UNIT 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
Introduction:
This unit introduces you to the concept of education and meaning of education in general. A number of scholars are mentioned without many details about them. It will be your personal interest to investigate further about them.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to: Define the term education.
Discuss the concepts in used in education Illustrate different types of education.
1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION
The word education has its origin in a Latin word ‘educatio’ of which in turn has been derived from the verb „educare‟, which means, „to bring up‟, bringing up of rearing of children or animals. It may also mean educere that means to lead out of ignorance.
Education has been defined in different ways by different scholars:
J. S Farrant defines education as „total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained and skill developed‟. R. S Peters defines education as „something worthwhile is being or has been internationally transmitted in morally accepted manner.‟ He goes on to say education is a „process, which provides man and woman with skills necessary for them to take place in society and seek further knowledge, R. S Peters further defines education as „initiation‟ because it prepares children for social life.
Schuffler defines education as: „a process of developing and transmission of knowledge.
Education is society‟s cultural reproductive system. It helps society reproduce itself by passing its main characteristics to the next generation. Education keeps society alive.
You will find that in each society the education system is influenced by political, economic and social belief of that particular society.
As we have discussed the definition of education, it will be necessary at this point to look at different educationists‟ definitions.
Pestalozzi- „Education is a natural harmonious and progressive development of man‟s innate powers‟
David Whitehead- „Education is life in all its manifestations.‟
John Dewey- „Education is a process of living though a continuous reconstruction of experience.
Ross James- „the influence of a person who holds a vital belief brought to bear on another person with the object of making him also to hold that belief‟.
1.2 EDUCATION
Education may also be looked as concept that might mean; i. A system or institution for example a school
ii. It could also refer to the curriculum or content (Approved body of knowledge for teaching).
iii. Another meaning of education could be that of an activity by the adults upon the young to make them ready for social life (socialization).
iv. Another school of thought describes education as a process of providing people with information about an important spectrum/ topic/ body of knowledge or themes.
v. Education can be described as a universal practice engaged by societies at all levels of development. It is leading out in new knowledge and experience. vi. Other scholars like Farrant describe education as a tool used to explain the
total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained, skills and competences developed.
TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT 1 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 1 Introduction: 1 1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION 1 1.2 EDUCATION 2 TABLE OF CONTENT 3 1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION 71.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION 8
1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION 9
UNIT 2 11
2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL EDUCATION 11
Introduction: 11
2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 13 2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 13 2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION 15 2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 15 2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING 15 2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION 16 2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING 16
2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING 16
2.7 FORMAL LEARNING 16
2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 16 2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 17 2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION 18 2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION 18
SUMMARY 19 ACTIVITY 19 UNIT 3 20 3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924 20 3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION 20 Introduction: 20
3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 21 3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA? 21 3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890 22
3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL 22
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 22 3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 23 3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND EDUCATION-1890-1924
23 3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924) 24 3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL 25 3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANY‟S NON PROVISION OF
EDUCATION 25
3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924 26 3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were: 26 3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference: 26 3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS CONTRAVERSIAL
PART 27
3.6.1 2nd General Missionary Conference of 1919 28 3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922 28
SUMMARY 29
UNIT 4 31
3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA 1931-1953 31
Introduction: 31
4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL AFRICA/NORTHERN
RHODESIA-1925 32
4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923 34 4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION 34 4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were: 35 4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS 35 4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF
EDUCATION 35
4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS 38 4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-1925-1931 38 4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925 39
ACTIVITIY 40
4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT 40
SUMMARY 41
5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963 42
Introduction: 42
5.1EDUCATION 42
5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961 43 5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED 44
5.2.2 TARGETS SET 44
5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS 45
5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD)
STRATEGY 45
SUMMARY 47
ACTIVITY 47
UNIT 6 48
6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 48
Introduction: 48 6.1 POLICY 48 6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964 49 6.3 CHALLENGES 49 6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS 50 6.5 TYPES OF SCHOOLS 50
6.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING 50 6.7 BEFORE INDEPENDENCE 51 6.8 AFTER INDEPENDENCE 51 6.9 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION 52 6.9.1 LOCKWOOD RECOMMENDATIONS 52 6.9.2 PROGRESSION 53 6.9.3 CHALLENGES 53 SUMMARY 53
UNIT 7 54 7.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 54 7.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UPTO 1974 (FIRST TEN YEARS)
54
Introduction: 54
7.1.1 BACKGROUND: 54
7.1.2 PATTERN OF REFORMS 55 7.1.3 RESULTS OR OUTCOMES 55 7.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REFORMS 55 7.1.5 WHY REFORMS FAILED? 56 7.1.6MAJOR TRENDS/PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMS 56 7.1.7 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION 57 7.2 EVOLUTION OF POLICIES 58
SUMMARY 59
59
UNIT 8 60
8.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION POLICIES 60 8.1 Focus on Learning 1992. 60 8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE 60 8.3 BASIC EDUCATION SUB-SECTOR INVESTMENT PROGRAMME
(BESSIP) 61
8.4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION STRATEGIC PLAN (2003-2007) 61
8.5 THE VISION 2030 61
SUMMARY 62
1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION
You will realize that education in any society had its own objectives and generally to produce an individual who would fit in a society in which one lived. The relationship between an individual and the society has been utmost value and concern for social scientists. For this reason, we may be tasked to questions such as education for what/who?
Aims of education can be social or individual; Individual aims include:
a) Career prospects-to develop a vocation skill.
b) Self development- though education individual develop their full
potential.
c) Development of language skills- education helps individuals to
develop their imaginative expressive powers.
d) Education helps individuals to develop spiritually, emotionally,
morally etc.
e) Education for self expression- e.g in art, music, literature, drama etc.
f) To make one fit in society- to help a child to be adaptive to changing
society, to understand a world outside his own environment. Social aims of education include:
a) Patriotism- appreciates one cultural heritage, to appreciate ones role
as a citizen.
b) Education for social service- helping the society though different
careers e.g Doctors, teachers, engineers etc.
c) Education for economic development- to develop creative and
From the above aims, you will understand that education was multi-dimension in such a way that whatever form it might be, it required certain aspects in order for one to benefit from the education.
