Give it time:
Guidance for schools for identifying
the learning needs of children and
young people learning English as
an additional language who may
have SEN or disabilities
Purpose of this document
This document has been written to give guidance for schools. In some cases it is quickly apparent that newly arrived children or young people learning English as an additional language (EAL) have a disability or SEN. In other cases distinguishing the impact of having EAL from any possible SEN or disability is more difficult. This
document aims to promote the continuing inclusion of such children or young people.
Throughout the document the term “child or young person” has been used for pupils in schools.
CONTENTS
Page1 How do we distinguish between EAL and SEN? 4
FILTER QUESTIONS
2 Lack of response 7
3 Problems with listening 8
4 Lack of oral expression over a range of skills 9
5 Difficulty in progressing in areas of the curriculum other than English 10
6 Slow or little progress with reading 11
7 Difficulties with writing for a variety of purposes 12
8 Difficulties with handwriting 13
9 Behavioural, emotional or social difficulties 14
APPENDICES
1 Culture shock and its possible impact on behaviour 16
2 Ethnicity and SEN 19
3 Features of common first languages 25
4 Further information for some of the filter questions 28
5 Behavioural, emotional or social difficulties 30
6 Recommended Strategies for all EAL children or young people 32
7 5 key principles and classroom applications 34
8 Assessing EAL Learners using the QCA Steps 36
9 The Law: SEN Code of Practice 40
10 Matrices for tracking a child or young person’s progress 41
11 Checklist for classroom language 43
12 References 44
13 Bibliography 45
ACRONYMS
ASD Autistic Spectrum Disorder
BESD Behavioural, Emotional and Social Difficulties
DfES Department for Education and Schools (now renamed DCSF) EAL English as an Additional Language
HI Hearing Impairment LA Local Authority
MLD Moderate Learning Difficulties MSI Multi-sensory Impairment PD Physical Disability
PLASC Pupil Level Annual School Census (now termly) PMLD Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties SEN Special Educational Needs
SLCN Speech, Language and Communication Needs SLD Severe Learning Difficulties
SpLD Specific Learning Difficulties VI Visual Impairment
This document has been written by:
Stuart Jackson, Somerset Ethnic Minority Achievement Service
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• Jo Underhill prepared some of the sections of this report
• Thanks to Buckinghamshire County Council for permission to adapt parts of their document “SEN or EAL?”
• Thanks to Eva Hoffman and Emerson Ricci for their respective inputs on Polish and Portuguese
• Thanks to NALDIC for “5 key principles and classroom applications”
• Thanks to Sue Shaw for the Filter Questions
• Thanks to Susan Rosamond for permission to use the matrices from
“Distinguishing the difference – SEN or EAL”
• Some sections have been adapted from SfA “EAL Resource”
• Thanks to Jim Mc Hugh for Appendix 1
• Thanks to the SEN/EAL working group members for helping to revise the document
1. How do we distinguish between EAL and SEN?
1.1 Introduction
As with all children and young people, a proportion who use English as an additional language will have Special Educational Needs (SEN) and/or disabilities. There are two potential pitfalls:
• to assume that a child or young person’s lack of progress is due to not having English as a first language and discounting the possibility that there is a particular learning or behavioural difficulty; or
• to assume that a child or young person has learning difficulties when the main reason for lack of progress is that their use of English is not sufficiently
advanced to progress in curriculum areas. Because of this, children or young people from ethnic minority groups can be over-represented on lists of those at School Action and School Action Plus or with Statements of SEN (see Appendix 2 on ethnicity and SEN).
Some children or young people may display behaviour that is unusual.
• Some children or young people who use a language other than English may have been through traumatic experiences and unsurprisingly may have emotional and behavioural difficulties as a result.
• Sometimes this may be due to trauma and sometimes due to culture. This is one area where the school EAL coordinator has to maintain close professional links with all colleagues, including from the SEN department. Both a child’s experience and their culture will need to be investigated and understood.
• It is quite common for EAL learners to go through a “silent period”, in which they may not express what they are processing for some time.
1.2 Whole school strategies for children and young people with EAL
• Create a learning environment that is welcoming and in which all children or young people feel safe, secure and valued.
• Recognise and value the backgrounds and life experiences of all children or young people.
• Show that you value bilingualism and biculturalism as an educational asset.
