g u i d a n c e of B r i t i s h s t a f f a n d s u b j e c t to the l a w s a n d p o l i c y of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " ( q u o t e d in S m i t h , 1 9 6 7 : 8 5 ) . U s u a l l y , a n a m a l g a m a t i o n of a n u m b e r of N a t i v e A u t h o r i t i e s (1.2) w o u l d f o r m a d i s t r i c t w h i c h b e c a m e the f o c u s of B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e D i s t r i c t C o m m i s s i o n e r , as th e c h i e f g o v e r n m e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e at this leve l , w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for e x a m p l e , for the s u p e r v i s i o n of N a t i v e A u t h o r i t y f u n c t i o n s , t h e c o l l e c t i o n of taxes, m a g i s t e r i a l d u t i e s s u c h as h e a r i n g of a p p e a l s and, a b o v e all, e n s u r i n g p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y :
T h e i d e a (of e s t a b l i s h i n g n a t i v e c o u n c i l s ) w a s to c o n t a i n b u d d i n g t e r r i t o r i a l A f r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m . O n e w a y to d o t h i s w a s to f o r m a l i z e a n d l o c a l i z e the a r e n a of p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t i o n , b u t at t he s a m e t i m e to do so in a m a n n e r t h a t e n s u r e d the e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l of s u c h i n s t i t u t i o n s b y the r e g i m e (Oyugi, 1 9 8 3 : 1 1 2 ) .
B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s , as N i c u l e s c u o b s e r v e d , o f f e r e d " b o t h the c h e a p e s t a n d th e m o s t e f f i c i e n t s y s t e m .... at l e a s t as l o n g as w h a t w a s w a n t e d w a s p e a c e , o r d e r and, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , a h o l d i n g of th e f o r t " ( N i c u l e s c u e , 1 9 5 8 : 3 8 ) .
T o w a r d s the e n d of c o l o n i a l r u l e in A f r i c a , th e B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c h a n g e d its p o l i c y , f a v o u r i n g the a d v a n c e m e n t of d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n of l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t (Ola, 1 9 8 4 : 3 9 ; H y d e n , 1 9 8 3 : 8 8 ) . T h e s h i f t in p o l i c y w a s the r e s u l t of th e c o m i n g to p o w e r of a L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t in B r i t a i n w h o s e i d e a s w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y the F a b i a n s , a p h i l o s o p h i c a l g r o u p w i t h i n the g o v e r n i n g L a b o u r P a r t y . " T h e r e a l p o i n t , for the F a b i a n s , w h e t h e r in B r i t a i n or in th e c o l o n i e s , w a s t h a t g o o d or v e r y e f f i c i e n t g o v e r n m e n t w a s n o t to be p r e f e r r e d to s e l f -g o v e r n m e n t " (Ola, 1 9 8 4 : 3 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g to Ola , " t h i s v i e w of the F a b i a n S o c i e t y w a s to b e c o m e th e L a b o u r P a r t y ’s o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n " (p39). In a n i m p o r t a n t B r i t i s h L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t D i s p a t c h of 1947, the n e w C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y e l a b o r a t e d hi s g o v e r n m e n t ’s p o l i c y as f o l l o w s :
T e r r i t o r i e s s h o u l d be a d m i n i s t e r e d b y c o l o n i a l p o w e r s as a t r u s t fo r the N a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s .... a p r i m a r y o b j e c t of th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s h o u l d a l w a y s be to t r a i n the n a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s in e v e r y p o s s i b l e way, so t h a t t h e y m a y be a b l e in t h e s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e t i m e to g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s . ( q