LAYERED MANUFACTURING OF POLYMER
MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC) MATERIALS VIA
FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
NASUHA BIN SA’UDE
LAYERED MANUFACTURING OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC) MATERIALS VIA FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
NASUHA BIN SA’UDE
A thesis submitted in
Fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the Doctoral of Philosophy
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
DEDICATION
Assalamualaikum w.b.t
In the name of Allah, The Most Generous and The Most Merciful
Especially dedicated to my lovingly families, My father; Mr. Sa’ude Bin Nokek
My Mother; Madam Zaharah Binti Abdullah Special thanks to:
My Wife; Madam Nur Ezreen Binti Sanusi
My Sons; Mohammad Naufal Wafiq, Muhammad Nuqman Hakimi, Muhammad Darwisy Sanusi, Muhammad Khalis Thaqif and Muhammad Umar Irshad
My Daughters; Nur Damia Widad, Nur Kaisah Maisarah
My Brothers; Mr Mohd Yusof Bin Sa’ude, Mr. Mohd Isa Bin Sa’ude, Mr Jaafar Bin Sa’ude, Mr Mohd Saifulizam Bin Sa’ude, Mr Mohd Khairulnizam Bin Sa’ude and Mr
Mohd Hamiyuddin Bin Sa’ude.
My Sisters; Madam Norainon Binti Sa’ude, Madam Norisa Binti Sa’ude, Madam Norhayati Binti Sa’ude and Madam Noraini Binti Sa’ude.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Assalamualaikum w.b.t
In the name of Allah, The Most Generous and The Most Merciful
I would like to express my profound gratitude to the supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr Mustaffa Bin Ibrahim and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Halim Irwan Bin Ibrahim for their valuable support, encouragement, supervision and useful suggestion throughout this research work. Their moral support and continuous guidance enabled me to complete my work successfully.
Special thanks to my wife; Nur Ezreen Binti Sanusi, my daughters; Nur Damia Widad and Nur Kaisah Maisarah, my sons; Muhammad Naufal Wafiq, Muhammad Nuqman Hakimi, Muhammad Darwisy Sanusi, Muhammad Khalis Thaqif and Muhammad Umar Irshad for their support from early stage of my study until completed.
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini membentangkan tentang sifat-sifat mekanikal, Melt Flow Index (MFI) dan
Melt Flow Rate (MFR) filament ABS-Copper melalui mesin Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). Objektif utama kajian adalah untuk menyiasat dan menganalisis pengaruh nisbah campuran dan parameter proses polymer matrix composite (PMC)
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK v
CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 3
1.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3 Objectives 8
1.4 Scope of Study 9
1.5 Significant of Study 9
1.6 Organization of thesis 10
CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF MATERIALS IN ADDITIVE
MANUFACTURING 12
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2.1 Material in FDM 14
2.2.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) 14
2.2.3 Binder and Surfactant 16
2.2.3.1 Binder in Injection Molding 17
2.2.3.2 Binder in FDM 18
2.2.4 Polymer Matrix Composites in Injection Molding 19
2.2.4.1 Powder Loading (PL) of Feedstock 19
2.2.5 Polymer Matrix composites in FDM 20
2.3 Material Issues in Mixing 21
2.3.1 Mixing and Compounding 22
2.3.2 Melting and Thermal Degradation Temperature 22
2.3.3 Surface Tension 25
2.3.4 Melt Flow Index (MFI) 27
2.4. Layered Manufacturing (LM) by FDM Machine 28
2.4.1 FDM Parameter 28
2.4.2 PMC Simulation in FDM 29
2.4.3 Packing Fraction (PF) of Feedstock 30
2.4.4 PMC Filament Composition in Layered Manufacturing 33
2.5 Research Direction in FDM Process 38
2.6 Summary 38
CHAPTER 3 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ABS-COPPER
FILAMENT COMPOSITES FOR FUSED DEPOSITION
MODELING (FDM) PROCESS 40
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2.1 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) 43
3.2.2 Copper Powder 44
3.2.3 Binder and Surfactant 45
3.2.3.1 Thermal Degradation of Palm Stearin 46
3.2.3.2 Thermal Degradation of Calcium Stearate 47
3.3 Processing and Compounding a New ABS-Copper
Composites by Injection Machine for Mechanical
Properties Test 48
3.3.1 Compounding and Mixing Ratio of the PMC
Feedstock Material 48
3.3.2 Brabender Plastograph Mixer 53
3.3.3 Crusher Machine 55
3.3.4 Injected PMC Feedstock Material by Injection
Molding Machine 56
3.3.5 Extruder Wire Filament 57
3.3.6 Preparation of ABS-Copper Composite by Melt
Indexer Machine for Melt Flow Index (MFI) 58
3.4 Fabrication of Wire Filament 58
3.5 Type of Testing 60
3.5.1 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 60
3.5.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 60
3.5.3 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) 61
3.6 Morphological properties of ABS-Copper 62
3.6.1 Surface Tension 62
3.6.3 Density Test 64
3.6.4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 66
3.7 Mechanical Properties Test 67
3.8 Experimantal Setup of a New ABS-Copper
Filament Composites by FDM Machine 68
3.8.1 Machine Setup 68
3.8.2 Machine Parameter 68
3.8.3 Nozzle Tip Diameter 69
3.8.4 FDM Hardware 70
3.8.4.1 Circuit Board 71
3.8.5 Firmware Setup 73
3.9 Summary 74
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 75
4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Thermal Mechanical Properties 75
4.2.1 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 75