Talk to parents about this, demonstrate it with classroom or corridor displays.
• Enable children or young people to work in an atmosphere free from bullying, racism and other forms of harassment.
• Promote good relations, including racial harmony.
• Actively enable all children or young people to understand and respect other peoples’ feelings, values and beliefs.
• Actively enable all children or young people to appreciate their own and others’ cultural traditions.
• Use teaching methods and resources that are without bias, free from
stereotyping and are properly matched to meeting the needs of all children or young people, including the particular needs of children or young people learning EAL.
• Ensure that visual support, activity, role play, drama and other opportunities for speaking and listening in supportive contexts are central to teaching and learning.
• Use first language when appropriate to support learning.
• Use grouping strategies that recognise both the learning and language development needs of children or young people.
• Local Service Teams are available for advice and support for schools and families; they focus on early intervention.
• Where bilingual support assistants are available ensure they are well-qualified and briefed appropriately so that their first language skills are used effectively.
1.3 Give it time – Points to consider before attempting to assess for SEN A rule of thumb is to allow at least 6 months at school in the UK before attempting to assess for SEN. In the first 6 months some children converse and interact very little, although they are absorbing language. Some children and young people’s needs can be apparent from an early stage, however: for example, a sensory or physical impairment.
Good practice includes involving an interpreter at an initial meeting with parents/
carers, to find out as much as possible about the child or young person’s background. An interpreter should also be involved later whenever there are
concerns. Some parents/carers may be ashamed of a child’s SEN or disability or of what has happened in the home country or during the journey to England. Parents/
carers should therefore be helped to feel as comfortable as possible and the meeting should not be rushed. Value the parents as experts on the child. Guidance on translation and interpreting and local contacts for interpreters can be found on the Equalities and Diversity website (search for 'interp'); it is best not to use other parents/community members in case they know the family socially.
• Talk to the child or young person about how they see their strengths and needs. In some countries children or young people must pass end of year exams to move up and they may feel ashamed or afraid of past or future failure. Some parents/carers may put great pressure on their children to succeed and this may add to a child or young person’s stress in a new setting.
• Find out as much information as you can about the medical and school attendance history of the child or young person. There may be sensory, medical or physical needs that affect learning.
• Find out as much as you can about the child or young person’s ability in their home language. Some languages do not involve reading or writing. Some children born in the UK may have had little exposure to English, especially if they did not attend pre-school provision.
• Find out if the child or young person has to work at home or in a family business or if they attend religious or language classes after school. Such factors could help to explain problems with concentration for some children and young people.
• Ask parents/carers what reading materials they have at home, in their home language and/or English. Try to establish if both parents/carers are literate.
• Ask parents/carers if they have any concerns about the behaviour or emotions of the child or young person. Find out if the journey or move to England may have caused them trauma, or if they have been exposed to trauma in their home country.
• Ask parents/carers how different previous schooling was. Ask if they have any school records or reports. Find out how many schools the child or young person has attended and if they have had any periods of absence from school. Ask about subject strengths and weaknesses.
Remember languages have different structures. A child or young person’s first language can temporarily affect the structures they use when acquiring English.
Some examples are shown below in Appendix 3 for Polish, Portuguese and South Asian languages.
1.4 When you are ready to assess for SEN
These questions are adapted from the work of Susan Shaw in “Bilingual children or young people and special educational needs: A teacher’s guide to appropriate support and referral.”
Filter Questions
These filter questions can act as triggers to help you consider if a child’s or a young person’s behaviour fits one or more of the following categories:
• Lack of response
• Problem with listening
• Lack of oral expression
• Progression difficulty in other curriculum areas
• Slow or little progress with reading
• Writing difficulties
• Difficulties with handwriting
• Behavioural, emotional or social difficulties, including distress or withdrawal For each category use the following chain of questions to determine if a child or young person who uses English as an additional language has a particular need.
These filter questions should be used carefully. They do not provide an
instant analysis. The questions should be answered carefully and the answers should be justified by evidence which has been carefully collected over a period of time. In some cases both EAL and SEN intervention will be needed and the need for SEN intervention may only appear as the child or young person makes progress in English.
2. Lack of Response
Has the child or young person less Yes EAL Support than 6 months exposure to English?