1. Explain the benefits of each aim to both the individual and the society. 2. Which aim explains well the aims of education and explain your answer.
1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION
Education involves a lot of processes and methods and some of them are as follows: a) Teaching- This involves imparting of knowledge or skills to a person.
There is instruction, discussion and explanation. The learner participates in the discussion as the teacher guides.
b) Learning- A conscious activity involving the acquisition of new
knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviour, manners etc.
c) Instructing- This involves imparting knowledge of facts or giving
orders, rules, modes of operating and instructions. The learner follows these orders.
d) Drilling- This is a situation where a piece of learning is repeated over
and over until a person can do the skill without making a mistake.
e) Training- It is a process that helps to produce particular skills for
example an electrician, a carpenter and a footballer among others.
f) Conditioning- This is where the learner performs actions against his
wishes usually through the use of force or threats.
g) Brainwashing- This is making someone change the way of believing
without much reasoning. For example an advertisement for MTN Everywhere You Go
h) Indoctrination-This is where one accepts the beliefs without
questioning usually achieved through propaganda. Once one is indoctrinated, the recipient holds on such views dogmatically and unshaken in spite of reason.
1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION
There are three types of education and these include: formal, non formal and informal education
1. Formal Education- this is usually organized and structured learning which is found in schools, colleges and universities.
2. Non-formal- this is an organized learning activity outside formal education and aimed at meeting the specific needs of a particular group of people and 3. Informal Education- this is unorganized and unplanned
Type of Education Characteristic Features Agents
a) Formal Education
-Learning done in specially built institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities. -Programmes are structured in form of syllabus, curriculum, schemes, timetables -Learning is supervised by internal administrative body -Certificates awarded to those who are successful -People are trained and employed to do the job and are paid.
-Governments,
companies, individuals and churches
Education programmes
-Certificate of attendance maybe awarded
-No special buildings may be required
-Loosely supervised at times not supervised by an internal administrative body c) Informal Education -Learning is unplanned -Learning is not structured
-No awards of certificates -Long life process
In this chapter, we have looked at the meaning of education and how various scholars have defined it. The chapter has further discussed the aims and types of education, including the common concepts found in education.
1. List down and give examples of the types of education that are found in Zambia
UNIT 2
2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL
EDUCATION
Introduction:
This unit looks at the education systems that existed before the coming of the Missionary/modern education in Africa. Different themes have been explored to help understanding the nature of the education that was there.
Learning Outcomes
Education is part of every society, whether simple or sophisticated. Each community has evolved its own forms of education based on the religious, social, political, economic and cultural values of that community (Tiberondwa: 1989). In this unit, we are analyzing;
a) the aims of indigenous education b) components of indigenous education
c) the curriculum of Indigenous African education d) methods of indigenous African Education e) methods of testing in indigenous education f) characteristics of indigenous education
g) the merits and demerits of Indigenous African education
During the pre-colonial period, Africans had already developed their own systems of education. The first Europeans, who came to Africa, viewed Africa as a savage, a pagan with no history and culture to perpetuate that he was primitive, that he knew nothing and that Africans never taught their young. This was a mistaken belief which reflected the ignorance of the Europeans about African education systems. It also help to explain why the first Europeans educationists never considered that the
formal schools they were introducing had any relationship to the largely informal education, the African children were receiving in their communities. The basic assumption was that they were introducing something totally new. In this, there was no social interaction or rather socialization. This meant that adults never made a deliberate attempt to bring up children to be the kind of men required by the society. Secondly, since Africans had neither reading nor writing skills, some scholars tended to assume that they had no system of education. Hence the conclusion that they had no content and no methods to pass on to the young. To such scholars then, education in Africa would mean nothing else but western civilization. Therefore, no western civilization, no education. The scholars neglected anything traditional because of their restricted view of the nature of the education. It is definitely fallacious to define education in terms of school or reading and writing, because schooling and education are not synonymous in any way at all. Education is defined as the whole process by which one generation transmits its culture to the succeeding generation, or a process by which people are prepared to live effectively and efficiently in their environment. On the basis of this definition then, it is quite easy to see that before the coming of the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each African clan, chiefdom or kingdom. African traditional education was effective ever since the evolution of the African race. It was tangible, definite and clearly intelligible.
There have been no single indigenous form of education In Africa. Societies differing from each other, developed different systems of education to transmit their own particular knowledge and skills. The differences were not necessarily great, but it as quite clear that indigenous forms of education were sometimes remarkably similar but differed in methods and content. One form could be seen to have influence over another. This was due to the fact that certain specialists were extremely mobile, just like in the case of western type and Islamic systems. The mobility of specialists such as the Dyula dyers and Numu blacksmiths of Ivory Coast and Ghana was in large measure responsible for this.
Another misconception is that within one particular society, all young people learned the same skills. This may have been so in ethnic groups, where all families followed roughly the same economic pursuits and where political and social roles were relatively undifferentiated. Some traditional societies like Yoruba, had marked
specialization in occupation as well as pronounced political and hierarchies. Although they shared general knowledge, a child at the royal court of Ife had a different orientation and training in skills from that of a blacksmith‟s son in the war camp of Ibadan.
2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
To socialize and initiate an individual into the tribal or ethnic group in a communal perspective.
To help people conform to cultural norms and roles. It exposed the young to checks and balances.
2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
The education in Africa before the coming of the European was an education that prepared one for the responsibilities as an adult in the home, the village and within the tribe. The education varied from the simple instruction given by the father or mother to the youths to complex educational system of highly organized and sophisticated such as the one among the Poro in West Africa which had myriad of ceremonies and countless degrees. Most societies fell between the simple and sophisticated with respect to the educational arrangements they provided for their youth, offering rituals to mark the end of puberty and relying heavily upon the custom and example as the principal educational agents.