4.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Results 78
4.3 Morphological Properties of ABS-Copper 80
4.3.1 Surface Tension 80
4.3.2 Melt Flow Index (MFI) 82
4.3.3 Density Results 83
4.3.4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 86
4.4 Mechanical Properties Results 88
4.4.1 Flexural Strength Results 88
through FDM Machine 90
4.5.1 Extrusion ABS Filament with different size of
The Nozzle Diameter by FDM Machine 91
4.5.2 Extrusion ABS-Copper Filament with different
size of The Nozzle Diameter by FDM Machine 92
4.5.3 Comparison Result of Melt Flow Rate (MFR)
ABS and ABS-Copper Filament by FDM Machine 93
4.5.4 Part Fabrication of ABS-Copper Filament in
Layered Manufacturing 98
4.6 Summary 99
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 100
5.1 Introduction 100
5.2 Conclusion 100
5.3 Recommendation 102
REFERENCES 104
APPENDIX A 113
APPENDIX B 126
APPENDIX C 131
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 : The hardware in the FDM Machine Model Prusa I3 3
Figure 1.2 : The schematic of the FDM process 4
Figure 2.1 : The schematic diagram of The FDM filament 13
Figure 2.2 : The TGA curve shows the decomposition of ABS polymer 16
Figure 2.3 : The curve of the feedstock with 95 wt. % copper powder 17
Figure 2.4 : TGA curve for ABS terpolymer at a heating rate of 20 °C/min 24
Figure 2.5 : Dynamic mechanical properties of virgin ABS and 10%
iron-powder filled ABS 24
Figure 2.6 : Contact angle of a solid surface by a water 25
Figure 2.7 : Contact angle of a solid surface by a water 26
Figure 2.8 : Metal Surface Modification 27
Figure 2.9 : Melts Flow Indexer Machine 31
Figure 2.10 : Crystal structure Copper in Haxagonal close-packed (HCP) 29
Figure 3.1 : The research methodology flow chart for entire project study 41
Figure 3.2 : ABS Filament 43
Figure 3.3 : Copper Powder 45
Figure 3.4 : Grain particle size of copper powder 45
Figure 3.5 : The TGA curve shows the decomposition of palm stearin 47
Figure 3.6 : The degradation temperature of calcium stearate 47
Figure 3.7 : Brabender Plastograph Mixer 54
Figure 3.8 : (a) The feedstock material mix by Brabender Plastograph
Mixer, (b) Feedstock after crushed in a pallet form 54
Figure 3.9 : Crusher Machine 55
Figure 3.10 : Zone temperature in injection molding machine 56
Figure 3.12 : Single Screw Extruder Machine 59
Figure 3.13: Copper ABS Wire Filament by Single Screw Extruder
Machine 56
Figure 3.14 : Linseis Thermobalance Machine for TGA Test 62
Figure 3.15 : Surface tension measurement system 63
Figure 3.16 : The melt flow index machine 64
Figure 3.17 : Mettler toledo for density test 65
Figure 3.18 : Scanning Electron Microscope 66
Figure 3.19 : Flexural Strength Equipment 67
Figure 3.20 : ABS from Injection Molding 68
Figure 3.21 : Copper filled in ABS by Injection Molding 68
Figure 3.22 : Size of Nozzle in 0.4 mm and 0.6 mm in diameter 69
Figure 3.23 : 3D Printer Model Prusa I3 70
Figure 3.24 : 3D Printer System with Stainless Steel Extruder 71
Figure 3.25 : Arduino MEGA 2560 board 72
Figure 3.26 : RAMPS plugged into Arduino 72
Figure 3.27 : Firmware and Power Supply Connection 73
Figure 3.28 : Pronterface Software 73
Figure 4.1 : Dynamic Mechanical Properties of 20% copper powder
filled ABS 78
Figure 4.2 : Glass transition temperature (Tg) of pure ABS 79
Figure 4.3 : Glass transition temperature (Tg) of 70% copper filled in
30% ABS 80
Figure 4.4 : Melt flow index results in weight percentage (wt. %) of ABS,
Copper and Binder Material 85
Figure 4.5 : Density Results by Experimental 81
Figure 4.6 : Density Results by Formula and Experimental 86
Figure 4.7 : Wire filament of Copper-ABS for sample 8 86
Figure 4.8 : Consistency of 3 mm wire filament in diameter 87
Figure 4.10 : SEM Image of 3 mm wire filament in diameter 88
Figure 4.11 : Flexural Strength Results 90
Figure 4.12 : Length (mm) of ABS Filament by Different Nozzle
Diameter 91
Figure 4.13 : Velocity (mm/s) of ABS Filament by Different Nozzle
Diameter 92
Figure 4.14 : Length (mm) of ABS-Copper Filament by Different Nozzle
Diameter 93
Figure 4.15 : Velocity (mm/s) of ABS-Copper Filament by Different Nozzle
Diameter 94
Figure 4.16 : Length (mm) of ABS and ABS-Copper Filament by Different
Nozzle Diameter 95
Figure 4.17 : Velocity (mm/s) of ABS and ABS-Copper Filament by
Different Nozzle Diameter 96
Figure 4.18 : Comparison velocity of ABS and ABS-Copper filament based
on varieties feed rate value with different size of nozzle diameter 97
Figure 4.19 : Comparison velocity and length of ABS and ABS-Copper
filament based on varieties temperature value with different
size of nozzle diameter 98
Figure 4.20: The fabrication sample from ABS-Copper filament by FDM
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 : Value of critical network formation (Cp) of various systems 32
Table 2.2 : Value of packing fraction (PF) for various systems 33
Table 2.3 : Overall references from previous study 35
Table 3.1 : The Properties of ABS polymer material 43
Table 3.2 : Properties of Copper Powder 44
Table 3.3 : Properties of palm stearin material 46
Table 3.4 : Properties of calcium stearate material 46
Table 3.5 : Characteristic of compounding Copper, ABS and surfactant
material 48
Table 3.6 : Mixing ratio of Copper, ABS, Calcium Stearate and Palm
Stearin material by volume percentage (vol. %) 50
Table 3.7 : Mixing ratio of Copper, ABS, Calcium Stearate and Palm
Stearin Material by volume (cm³) 51
Table 3.8 : Mixing ratio of copper, ABS and calcium stearate material
by weight percentage (W %) 52
Table 3.9 : Mixing ratio of copper, ABS and calcium stearate material
by weight (gram) 52
Table 3.10 : Parameter Setting of Copper ABS Wire Filament by Single
Screw Extruder 60
Table 3.11 : Input Parameters for TGA 61
Table 4.1 : Storage Modulus and Tangent Delta of Composites with
20 % copper filled ABS 76
Table 4.2 : Storage Modulus and Tangent Delta of Composites with
30 % copper filled ABS 77
Table 4.4 : Surface Tension with Varieties Liquid 81
Table 4.5 : Critical Surface Tension of PMC Samples by Distiller Water 82
Table 4.6 : Melt Flow Index Test 82
Table 4.7 : Average result on density by experimental 84
Table 4.8 : Density of copper filled in abs composites 84
Table 4.9 : Flexural strength results on maximum stress and strain 89
Table 4.10 : Comparison length of ABS and ABS-Copper filament based
on varieties temperature and feed rate value with different
size of nozzle diameter 94
Table 4.11 : Comparison velocity of ABS and ABS-Copper filament
based on varieties temperature and feed rate value with
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION
LM Layered Manufacturing
AM Additive Manufacturing
RP Rapid Prototyping
ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
PS Palm Stearin
PP Polypropylene
PMMA Poly-Methyl Methacrylate
EEA Ethylene Ethyl Acrylate
EVA Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
PW Parafin Wax
CW Carnauba Wax
BW Bees Wax
OB Organic Binder
SA Stearic Acid
PEG Polyethylene Glycol
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
PE Polyethhlene
PLA Polylactide
PA Polyamide
SAN styrene acrylonitrile copolymer
SFF Solid Freeform Fabrication
TGA Thermogravimetric Analysis
DMA Dynamic mechanical Analysis
2D Two Dimensional
MIM Metal Injection Molding
3DP Three Dimensional Printing
FF Freeform Fabrication
FDM Fused Deposition Modeling
FDC Fused Deposition Ceramic
FDMet Fused Deposition Metals
PMC Polymer Matrix Composite
MMC Metal Matrix Composite
CMC Ceramic Matrix Composite
RDPC Rapid Deposition Polymer Composite
CAD Computer Aided Design
SLA Stereolithography
SLS Selective Laser Sintering
LOM Laminated Object Manufacturing
MFI Melt Flow Index
MFR Melt Flow Rate
LMT Layer Manufacturing Technology
ECG Electro Ceramic Group
PL Powder Loading
SS Stainless Steel
IPA Isopropyl alcohol
MMA Methyl-methacrylate
MO Mineral Oil
AT Acetone
DMSO Dimethyl Sulfoxide
EG Ethylene Glycol
GR Glycerol
DW Distilled Water
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
Φ Contact Angle
g/10 min Gram per 10 minutes
W/g Weight per Gram
g/cm3 Gram per Centimeter Cube mm/s Milimeter per Seconds
°C Celcius
% Percentage
vol. Volume
wt. Weight
kg Kilogram
g gram
L Length
d density
t Time
V Extruded Volume
δ Viscoelastic
𝜃 Wettable
GPa Gega Pascal
MPa Mega Pascal
Tg Glass Transition Temperature
cm Centimeter
mm Milimeter
N Newton
E’ Storage Modulus
E’’ Loss Modulus
E* Complex Modulus
Ф Contact angle
𝛾𝑔𝑠 Gas/solid interfacial tension
𝛾𝑙𝑠 Liquid/solid interfacial tension
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 Number of atoms
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 Volume of an atom
𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Volume Unit Cell
𝑃𝑐 Critical loading of network formation
𝐶𝑝 Random dispersion of spheres
Z Maximum number of possible contact
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Layered manufacturing (LM) or additive manufacturing (AM) technologies is an evolution of rapid prototyping (RP) techniques, where a part is built in a layered process on the heated platform. AM is defined by the American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) as the process of joining materials to make object from 3D model data in a layer by a layer process (Noort, 2012). There are several names used for LM such as solid freeform fabrication (SFF), additive fabrication (AF), rapid prototyping (RP), rapid manufacturing, 3D-printing (3DP) and freeform fabrication (FF) (Petrovic et al., 2011). The first patterns in plastic AM were proposed by Ross Housholder since in 1981 and assigned to DTM Corporation (Goa et al., 2015). Rapid LM technology growth on the laser source on liquid melts was develop by Charles Hull since 1984 to 1986. The invention of LM technology is capable to transform the imagination or idea into the reality product without involving with re-tooling and the printed parts will be customized without additional cost (Campbell et al., 2011a).
Currently, others available technologies in part fabrication or manufacturing process involving with high cost of tooling, mold making some of those technology is required the secondary process in finished part such as machining, injection molding, casting, forming and extrusion processes. All those technologies are “subtractive” techniques and each process involving with removing material and
waste material was occur during fabrication process (Campbell et al., 2012b). Any changes on the design required more cost on tooling, mold modification and the wasted material will be increased extremely (Boothroid et al., 2002).
proportionally with high production rate without additional cost and worker. The equipment is becoming competitive with traditional manufacturing techniques in terms of price, speed, reliability, and cost of use (Kochan et al., 1999, Noort, 2012).