1. History of Ethnic group. The education looked at what
happened and why things happened the way they did. For example, where did we come from, when, why did we settle here? Why are we having the drought this year? Why floods along the Zambezi river for example. The questions which were asked made the society develop a sense of security consciousness, religious beliefs and sense of belonging. The history was reflected much in the songs, dances myths. The young were taught and reminded about their names, surnames, clans, totems and cousin relationships. There were also stories in the evenings around the fire places about heroic deeds of
ancestors, how they developed loyalty and pride in membership of the tribe.
2. Apprenticeship in Practical Skills. The African Indigenous
education stressed the skills according to sex roles. For example boys were taught by men such as fathers, uncles, and grandfathers about the uses of herbs, flowers and fruits, farming and raising cattle. They also learnt how to set traps, hunting and other skills in line with men. On the other hand girls learnt through close contact with mothers, aunties and grandmothers in the kitchen. They learnt how to cook, wash calabashes, pots and how to brew beer. They further learnt the art of being good wives and mothers.
3. Social Obligations and Inculcation of Good Manners.
Children learnt the correct way of greeting different ages, how to sit, how to address other members of the tribe and elders among them. They were to respect the old and to extend hospitality to all.
4. Religious Teaching. Their religious teaching centred on the
Supreme Being who controlled all the tribal fortunes. The young learnt the influence of the spirits in the society and how to appease the spirit of the departed. They also learnt about different spirits (bad and good spirits) and the mysteries of religion.
5. Initiation Ceremonies. This was done after one had reached
the puberty stage and it marked an epoch in ones life as the child was being introduced by elders to the legends surrounding previous exploits of ones tribe and community responsibilities. It was an intensive course of instruction which was done in seclusion and the initiates were exposed to tests of physical endurance. For example Nyau among the Chewa people in Zambia were exposed to harsh environment and taught survival skills such as swimming. They were also exposed to hot pots as a way of training them endurance. Of course there were clever women who could only put the pot on the fire when they were about to come and pick it. They were given
instructions in hygiene, sexual behaviour, expectations in marriage among other areas. In some societies secrecy surrounded the event.
2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN
EDUCATION
In traditional African society people learnt what they lived and lived what they learnt. Education was a life long process; it began at birth and ended at death. Education enabled people to adapt to their environment in which they lived. For instance, those who lived in the equatorial rain forest and those who lived in the plain areas each had the curriculum to follow. At society, level education was planned or unplanned (incidental), formal (e.g initiation ceremonies) or informal. Education transmitted skills, modes of behaviour, essential for society‟s survival. Learning was by imitation, repetition and observation. Society‟s education was determined by its ideologies, dominant value or moral order. Education ensured national unity and ensured cultural survival. Alfred North White Head summed up the contents of any education as “life in all its manifestations.”
2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
In practical terms, the method of indigenous African education was humanization of man in society. Learning was expected to yield:
a) Cognition- knowledge in general, understanding. b) Skills- which had relevance to their survival.
c) Volition- attitudes, values, feelings, appreciation etc.
d) Practice, not theory- what was learnt was put to use- pragmatism/functionalism, practicality/utilitarianism was at the centre of learning.
e) Involvement- active participation in everyday life. 2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING a) IMITATION
Imitating others such as mothers, fathers, peers and grandparents was part of the learning process.
2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION
a) Conditioning Imitation- through which learners acquired attitudes,
values, and forms of reasoning by virtue of being member of a group, or because of social pressure e.g sisters wanting to live like mother Theresa. b) Reinforcement Imitation- voluntarily participating in order to win
social praise e.g mum, I can cook like you, sing, jump like you.
c) Insightful Imitation- Deliberate copying of other people‟s acts or
methods of doing things in order to solve specific problems. 2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING
Initiative to learn comes from elders who want an individual to acquire a particular skill e.g grooming someone to be a king, to marry a king‟s daughter etc.
Many techniques were used to induce or stimulate learning: -praise an incentive
-Rewards e.g cattle
-Story telling on heroic deeds -Ridicules etc.
2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING
a) Most widespread
b) Reflected in doing, working, participation, playing, attending funerals and observation, in every activity.
2.7 FORMAL LEARNING
This is organized, planned and structured learning e.g. initiation ceremonies.
2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
The education in an African set up required that the individual had to change in order to adjust for a living. Though very few people failed, testing was one of the ways to confirm if there was education going on. It involved both diagnostic and prescriptive
that made rise to the remedial lessons or for further perfection of skills, manners, attitudes, perceptions and behaviour among other areas of interest. The testing was in form of:
i. Assigning work to an individual and monitoring of the results closely. ii. Sometimes girls were sent to take care of the elderly relatives to see
how they could manage. This was in view of the other elderly people that one might live with in future especially after marriage as African societies lived in communities.
iii. A boy could be given an opportunity to express his personality as a man. For example how to protect ones siblings.
iv. Some customs required bridegrooms to take care of their in laws for some years until when the in laws were satisfied that one could take care of their daughter.
v. The cultures that were pastoralists, boys were asked to identify their cattle or goats from the rest of the herds of the community.
vi. Some societies asked the children to name the relatives both the maternal and the paternal.
2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
i. Multiple learning (Wholesticism). The education system had no
much room for specialization but equipped boys and girls with a number of occupations with related skills. This meant that a boy could be taught how to fish, geography of an area, interpretation of the seasons, building and farming among them. On the other hand girls were taught gardening, cooking, laundry, and simple skills of nursing. The education was centred on the whole life of the society.
ii. Integration. The education depended on what was available without
fixing of time for learning. Children learnt how to welcome visitors when there were visitors (situational learning). Teaching for sex roles was done during initiation.
iii. Utilitarian/Functionalism. Whatever was taught had to be useful as
the education produced the skills which were used in practice. iv. Perenialism. There were skills which were only taught during
specific seasons such rain season (planting and ploughing).
v. Communalism. Most of the lessons were done in communal manner.