Among of AM technologies is the fused deposition modeling (FDM) have been able to deposit only thermoplastic filament in a layer by a layer process as long as the material can be made in filament wire. The filaments or wire from spool will flow through the heated liquefied head and nozzle and the melt material will deposited on the FDM heated platform or bed. These technology was developed by S. Scott Crump since 1980s and it was commercialized in early 1990 (Noort, 2012).
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and others related printing technology in layered manufacturing could be used in direct PMC part fabrication and rapid manufacturing process. These technologies will offer a possibility combination of varieties material from ceramic and metallic material for continues improvement on internal structure, mechanical and thermal properties, as long as the material in a filament wire. Continued growth on a new PMC filament will enhance the mechanical properties, smoothest material flow on conductive and functional graded material deposition on the printed platform through the heated liquefied head and nozzle tips in layered manufacturing processes. Noort (2012), was mentioned that, the available material and the transition from prototypes to functional devices will begin to play a much bigger role.
1.1 Background of Study
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a technique in manufacturing in which a solid physical model of a part is made directly from a three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) file. There are several RP techniques are available. Some of the most common RP techniques include Stereolithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), 3-D Printing and Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) (Campbell et al., 2012b). FDM is the RP technique used in this study. FDM, a solid-based RP technique, is commercialized by Stratasys Inc. and an extrusion-based layered manufacturing process in which semi-solid thermoplastic polymers gets deposited on a platform through a nozzle fitted into a heated liquefier controlled in X and Y directions.
[image:23.595.148.502.536.723.2]The hardware in the FDM machine Model Prusa I3 is represented in Figure 1.1. At the early stage the filament wire will be fitted and drived from the spool by stepper motor in the FDM heated head. The filament will flow through the heated nozzle and with controlled by outsource software to transform the solid filament in to a semi-molten state during deposition process on the heated platform. The head is then moved around in the X-Y plane and deposits material according to the part requirements from the STL file. The head is then moved vertically in the Z plane to begin depositing a new layer when the previous one is completed. After a period of time, usually several hours, the head will have deposited a full physical representation of the original CAD file.
Figure 1.1 The hardware in the FDM machine Model Prusa I3 Heated Head
Stepper Motor Filament
Nozzle Tips
Among the parameters in FDM are included of traveling table speed, feed rate of X-Y axis, melt temperature, platform temperature and material melt flow rate. Commercially available materials for FDM include wax, ABS and nylon (Mostafa et al., 2009a, Mostafa et al., 2011b). Therefore, the quality of part fabrication is controlled by outsource software, software parameters of layered process, extrusion rate and the nozzle temperature and feeding speed of filament in FDM machine. The schematic of the FDM process is shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 The schematic of the FDM process (Sidambe,2014)
a temporary vehicle for homogeneously packing a powder into desired shape and holding the particles in that shape until the beginning of debinding and sintering method (Omar et al., 2010).
1.2 Problem Statement
Customer needs and requirement of the product customization and continued demand for low cost product and time savings have been generated a renewed interest in AM technology. The Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) has been identified as the focus of this research because of its potential versatility in the choice of materials and deposition configuration. This innovative approach allows for designing and implementing highly complex internal architectures into parts through deposition of different materials in a variety of configurations in such a way that the finished product meet the performance requirements. This implies that, in principle, one can tailor-make the assembly of materials and structures as per specifications of an optimum design.
Development of a new filament material in AM especially using FDM will be apply in several industries with low volume product with minimum of cost. The development cost of automotive, internal functionality part in aerospace and 3D medical imaging can be converted in solid objects (Campbell et al., 2012b). There are five (5) major issues in this research which are (1) The mixing or compounding (2) The feedstock preparation (3) The injected specimen via injection molding (4) The fabrication filament via extruder machine (5) Layered Manufacturing of Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) via FDM machine
be lower than the binder degradation temperature. Masood et al., (2004b) was mentioned that, the homogenous mix of iron filler into ABS polymer with the metal particle size of 200 µm to 500 µm approximately using the tumble mixer in 2 hour.
Secondly, the feedstock compounding ratio of varieties material such as the matrix material, conductive filler, binder and surfactant will provide a continuous linkages and effective concentration for conductive composite material in continuous network (Sancaktar, 2011). The continuous linkage of varieties compounding material will provide a good inter connection between matrix and filler material in order to maintain the conductive portion in filament fabrication with good flexibility, stiffness, and viscosity. A similarly observation was done by Qu et al., (2003), where the conductivity of carbon fibre filler dramatically increase around 8 % to 10 % by volume percentage. Therefore the selection of compounding ratio will be effected on the filament viscosity and conductive potion in PMC feedstock material.
Thirdly, due to a varieties compounding and viscosity on the feedstock material used in the injection molding machine, the material was burned inside the barrel screw and compounding material of the certain ratio could not be processed at identical settings. The suitable selection parameter on the temperature and pressure are most important criteria and must take as a main consideration in order to achieve a good viscosity and flowability. In the injection molding process consists of four zones of temperature and with different temperature setting will affect the mechanical properties of the specimen fabrication. Unsuitable melt temperature zone in injection machine will creates a stacking problems on mold and it’s involve with melts flow rate of a new PMC material. In order to minimize the melt issues and stacking at the screw, the barrel temperature was started from low to high temperature. The injected specimen was used for flexural strength, melt flow index, surface tension and density using the injection molding machine.
filament in layered process (Mostaffa et al., 2009a and Mostaffa et al., 2011b). The properties of the mixed feedstock filament meet the flexibility, stiffness, and viscosity required for successful FDM processing (Masood, 2005). An important criteria in the filament fabrication is homogenous mixing and bonding material. The distribution of metal filled in polymer matrix shall be constant and these will be effected on the conductive portion with constant viscosity in the fabrication filament. The highly metal material filled in matrix material will provide a brittle material and it’s difficult to produce the filament in wire form. In order to minimize the brittles material, some of binder and surfactant will be added in matrix material for smooth material flow in the fabrication filament (Masood, 1996, Wu et al., 2002, Masood and Song, 2005, Mostaffa et al., 2009a, Mostaffa et. al., 2011).
Finally, the major limitation of AM are speed, accuracy, nonlinearity (resolution XYZ axes and wall thickness), material properties and system cost (Campbell et al., 2012b). A significant issue in the layered manufacturing is the feed rate and melt temperature of composite wire filament in layered process on FDM platform. Due to the highly metal filled in polymer matrix, will be effected on the feed rate of the composite filament during melt flow extrusion by FDM machine (Wu et al., 2002, Masood and Song, 2005, Mostaffa et al., 2011). An important parameters involve in layered manufacturing process, which are the filament grips, gap between nozzle tips and platform, constant the feed rate of filament flow, constant travelling feed rate and constant temperature on FDM platform during PMC deposition. Those parameters was effected the printing consistency in a layer by a layer process for especially for a new PMC filament material in FDM machine.
The intention of this study is to fabricate the composite filament with copper filled in ABS polymer by single extruder machine and deposited via layered manufacturing processes by FDM machine. An investigation of optimum composition will be explored on the mixing ratio of constituent material by the Brabender mixer machine. A suitable binder and surfactant material has been added as lubricant agent for smoothest melt flow of composites materials in wire filament form for used in FDM machine in layered manufacturing process. In order to accomplish a homogeneous mixing, the compounding procedure, methods, mixing ratio and time shall be followed in wire filament fabrication to ensure the constant diameter in 3 mm approximately.
1.3 Objectives
Generally, the main objectives of this study are to evaluate the PMC filament wire material by FDM machine and the influences of the process parameters on mechanical properties, surface tension, melt flow index (MFI) and melt flow rate (MFR). Detail objectives that have to be fulfilled, which are;
i) To investigate and analyze the effect of Copper filled in ABS matrix material on the mechanical properties, melt flow index, surface tension and density.
ii) To fabricate ABS-Copper specimen by the injection molding machine and tested on the flexural strength.
iii) To fabricate a new ABS-Copper filament wire with 3 mm in diameter using single screw extruder machine.
iv) To analyze the effect parameters (melts temperature and feed rate) of ABS-Copper filament in the melts extrusion by FDM machine. v) To apply and deposited a new ABS-Copper filament material on in a
layer by a layer process by FDM machine.
1.4 Scope of Study
i) Material preparation and the compounding of an ABS-Copper filament with suitable melting temperature, screw speed, mixing time by the Brabender plastograph mixer (Model: W50).
ii) The fabrication of ABS-Copper specimens(Flexural Strength) with various melting temperature, pressure, fives (5) zone temperature (Feeding, Rear 2, Rear 1, Middle, Nozzle) and cooling times using injection moulding machine (Model:NP7-1F)
iii) Development a new ABS-Copper filament wire (diameter: 2.00 mm ~ 3.00 mm) with different melting temperature (feeding, middle, front, die) by the single extruder machine (Model: Y100).
iv) Extrusion of a new ABS-Copper filament (diameter: 3 mm) on the melts analysis through the FDM heated liquefied head.
v) The fabrication of sample on layered manufacturing of ABS-Copper filament in a layer by a layer process by the FDM machine.
vi) Type of the Specimen Testing: Flexural strength (ASTM D790), surface tension, melt flow index (MFI), melt flow rate (MFR).
1.5 Significant of Study
In this dissertation, research reported has focused on the development of a new PMC filament material and performance in the thermal, mechanical, dynamic and morphological properties. The PMC filament has been applied and deposited in the FDM machine platform via additive manufacturing process and the details are ;
The thesis writing was focused on PMC filament fabrication for FDM machine. i) Material characteristic and development, degradation of a new PMC
filament, mixing and compounding process through experimental testing. ii) Development a good flowability PMC filament through the melt flow indexer machine and deposit PMC filament on the FDM machine platform through the heated liquefied head.
i) Guideline on the development of a new PMC filament by single screw extruder machine, the performance material on MFI, thermal and mechanical properties with a good flowability in the layered process. ii) Obtained the best melt flow rate (MFR), velocity and feed rate of highly
filled metal in polymer composites filament in additive manufacturing process.
The deposition of a new PMC filament in a layer by a layer process was successfully done and achieved to enhance the material performance, with a good material performance on flowability, MFI, velocity, density, thermal and mechanical properties especially with highly metal filled in ABS matrix in FDM machine. Moreover, a new PMC for FDM filament was successfully develop as an alternative PMC filament material in additive manufacturing process.
1.6 Organization of Thesis
In this section has contribute the detail contents of thesis writing on five (5) chapter. In chapter 1 presents the introduction of the additive manufacturing process, problem statement, objectives, scopes and significant of study.
In chapter 2 presents an overview of materials and process in additive manufacturing, materials issues in the mixing and compounding, melting and thermal degradation temperature. Furthermore, the finding data from previous researcher on the FDM parameters, powder loading of feedstock, polymer matrix composites (PMC) simulation in FDM, packing fraction of feedstock, PMC filament composition in layered manufacturing and research direction.