Education was a responsibility for the whole community. For example working in fields, construction of houses, child discipline etc.
2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION
a) It relied on memory and oral tradition. It had no device for recording acquired knowledge for future use.
b) Punishment was too harsh and non-reformatory.
c) It was tribal and so skills of one tribe could not be transmitted to the other. There was no common language for different tribes.
d) It stressed gender roles.
e) It was conservative because society changes were not as rapid as they are today. But measured against the people it had to serve. Traditional education was very successful. Snelson (1974) contends that this form of education was conservative and not progressive, some teachers were incompetent, so were some learners. Kelly (2006) adds that it was orally based with no written records, it could not fully cope with scientific concepts, it was static and did not embrace aspects of innovation inquiry and change. In the final analysis, the onus is on the modern student to critically analyse and subject the aforesaid to reason and take a position out of an academic and informed decision.
2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION
In any case, traditional education is believed to have been meaningful, unifying, holistic, effective, practical, relevant and community based. There was no separation between education and the world of work. Graduates were readily absorbed in
society upon completion of their induction or socialization (Kelly, 2006; Farrant, 1980).
African traditional education developed and educated the whole person. This type of education involved the entire society or community. Because it was human centred, it promoted and developed very good and strong bonds among the people. This education had clear values, attitudes and morals for its curriculum. This was to exploit the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
SUMMARY
The chapter has apart from defining what indigenous or traditional education means, also discussed the components, curriculum, methods, merits and demerits of Indigenous Education.
ACTIVITY
1. There are some elements in traditional education which are relevant to an individual‟s life in a community. Discuss this assertion in relation to modern way of life.
2. Discuss the weaknesses of indigenous education.
UNIT 3
3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924
3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION
Introduction:
The unit looks at the education that prevailed during the time of the Missionaries and the British South African Company (BSACo).
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: To define missionary education.
Explain for coming of missionaries in Africa.
Compare between the indigenous education and missionary education Trace the first schools in Zambia
Explain the characteristics of missionary education Discuss the involvement of the BSACo in Education.
Missionary education refers to Western education as opposed to the African indigenous education. It was based on literacy (ability to read and write) and numeracy (ability to work with numbers) There are differences between the two types of education mentioned above in many aspects.
Compare and comprehend the two types of education in order to comprehend them.
Missionary education derives its name from the group of people who first brought it to Africa from Europe-the church people or the missionaries. Between 1890 and 1924, many mission groups came to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in
particular. They settled in different parts of the country and opened many stations (Missions) as well as schools to offer what became known as missionary education.
3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION Missionaries built schools with specific aims or goals. Some of these were:
a) To enable Africans read and write so that they could help in the evangelization process: ability to read and interpret the Bible in a local and English Languages.
b) To harness or tame Africans for them to co-operate with missionaries in their work (Trying to create some common working ground entice them to European culture).
c) To de-culture Africans and make Europeans out of Africans e.g French policy of Assimilation.
d) To give Africans some technical schools in capentry, agriculture, brick laying etc.
3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA?
Different missionary groups came to Africa as a follow up to David Livingstone‟s exploration works and reports he sent back to Europe(United Kingdom in particular). Secondly, early exploration works by different explorers such as Bartholomew Diaz, Mungo Park, Henry Morton Stanley etc also helped to stimulate missionaries to come to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). What were their aims?
Missionary groups and their stations
Many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in the period under review. Each group claimed areas of influence and built schools and clinics there.
i) Draw the map of Zambia. On it show mission stations and years when established.
ii) Below the map, make a list of these church groups indicating who were their leaders at that time. For instance
1. Brethren in Christ Church-Macha mission in Choma(1906)-Leader was Francis Davidson.
2. Catholics-Society of Jesus (Jesuits)-Chikuni Mission in Chisekesi, Monze(1905), Leader was Fr. Moreau.
3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890
There are many missionary groups that had already established their mission settlements and schools before 1890. Indicators are that the under listed were in Northern Rhodesia before 1890:
a) Paris Evangelical Mission-1885 b) United Free Church of Scotland-1895 c) The Largest Society-the White Fathers-1895 d) The Dutch Reformed church Mission-1895 e) The London Mission Society-1883
f) The Primitive Methodist-1893
g) Christian Missions in Many Lands-the Open Brethren-1897
3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL
Missionary education in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) owes its establishment to David Livingstone‟s exploration works which exposed the interior of Africa to the European people. As a follow up to Livingstone‟s reports on events in Africa and Northern Rhodesia in particular, many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia.
In March 1883, the first school was opened in Limulunga by Arnot of the Paris Evangelical Missionary society with three pupils all male.
It situated at Kanyonyo whose name it adopted. Later it became National Barotse School.
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION
1. It is foreign or alien to Africans and is based on reading and writing 2. It carries with it European/Western culture and norms
3. It does alienate (separate the learner from the society-village set up/family) to some place of employment. It also alienates the learner in a host of cultural aspects as the two cultures clash.
4. It is believed that it has the capacity to explain scientific concepts. That it is dynamic helps to make people adaptive and universal in nature.
5. Perceived as a tool for national development.
6. From the African perspective, it may be seen as a lazy man‟s chain. It promotes “white collar job syndrome” as opposed to manual work that demands physique.
7. It is more practical in problem solving than other types: through medicines, industries, technology and various disciplines of education itself like social sciences etc.
8. It is seen as a tool or means to acquire prestigious status in society. It is said that it enhances social position and status for the elite.
3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION Depending on one‟s view point it can be said that there are many benefits.
a) Western education through missionaries helped to replace slave trade with modern trade.
b) It helped Africans to open up and started fighting for independence until it was achieved.
c) It changed the status of Africans as a continent as well as the status of Africans themselves.
d) A lot of what was perceived as bad cultural practice was phased out or moderated e.g. using skin clothing, polygamy, worshipping ancestral spirits etc.
e) It brought modern social services, schools, hospitals, industries and modern way of life supported by technology.