In chapter 3 presents the development of a new abs-copper filament composites for FDM process, selection of material, processing and compounding a new abs-copper composites, FDM filament fabrication, type of testing, morphological properties and experimental setup.
CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW OF MATERIALS IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
2.1 Introduction
Layer Manufacturing Technology (LMT) or Additive Manufacturing (AM), is based on the principle of adding material in two dimensional (2D) layers to build a complete 3D-model. In the early 1990s, Kruth (1991) was categorized AM in three (3) types material which is liquid based, powder based and solid based material with different types of technology on melts material either drop on demand binder in powder based, laser tracer on liquid based and heated liquefied head by solid based material (Goa et al., 2015). There are several names of layer manufacturing such as Rapid prototyping (RP), 3D-printing, solid freeform fabrication (SFF), freeform fabrication (FF) and additive manufacturing.
Traditionally, the LM systems have been able to fabricate parts either from the solid, liquids or powder material. Currently, Each AM process involved with either plastic, wax, metal, metal matrix composite (MMC), polymer matrix composite (PMC) and ceramic matrix composite (CMC) material. Material plays an important factor to produce an economic part or component by AM processes. The application of composites material in AM are mainly for the inter discipline area in optical, electronic and those area not yet been extensively explore and investigated (Kumar & Kruth, 2010). Among the AM process is the fused deposition modeling (FDM) process, which is involved with plastic filament wire or feedstock wire form, and the fabrication wire is from the extrusion machine. The process involves layer-by layer deposition of extruded material through a liquefied nozzle using feedstock filaments from a spool.
research was focused on layered manufacturing of metal filled in polymer matrix material in FDM filament wire form. However, varieties material used in AM such as polymer, reinforced polymer, wood, ceramic, composite, bio material and sustainable material, but it beyond our research direction and therefore some finding was not reviewed in this chapter.
2.2 Overview of AM Process
[image:33.595.216.410.491.675.2]AM technology is a new technique for part fabrication in layers by a layer process (Petrovic et al., 2011). Normally, previous RP applications focused on build a final product for fitting and testing. Customer needs for the end used product and continued demand for low-cost and time saving have generated a renewed interest in AM. A shift from prototyping to manufacturing of the final product will give an alternative selection with different material choice, low cost part fabrication and achieving the necessary mechanical properties (Ning et al., 2015). One of the RP technologies available today is Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), which involves extrusion of plastic filament wire as feedstock material (Dudek, 2013). Existing FDM machine have been able to deposit only thermoplastic filament through the heated liquefied nozzle (Masood, 1996). Figure 2.1 shows the schematic diagram of the FDM filament through heated liquefied nozzle.
2.2.1 Material in FDM
The fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique is one of the most widely used rapid prototyping (RP) systems in the part fabrications. The main reasons behind the RP selection are a simple fabrication process, reliability, safe and low cost of material, and the availability of variety's thermoplastics material (Petrovic et al., 2011). Varieties types of materials are compatible in FDM machine such as metal, ceramic and composites for the part fabrication in a layer by a layer process as long as the material can be solidified and extruded. Normally, this filament will drive by the FDM machine spool and flow through the heated liquefied head and solidified. The material were heated from solid stage to semi solid stage and the material were solidified during deposition process in a layer by a layer process.
2.2.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is one of the most successful engineering thermoplastics material with high performance in the engineering application. These material are widely used in the automotive industry, telecommunication, business machines and consumer markets. It consists of styrene acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN) mixed with and to some extent grafted to polybutadiene rubber (Boldizer & Moller, 2003). ABS has a desirable properties which is good mechanical properties, chemical resistance and easy processing characteristic (Wang et al., 2002).
An ABS has a good mechanical properties and fluidity, desirable flexibility and stiffness (Mostafa et al., 2009a and Mostafa et al., 2011b). Furthermore, ABS is a commercial material with a good mechanical properties, chemical resistance, good processing characteristics and low cost material approximately (Owen & Harper 1999, Salamone, 1999 and Dong et al., 2001). A similarly mentioned by Qu et al. (2003), where the characteristic of ABS polymer is high electrical resistance and as act an insulator in more engineering application.
Ma et al., 2007, Jin et al., 2009, Sood et al., 2009, Mostaffa et al., 2009a, Mostaffa et al., 2011b, Arivazhagan et al., 2012
Masood & Song, 2005 has successfully produced a new filament with a strong, flexible feedstock filament material for rapid tooling application. The flexible feedstock filament has been used for producing the functional parts and tooling by the FDM machine. Zhong et al., (2001) has been done to study the ABS filament material on the softening point of ABS of 100 ̊C approximately, which accomplish the heat resistant requirement in the FDM deposition process. The ABS polymer begin to flow at 200 ̊C and decomposition temperature at 250 ̊C approximately. Meaning, that the
heated temperature must not beyond that temperature in order to prevent the decomposition material.
The mechanical properties of thermoplastic polymer material are significantly affected by the molecular orientation between ABS filaments (Rodriguez et al., 2001). The orientation in extruded ABS depends on the extrusion temperature and extrusion rate. Meaning that, an important criteria of ABS filament material used for deposition process depends on the melt temperature and deposition feed rate in a layer by a layer process.
Figure 2.2 The TGA curve shows the decomposition of ABS polymer (Ma et al., 2007)
2.2.3 Binder or Surfactant
Binder and surfactant material is used as a lubricant and release agent in the polymer matrix composites material. Binder will be acts as temporary vehicle for homogeneous packing a powder in desired shape (Omar et. al., 2010). The binder composition of palm stearin of 50 % to 80 % and polyethylene of 20 % to 50 % in weight percentage Furthermore, the binder system with palm stearin will gave better rheological properties, bio natural source and environmental friendly in MIM (Subuki, et al., 2005 and Omar et al., 2010). One of the main consideration in the binder selection are an easier to find the material with good material characteristic and rheological properties. Omar et al., (2010) was mentioned that, the bio-polymer like a palm stearin binder gave a natural source, environmental friendly and better rheological properties. Meaning that the some of the natural source binder will gave a good followability when added into polymer matrix.
concentration. Surfactant also reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquids-gas interface.
[image:37.595.122.528.274.548.2]Moballegh et al., (2005) was mentioned that the thermal degradation properties of paraffin wax and polyethylene are degrading from 170 °C to 350 °C and 350 °C to 500 °C respectively where the feedstock content with 95 wt. % copper powder. The binder degradation starts at 171 °C and in order to prevent the binder degradation, the processing temperature of mixing and injected part in injection molding must be lower than the degradation temperature. Figure 2.3 shown the degradation temperature of paraffin wax and polyethylene binder.
Figure 2.3 TGA Curve of the feedstock with 95 wt. % copper powder (Moballegh et al., 2005)
2.2.3.1 Binder in Injection Molding
weight percentage of polyethylene binder in injection molding gave better results for flow behavior and viscosity Moballegh et al., 2005).
Li et al., (2007) and Huang et al., (2003) studied the rheology of several Fe-Ni based wax/polymers feedstock with binders contained paraffin wax, EVA, HDPE and PP. The binder composition in weight percentage of paraffin wax 65 %, poly ethylene vinyl acetate 30 % and stearic acid 5 % in metal injection molding process. Binders containing PW/EVA, PW/HDPE, PW/PP and PW/HDPE/PP wt % were prepared and tested in the capillary rheometer. The results indicate that PW/PP binder was useless because of binder separation in the capillary flow. On the other hand, the binder based on PW/HDPE/PP showed the best flow behavior having the lowest shear sensitivity and the lowest activation energy in flow.
Ma et al., (2007) was investigated the mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy loaded with metal, ceramic or mineral salt powder. Aluminum, alumina, silicon nitride and calcium sulphate dehydrate powder were selected as epoxy based composites in weight %, which is 10 %, 20 %, 30 % and 40 %. Resin and hardener material was a diglycidyl ether polymer and hardener aliphatic and cycloaliphatic polyamine. The standard type of hardness is ASTM D2240-97 with specimen size Ø16 mm, height 6.4mm, the compression is ASTM D695-96 with specimen size 12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 25.4 mm, the thermal expension is ASTM E831-93 with specimen size Ø5 mm and height 6 mm, wear rate ASTM G99-95a with specimen size Ø30 mm and height 8 mm.
2.2.3.2 Binder in FDM
2.2.4 Polymer Matrix Composites in Injection Molding
Various kinds of metal material used in injection molding process such as nickel by Huang et al. (2003), alloys by Tseng & Tanaka (2001), Hartwig et al. (1998), copper by Moballegh et al. (2005), iron by Gungor (2007), Huang et al. (2003), Ahn et al. (2009) and Lam et al. (2003), stainless steel by Omar et al. (2010), Amin et al. (2009), Ibrahim et al. (2009), Ahn et al. (2009), Hartwig et al. (1998) and Li et al. (2007), titanium by Hartwig et al., (1998).
In the present work, the most common composites material used in injection moulding are basalt-LDPE Akinci (2009), iron-HDPE Gungor (2007), Ahn et al. (2009), iron, nickel-HDPE Huang et al. (2003), zirconia-PE Merz et al. (2002), copper-PE Moballegh et al. (2005), stainless steel-PE Omar et al. (2010); Ahn et al. (2009), stainless steel-PEG, PMMA Amin et al. (2009), Ibrahim et al. (2009), iron-PP, EVA Ahn et al. (2009) and stainless steel-EVA Li et al. (2007).
The selection compounding of stainless steel powder in injection molding by volume percentage is 65 % by Omar et al., (2010), 62 % to 64 % by Yulis et al., (2008), 60 % to 72 % by Li et al., (2007), 61.5 % to 62.5 % by Ibrahim et al., (2009). Solid loading of stainless steel and iron powder in injection molding of 50 % to 64 % in volume percentage by Ahn et al., (2009). Huang et al., (2003) was used 58 % volume percentage of iron and nickel powder in metal injection molding process. A similar finding was obtained by Merz et al., (2002), where the best compounding zirconia powder in the injection molding of 50 % to 60 % by volume percentage with average particle size 100 µm to 500 µm. Akinci (2009) was used 10 5 to 70 % in weight percentage of basalt filler by injection molding process for mechanical properties test of composites material.
2.2.4.1 Powder Loading (PL) of Feedstock
al., (2005) concluded that the increasing of copper powder loading to significantly increase the viscosity. The feedstock with 66.2 vol. % or 95 wt. % powder loading, which has suitable viscosity and higher powder loading is prepared. The mixing and injection molding temperatures must be lower in order to maintain binder degradation where by binder degradation starts at 171 °C.
Several researchers were investigated the rheological properties of stainless steel powder with binder contained polyethelene glycol (PEG), polymethyl methacrilate (PMMA), stearic acid (SA) by variation of powder loading concentration. The results indicate that 61.5 % powder loading gives the highest rheological index with the lowest viscosity, easier flowability and low value of a flow behavior exponent Ibrahim et al. (2009).