3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND
EDUCATION-1890-1924
According to Manchishi and Chondoka (1999), the pioneers of Western education in colonial Zambia were the European Christian Missionaries who started their work in
the country from 1883.(ERIP report:5). This was adequately shown in earlier lesson on missionary education 1883-1889.
3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924)
Cecil Rhodes is a key player in the formation and administration of the British South African Company. He founded the company in 1889 after making a fortune in diamond mining at Kimberley, in South Africa.
He got authority from the Crown (British Monarchy) to administer what was then known as North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia. In turn, he got support from the mother country, Britain. His entry point was North-Western Rhodesia (1897) after signing concessions with Lewanika in 1890, 17th October. The treaty of the BSA company mineral rights in all areas under King Lewanika in turn the BSA company protected the Lewanika‟s Kingdom and gave him an annual grant of 850 pounds. The prime aim of the BSA company was to:
a) Exploit minerals and make profits
b) Use North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia sources of cheap mineral and human resources for the development of South Africa. Although when signing concessions, Cecil Rhodes accepted responsibility to provide social services to the Africans in practice it was a non-starter. He was a first class capitalist Snelson(1974) spells out the position of the BSA regarding the provision of education to the Africans as well as the development of colonial Zambia: the BSA records in regard to African education was one of the consistent neglect.
It is further noted that for three decades BSA co. consistently refused to give financial assistance to missionary education in the country. It failed lamentably and shamefully to implement clear promises regarding education which had been part of the treaties with Lewanika. Three treaties were signed which the BSA never fulfilled: the Lochner treaty (1890, 1898, and 1900).
One clause found in these treaties read: The BSA co. further agrees that it will aid and assist in the education and civilization of the native subjects of the king by the establishment, maintenance and endowment of schools and industrial establishment(vocational trade schools), Sneson:122).
3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL
Due to pressure from the Chewa chiefs in Nyasaland,(Malawi), the BSA opened Livingstonia mission school and funded it in a little way. This was facilitated by Rhobert Codrington, the administrator. In colonial Zambia, the same was done in 1907 by the BSA co. at Kanyonyo village-Mongu. This school was only one partly funded by the BSAco. And came to be known as Barotse National School. It opened in March 1907 with Austin R William as headteacher. African teachers were drawn from Basutoland (Lesotho). Curriculum:carpentry, bricklaying, thatching, forestry other than reading, writing and arithmetic. This school was under the Paris evangelical Mission led by Francis Coillard.
By 1911/12, a few Africans from this school had become teachers or were employed as clerks, shopkeepers, office orderlies etc. While company rule did not support African education, missionary groups continued expanding in this area. They called on the company to give grants to mission schools, the move which the BSA co. rejected. In 1911, the BSA co. formerly amalgamated N.E and N.W. Rhodesia into one territory called Northern Rhodesia.
3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANY’S NON PROVISION
OF EDUCATION
a) Lost opportunity:
The B.S.A. co. lost a golden chance to change its African education stance in 1906. In this year, Alfred Beit died and donated money-200,000 pounds for education and other public social services in his will. B.S.A. through Codrington and Wallace indicated that Northern Rhodesia had no financial need.
Missionary groups at that time through Native Affairs department placed for governments funding of missionary education.
Both mission schools and government officials saw the need to have a coordinated curriculum or common curriculum in addition to financial grants. The B.S.A. as government had a duty to provide such a policy.
3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924
In July 1914, what one may call as the first General Missionary conference was held under the auspices of the Primitive Methodists. This group was used to work with other churches. They did so when they translated the New Testament in Ila.
These church groups did take part in this conference held in Livingstone in Coillard memorial hall.
a) Primitive Methodists b) Paris Evangelical Mission c) Brethren in Christ Church
d) U.M.C.A and Weslayan Methodists 3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were:
i) To foster cooperation between and among all church groups ii) To evangelize North Western Rhodesia
iii) To give civic education/awareness to local people about missionary work as well as to care for the locals.
Reverend Edwin Smith was elected chairperson of the conference. Rev. John Fell presented a paper on Ideas and Methods in Native Education-it was the main agenda item.
3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference:
a) Encouraging government to take a keen interest in the education for local people.
b) Government to fund education in Northern Rhodesia
c) Urgent need to provide well trained local teachers by government
d) Government must subsidize approved elementary schools as was in Southern Rhodesia.
By about 1915/16, the B.S.A. co. had this concern with the government as well; the quality of teachers and their reliability. A form of control was needed. This led to the Native schools Proclamation of 1918. Its contents were:
a) To define a school and a teacher
i) School meant a school or class for teaching or instruction of local people whether held in a building of not.
ii) Teacher meant any local person teaching in a school
b) No opening of new schools without consent of government (administration) or any other authorized officer.
c) All existing schools were to be registered within 90 days of issue of 1918 proclamation.
d) Administration could close any school seen detrimental to national peace and security through the behaviour of its pupils and teachers.
e) Administration could close school that was contrary to wishes of the society.
3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS
CONTRAVERSIAL PART
This was the first educational legislation (law) in Northern Rhodesia. It seems its first part was user friendly but the other part was seen to be anti-development in the area of education provision.
a) No person shall be a teacher in any school unless duly qualified
b) To be considered duly qualified, one needed to be given a certification of efficiency and competence by the administrator.
c) In schools not headed by Europeans, to be a teacher there one needed to be married and lived with a wife.
d) Breach of the above would lead to a fine not more than twenty five pounds or to be jailed for not more than three months or both.
e) Any teacher guilty/suspected for interference in the works of the administrator, chief, headman and other government officers would be black listed.
f) The native schools Proclamation of 1918 gave powers to magistrates and Native Commissioners to inspect schools.
g) This law (Proclamation) gave power to the administrator to prescribe qualifications of teachers to provide competence certificates to teachers as well as reports of good conduct, locating of building new schools.
The law gave sweeping powers to control education system and provision without any financial part. Missionary groups, who were the main providers of education in Northern Rhodesia at this time, became disappointed and bitter.
3.6.1 2nd General Missionary Conference of 1919
The general dissatisfaction and disapproval of the 1918 Proclamation by all the missionary groups in Northern Rhodesia led to the 1919 conference. It was held in Livingstone from 18-22 July 1919. Rev. Adolphe Jalla of Paris Evangelical Missionary Society was elected chairperson and Rev. John Fell of Primitive Methodists was elected Secretary. The Conference proposed amendments to: Clause that referred to churches as schools and the marriage clause.
Resolutions passed:
a) The Government should give grants to schools b) Accepted school code drawn by Rev. Fell
c) Agreed to invite missionary societies in Northern Rhodesia to next conference.
In response to the missionary conference, resolutions of 1919, the government repeated the 1918 Native Schools Proclamation. It was replaced by the January 1922 New Native Schools Proclamation. In this law:
a) The controversial marriage-teacher clause was dropped. b) Teachers were to be certified by the missionary in charge
c) Definition of a school now excluded holding of a religious service d) Missionaries in charge to inspect schools at least twice a year.
3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922
The conference was held in Kafue from 17-23 July 1922 and was attended by eleven missionary societies. The Conference discussed different items, key among them were three papers. Coxhead presented the first paper which advised/suggested recruitment of agriculture expert to advise mission groups on agricultural education. The Government was to pay 1/3 of experts salary. Coxhead was searching for Native affairs.
Loram presented a second paper that advocated for retention of primary education in the hands of missionaries and that Government should support missionaries financially. He urged the Government to be responsible for secondary education. Loram also suggested the establishment of a college/university as was the case in South Africa‟s Fort Hare. Loram had come from Natal and was outstanding educationists.
Latham G.C. presented the 3rd paper. He was part-time inspector of schools for the country. He advised missionary groups to be well-coordinated and respect each other. He advised that denominational differences be buried and that a first class normal school like Sefula be made in central area for teacher training.
His paper indicated that missionary education should include: spiritual, moral, social and economic progress of the local people. He proposed for a good balance between religious, academic and individual components.
Provisional agreement was made to use Kafue institute for teacher training to be offered by the Primitive Methodists. But later the idea was abandoned to differences that arose.
1. Primitive Methodists did not support John Fell
2. U.M.C.A. did not support Bishop May idea to fund the program-five hundred pound per annum. The B.S.A co. director did not support the idea. But the major success of the conference was that the Government was clearly made to understand it needed to fund education sooner than later. Lathan was regarded as a radical: He said, “We can not educate the natives without allowing them some share in their government, sooner than later.”
Very few people-whites then accepted the eventual self-government rule coming to pass. For the future, Lathan recommended Industrial training for learners at least 2 hours per day in addition to other subjects (Literacy and numeracy).
In 1923, there was a General Missionary Council Executive Committee attended by Lathan. In that meeting, he recommended to the council that the Government should not run away from funding education and that the Government needed a policy on Native education.
SUMMARY
The Chapter looked at the coming of the missionaries and what was referred to as Missionary Education. It also looked at the BSA Company and what it had to offer in terms of education
1. Missionary education and teachers have been criticised as having facilitated colonialism and imperialism in Africa. Discuss this assertion citing six countries.
2. Compare and contrast Indigenous type of education with the Western type of education. Examine how education has influenced development in Zambia.
3. Trace the way in which the “White Collar Worker” syndrome developed and manifested itself in Zambia‟s education system during the 1960s. How did the new Republic of Zambia attempt to address the “White Collar Worker”
UNIT 4
3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA
1931-1953
Introduction:
This unit will introduce you to the activities that followed after the two groups‟
involvement in education as observed in unit 3.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to: Discuss the Phelps Stoke Commission
Illustrate the recommendations by the Phelps Stoke Commission. Explain the challenges faced by the Phelps Stoke Commission. Analyse the British policy in Tropical Africa.
A lot of educational events took place between the time of Lathan left Northern Rhodesia in July 1931 and the time when the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1953.
In order to capture as many events as possible in this period of time (era), the time chart method will be applied. This is to capture events that happened as early as when Northern Rhodesia became a British Protectorate or British Crown in 1924. 1928 First departmental exams for teachers was held based on government
standard 4 syllabus.
There was a paper on teaching theory and school management, as well as practical test on First-Aid.
In the same year, government‟s Jeanes Agricultural, Normal and Primary schools were being built.
1931 Lathan left Northern Rhodesia as director of African Education. 1938 Jeanes school close due to the change in Native Reserve boundary
1939 A new Jeanes and Teacher Training Centre was opened at Chalimbana (NISTICOL)
Munali Secondary School opened in Lusaka.
1946 Chipembi Girls School opened by the Methodist Mission
1947 Nursing school for African nurses started at Chikankata Mission 1951 New Munali Secondary School was opened
Hodgson Training Centre expanded 12 Trades school operational.
One major characteristic of education in the era under review was an attempt to implement mass education. An attempt was also made to phase out racial school.
4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL
AFRICA/NORTHERN RHODESIA-1925
It is believed that the above policy came about as a result of the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report. This report influenced the Advisory Committee on Native education to come up with the first ever policy memorandum in March, 1925. Its title was Education Policy in British Tropical Africa.
Through this policy, the influence and impact of the commission‟s chairperson became vivid. This was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The policy‟s entry point was that:
The Controlling Power is responsible as Trustee for the Moral advancement of the Native Population.
The main principles of the 1925 education policy were:
a) To govern the direction of educational development in Northern Rhodesia and elsewhere in British African dependencies or colonies.
b) Government welcomed partnership with other stakeholders in provision of education to local people.
c) Government reserved the right to have total control of education through inspections, monitoring and giving the general direction. d) Advisory Boards of education were to be set up in all
dependencies upon which agencies and others who have experience in social welfare should be accorded representation. e) Education for adaptation was stressed as a principle in the policy.
Education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of their social life.