Gungor (2207) studied the mechanical properties of Fe powder fillers in the HDPE polymer matrix based on vol. % (5, 10, 15vol. %). They concluded that an additional 5 vol. % of Fe was reduced the impact strength of HDPE 40% and reduced 90% of elongation respectively. When vol. % Fe increase 10 and 15 vol. %, the impact strength and % elongation values decrease proportionally. Additional 5 vol. % Fe composite in HDPE, the modulus of elasticity was 31% higher than unfilled HDPE.
2.2.5 Polymer Matrix Composites in FDM
Currently, the most common composites' material used in layer by layer deposition and FDM process deposition are HDPE-steatite ceramic by Karatas et al. (2004), ABS-Iron Mostafa et al. (2009a), Mostafa et al. (2011b), Masood & Song (2004a), Masood & Song (2005b), fibre glass Diegel et al. (2010). The compounding ratio of iron and copper powder in the filament wire fabrication are from 5% to 40 % by volume percentage (Mostaffa et al., 2011b) and 30 % to 40 % by volume percentage (Masood et al., 2004a). Mostafa et al., (2009a) was mentioned that, due to the high metal powder loading in the polymer matrix will increase the viscosity of composites and dispersion of filament wire become worse.
vacuum to minimize the oxidation. Mireles et al., (2012), has been noticed that, alloys have a possibility to oxidize during the build process and the environment needs to be controlled in order to minimize the oxidation. Copper remain as commercial metal in engineering with excellent electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, outstanding resistance to corrosion, easy on fabrication, good strength and fatigue resistance (Devis, 2001).
Some researcher was investigated the reproducibility and accuracy of compounded stainless steel, electro ceramic group (ECG2) binder and stearic acid using fused deposition of the metal (FDMet) process (Wu et al., 2002). The QuickSlice 2.0 software was used to create the tool path and control the material deposition rate and liquefied x-y position. Basic parameters are consisted of main flow, preflow, start distance, start delay, shutoff distance, speed, acceleration and roll back. Fine metal powders are preferred for eliminate the nozzle clog and a spherical powder with average particle size 22µm. The stearic acid (SA) was selected as a surfactant to reduce the inter-particle forces and to lubricate the powder. The 58 vol.% SS17-4 powder compounded with 10% ,20%, 30% and 40% ECG2, 2 hour mixing time. The extrusion temperature was 80-100, 1.78 mm nozzle size, 1 hour holding time and extrusion speed 1mm/min during filament fabrication.
2.3 Material Issues in Mixing
2.3.1 Mixing and Compounding
Wu et al., 2002, have investigated the development of stainless steel-ECG2 ceramic composite for time and cost saving using Fused Deposition Ceramic (FDC). It was mentioned that, the compounding is a very critical process to provide homogenous powder polymer mixture of stainless steel filament. The fabrication of ABS-Iron filament wire for FDM machine has been done by Masood (1996); Masood and Song (2005) and Mostafa et al. (2009a) and Mostafa et al. (2011b), with proper formulation and mixing processes. They mentioned that, a very small percentage by weight of a plasticizer and surfactant material was added in the ABS polymer matrix to improve the flow and dispersion material and both material to act as a lubricant for reducing intermolecular or friction between molecules polymer.
Furthermore, Mostafa et al. (2011b) have investigated the thermo mechanical properties of a highly filled polymeric composites for FDM. The selection of metal filler are 5%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% in volume percentage (vol. %). The metal filler particles size is 45 µm with 99.7 % in metal purity. It was mentioned that, the coated surfactant powder on the metal particles will reduces the high free energy surfaces of the metal filler with lower interfacial tension between composite particles in the melting stage.
2.3.2 Melting and Thermal Degradation Temperature
The physical and chemical of polymeric materials will be changes when heat is applied during the compounding or mixing process in manufacturing processes. Thermal degradation can present an upper limit to the service temperature of plastics as much as the possibility of mechanical property loss. Thermal degradation is “a process of the action or elevated temperature on a material, product or assembly causes a loss physical, mechanical or electrical properties (Beyler & Hirschler, 2002).
The degradation temperature is an important criteria for finalize the weight loss at early stage in the compounding process when the materials involve with heat. The best selection temperature is to ensure the material will sustain the mechanical and chemical properties in the compounding process without vaporize.
atmosphere. Measurements are used primarily to determine the composition of materials and to predict their thermal stability at temperatures up to 1000 °C with a scanning rate of 10 °C/min. The technique can characterize materials that exhibit weight loss or gain due to decomposition, oxidation, or degradation. The TGA curve for the degradation of ABS begins at 360 °C and the heating rate of 20 °C/min (Suzuki et al., 1994), 340 °C for heating rate 10 °C/min (Wang et. al. , 2002), 450 °C for heating rate 10 °C/min (Brebu et al., 2004). Figure 2.4 shows the TGA curve for ABS terpolymer at a heating rate of 20 °C/min.
Figure 2.4 TGA curve for ABS terpolymer at a heating rate of 20 °C/min (Suzuki & Wilkie, 1994)
Figure 2.5 Dynamic mechanical properties of virgin ABS and 10% iron-powder filled ABS (Mostafa et al., 2011b)
Dynamic mechanical Analysis (DMA) is a technique used to measure the mechanical properties of an elastic, inelastic and viscous material. Normally, DMA works in the linear viscoelastic range, and it is more sensitive to structure. In dynamic mechanical test, the material stiffness and the loss modulus was measured. The
Storage M
odulu
s
(MPa) Loss Mo
dulus (
MPa)
118.93 °C 126
_____ 10% filled ABS
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