The content and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the local conditions.
i. Relevant text books and the use of vernacular language was stressed and was to be observed.
ii. The aim of education was to be spelt out- to render the individual more efficient in his/her condition of life and promote the advancement of the community as a whole through the improvement of agriculture, the development of native industries, the improvement of health, the training of the people in the management of their own affairs and the inculcation of true ideals of citizenship and service.
iii. The teaching of higher education as well as Religious and moral instruction was to be observed. Character training was to be founded on the formation of habits of industry, of truthfulness, manliness, readiness for social service and of disciplined cooperation.
iv. Improved conditions of service were to be implemented to attract the best available men both British and African.
v. Grants in aid were to be paid to approved non-government schools, who met the required standards.
vi. Teacher education/training and gender balances was another principle in the 1925 policy. The native teaching staff should be adequate in numbers, qualifications, in character and should include women. The key to a sound system of education lies in the training of teachers and this matter was to receive primary consideration.
The policy went on to state that other than initial training, teachers were to receive further education from time to time (in service) or continuing professional development (CPD). One way this could be done for rural school concept of visiting teachers.
a) The policy included the need to provide technical and vocational training to counteract the white collar jobs syndrome and the tendency to look down on manual labour/practical jobs.
b) Girl education re-emphasised within the policy. The education of girls and women was a challenge at that time, but more needed to be done at once. The memorandum stressed that it was important to provide educated mates‟ for clever boys. It was viewed as cardinal for girls to have lessons in hygiene and public health, child welfare, domestic economy and home management.
The policy advised that adult education be given once the experimented stage/version was confirmed. In contrast to the 30 years of BSA rule which had no education policy in Northern Rhodesia, Colonial rule at least introduced one. What remained to be seen was its implementation for the benefit of the territory and its people.
4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923
This was set up to advise the secretary of state on matters of Native Education in British colonies and protectorate in Tropical Africa. The work of this committee was made easy by the Phelps-Stokes Commission which had recent records or reports on south and Western Africa in of educational activities (1920-1921).
4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION
The commission was set using the funds under the will of Miss Calorine Phelps-Stokes. The aim of the fund was to enhance the education of Negroes in Africa and United States of America.
The members were: Dr. James Aggrey distinguished educationist from Gold Coast, Dr. J H. Dillard (USA), president of the Jeanes Fund, Dr. H.L Shantz agriculturalist and botanist (USA), Rev: Garfield Williams, Educational secretary, Colonial Office Advisory Committee on Native Education in Tropical Africa, C.T Loram (South Africa), Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones-Chairperson (USA) and James Dougall (Scotland)
4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were: i. To investigate educational needs of the people in the light of their religions,
social, hygiene and economic conditions.
ii. To ascertain the extent to which peoples‟ needs were being met in rural areas. iii. To assist in the formulation of plans to meet educational needs of local people
(ethnic group)
The commission set out to do its work by sending an education commission to west, south and Equatorial Africa in 1920-1921. The report of the first tour encouraged the Phelps Stokes Commission to send another group to survey educational needs of local people in east and Central Africa. This decision was made in 1923, and implemented between January and July 1924. The countries visited were: French Somaliland, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia (8-13 June 1924). Much of the information from Northern Rhodesia was provided by Lathan and representatives of Missionary societies.
4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS
i. Appointing a director of native Education whose task would be to co-ordinate and unite educational activities of the missionary societies and orders
ii. To appoint an advisory committee on education with representatives from the government, missions and settlers. The important thing was that the native opinion was to be sought as soon as possible.
iii. Establishing teacher training institutions at selected mission stations.
iv. Providing funds for the training and employment of visiting teachers based on the Jeanes School operating in USA.
4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF EDUCATION
This memorandum governed the direction of Education development in Northern Rhodesia and elsewhere. It contained the following principles:
a) The government was going to encourage all voluntary effort which conformed to the general policy but the government was to reserve the right to intervene over the general direction of educational policy and the supervision of all educational institutions by inspecting and other means. b) Cooperation between government and other educational agencies was to be
encouraged which led to the formation of advisory boards of education in British dependencies in each province there was a committee.
c) Adoption of education to the African environment was to be one of the aims of education. This implied that the system was going to be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various people.
d) The need for higher education was also acknowledged. This education was going to be given to those who by character, ability of temperament showed themselves fitted to profit by such education.
e) The importance of religion was also emphasized.
f) Financial assistance was also to be given to voluntary schools.
g) The memorandum also recommended that the status and conditions of service in the education department should be such as to attract the best available staff. Both the British and the African
h) The memorandum also urged that the native teaching staff should be adequate in numbers, qualifications and character which should include women.
i) Supervision of the education system was also encouraged. Government inspectorate was to be established and each mission was encouraged to inspect its own schools.
j) It also encouraged the establishment of technical and vocational training schools.
k) Girls were to be trained in hygiene and public health, child welfare and domestic economy. Adult education for women was to be encouraged. Soon after the presentation of the above document. The first director of native education was appointed. This was Geofrey Chitty Laterin.
l) The first survey of the state of education in British Tropical Africa was done in a period of eighteen months. The Phelps-Stokes Commission which had made a rapid tour of West Africa in 1919, completed a similar tour of East Africa in 1924 and produced detailed reports which provided the Advisory
Committee of Education in the colonies with clear picture of educational needs.
The trustee of the Phelps-stokes Fund, in November 1919, adopted the following: “that a survey of educational conditions and opportunities among the Negros of
Africa, with a special view of finding the type or types of education best adapted to meet the needs of the Natives, be undertaken by the Phelp-Stokes Commission.
In 1925, the principles on which the educational system of the dependencies were to be based were set out. In summary the points were:
a) Governments themselves control educational policy but they should cooperate with other educational agencies. Each territory should have an advisory board on which all educational interests should be represented. b) Education must adapt the mentality, aptitude occupations, and traditions of
various peoples, conserving as much as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of their social life, adapting them where necessary to changed circumstances and progressive ideas as an agent of natural growth and evolution. This meant maximizing the use of African arts and culture and hoped that it would narrow the gap between the educated class and the rest of the community.
c) Religious training and moral instruction should be regarded as fundament to the development of a sound education and should be accorded complete equality with secular subjects.
d) Educational services must be made to attract the best men from Britain, whether for permanent careers of for short service appointments.
e) Grants should be given to aid voluntary schools which fulfilled requirements. f) African languages, as well as English, should be used in education; content
and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the conditions of Africa, special text books should be prepared.
g) African teaching staff had to be adequate in numbers, qualifications and character which required the inclusion of women. The training was essential.
4.3.4 4th General Missionary Conference 1924
It is important to note by this time the BSA rule had ended on April 1st 1924. Colonial office was now in charge of affairs in Northern Rhodesia.
The conference was called in June 1924 at Kafue Institute. The purpose for the conference was to:
i. Get members of missionary societies meet Phelps-Stokes Commission ii. Make recommendation to the government (colonial office) on the
educational policy for Northern Rhodesia. 4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS
a) Primary and secondary education be given in mission schools with the help from the government.
b) Higher education (tertiary) be done at government schools with the help of missionary societies.
c) It re-activated the 1914 resolutions for implementation.
d) Out of direct native tax money which was 100,000 pounds P.a. Most of it was to go to the education expenses for Africans.
4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE
1-1925-1931
Colonial office took over reins of government from BSA Co. in April 1924. Among the immediate tasks for the new government were to:
a) Act on the Phelps-Stokes reports and recommendations
b) Take over the supervision and financing of education from missionaries.
c) Encourage technical and agricultural skills in education. d) Set up Native education department.
e) Come up with an education policy in British Tropical African. f) Appoint a director of Native affairs (G.C. Lathan was appointed).
4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925
The colonial office spent the first one year to put in place logistics for administering education in Northern Rhodesia. This was enhanced by the Advisory Board set in 1924, which had its first meeting in July 1925. Until 1943, the Advisory Board only comprised Missionaries, government and settlers without the local people.
One key resolution of the Board was the issuing of the Native School Code. In line with the one passed out by the missionaries earlier on. The difference here was the emphasis put on Agriculture for the first time. Lathan on behalf of the colonial office spelt out the Education Policy in British Tropical Africa in the White Paper No Command 2374. This meant that the new government had a framework to use in running education affairs in Northern Rhodesia. Also that structures for educational administration were put in place for instance the Advisory Board. Additionally, these were made clear:
i. Conditions for paying grants to schools.
ii. The curriculum for village (rural) and station (urban) schools were put in place.
iii. The curriculum for agricultural training was agreed upon.
iv. Teachers‟ conditions of service and qualifications were agreed upon and made known.
v. Challenges of language teaching and proposed methodologies were made known.
Lathan drew up a transformation programme in the provision of education in Northern Rhodesia which tried to address these areas: teacher training, salary, grants, normal school syllabus, the Jeanes School concept/mode in Mazabuka, village schools, Native schools (Ammendment ) Ordinance 1927, the school syllabus, girls‟ education, urban education, practical work, Finance and Financial support from oversees. According to Nelson (1974) Lathan did a lot in the above sector of Native education with a view of improving the quality of education provided in Northern Rhodesia by both government and missionaries
ACTIVITIY
a) Lathan came to be known as father of African Education in Northern Rhodesia. What were his achievements as director of Native Education from 1924-1931?
4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT
The name was derived from Miss Anna T. Jeanes an American Quarker Philantropist. She believed in the value of little schools for Negroes in the Southern States of USA. She gave her fortune to their improvement. Part of the money was to be used to train: travelling or visiting teachers. Travelling (visiting) teachers were supposed to be best trained teachers who would demonstrate new methods and techniques of teaching various subjects. These teachers were expected to discuss challenges visited teachers were facing so as to encourage and inspire them to forge ahead. These visiting teachers were supposed to be role models and demonstrators academically and professionally.
Impressed by the Jeanes school model, Lathan planned to have a Jeanes Training school in Northern Rhodesia. The Advisory Board approved that plan and idea. In 1928, the Beit Railway Bequest (Trust) made available a grant of 12,000 Pounds for the building of a Jeanes and agricultural school in Mazabuka. This was accompanied by a maintenance fund of 1,000 Pounds P.a for subsequent four years.
John Fell became the Principal in January, 1929. Fell with the help of Frederick Hodgson superivised the building of the Jeanes school, which opened on 3rd February, 1930.
These institutions –Jeanes school (now Mazabuka Basic school) and Agricultural schools (now Zambia Institute for Animal Sciences-ZIAS), became the first government educational institutions to open since 1906. Jeanes school enrolled 21 while Agricultural school had 14 pioneer students.
Carmody (2004:12) states that the main purpose of the Jeanes school was to train African teachers to supervise village (rural) schools.
SUMMARY
This chapter looked at the Phelps-Stokes Commission, its recommendations and the British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa or Northern Rhodesia.
1) What was the Phelps Stokes Commission? Discuss the main recommendations of this commission.
UNIT 5
5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963
Introduction:
In this unit you will be introduced to education system that existed during the federal
period.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Explain the evolution of secondary education in Zambia Discuss the Addis Ababa Conference
Discuss the search for human resource strategy
Illustrate the difficulties of the Addis Ababa Conference
The ten year era is known as the Federation Period. The federation was an act of bringing together Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi). The major attraction point for this merger by Colonial Office was copper in Northern Rhodesia.
Massive resources were taken from here to Salisbury (Harare) which was the Headquarters for the Federation. Southern Rhodesia greatly developed from copper resources from here including United Kingdom herself.
Capital projects built during this era included: Central African Airways, Central African Power Corporation, a university and Kariba dam among them. Only mining in Northern Rhodesia seem to have developed during 1953-1963 period. Agriculture at the same time was the most affected in that prices fell due to preferences given to whites in Southern Rhodesia.
5.1EDUCATION
Education was racially structured. Northern Rhodesian government was responsible for Africans while Federal government was responsible for whites and other races.