(see Appendix 4.1)
No
Does the child or young person Yes Yes EAL support respond through body language or
physical actions?
No
Is the language used by the teacher No EAL advice appropriate for the child or young
person’s stage of English
development? Don’t know see Appendix 11
Yes
SENCO advice
3. Problems with listening
Is the language used by the teacher No EAL Advice appropriate for the child or young
person’s stage of English
development? Don’t know see Appendix 11
Yes
Is the content of the discussion No EAL Advice culturally familiar to the child or
young person and within their experience?
Yes
Does the child or young person Yes EAL Support respond as expected to the
home language(s)?
No
SENCO advice
4. Lack of oral expression in a range of contexts
(eg singing and speaking…)Has the child or young person had Yes EAL support less than two years exposure to
English?
No
Does the child or young person feel No EAL advice safe, secure and at ease with
the classroom situation?
Yes
Are the inaccurate structures used by Yes EAL advice the child or young person usual for
those learning English as an additional language?
(see Appendix 3)
No
Are the inaccurate structures used by Yes EAL advice the child or young person possibly
influenced by other languages used?
(see Appendix 3)
No
Can the child or young person use Yes EAL support their other languages over a range
of contexts appropriate for their age and educational experience?
No
SENCO advice
5. Difficulty in progressing in areas of the curriculum other than English
Are instructions and explanations No EAL advice given appropriate to the child or
young person’s stage of English language development?
Yes
Can the child or young person Yes EAL advice understand supported by visual
materials or if the task is language free?
No
Is the child or young person capable Yes EAL support of the understanding the task if it is
translated or explained in a home language?
No
Has the child or young person had No EAL support sufficient experience or education to
understand the context or content of the task?
Yes
SENCO advice
6. Slow or little progress with reading
Does the child or young person No EAL advice have sufficient spoken vocabulary
in English to make a meaningful start?
Yes
Has the child or young person had No develop exposure enough exposure to English text or
letter forms?
Yes
Has the child or young person had No allow more time sufficient time to experience the
stages of reading and to assimilate them?
Yes
Use a bilingual adult and text(s) in Yes EAL advice the home language to assess: can
they read to a level that is appropriate to their length of education in that language?
No
SENCO advice
7. Difficulties with writing for a variety of purposes
Does the child or young person lack Yes EAL advice sufficient English vocabulary to
make a meaningful start?
No
Can the child or young person Yes EAL support sequence events and ideas
orally or pictorially?
No
Are the difficulties in writing a Yes EAL support reflection of oral fluency or
difficulties with word order, word omissions or tenses?
No
Are spelling mistakes consistent Yes EAL support and showing a growing awareness
of spelling patterns in English?
No
Is the child or young person able to Yes EAL assessment write in a home language or another
literate language at a level appropriate to their age and education in that language? You may ask the child or young person to write in their home language if you think they understand the task.
No
SENCO advice
8. Difficulties with handwriting
Is the child or young person familiar No Provide writing support with English script in printed and
hand-written form?
Yes
Has the child or young person had No Provide writing support previous formal schooling which
included opportunities to write?
(see Appendix 4.2)
Yes
Has the child or young person Yes EAL advice written a script with a different
orientation or positioning?
No
SENCO advice
9. Behavioural, Emotional or Social Difficulties
Is the child or young person Yes EAL support experiencing anger or confusion
with a new culture?
(see Appendix 1)
No
Has the child or young person had Yes EAL advice little experience of formal
education?
No
Has the child or young person come Yes EAL advice from an educational experience
significantly different from the current?
No
Is the child or young person’s lack of Yes EAL support skills in oral English causing frustration
or preventing self expression?
No
Do problems arise when the child or Yes EAL advice young person is asked to carry out
activities beyond their previous experience or against cultural or
religious beliefs? For example drawing faces or changing for PE?
No
Does the child or young person feel Yes EAL advice pressured to respond orally?
No
Is it possible the child or young Yes investigate/intervene person’s behaviour or anxiety is
the result of other people’s racist attitudes or behaviour?
No
Are the tasks chosen appropriate for No EAL advice the child or young person’s language
level?
Yes
Are the tasks chosen appropriate for No EAL advice the child or young person’s language
and cognitive development?
Yes
Did the child, young person or family Yes EAL advice experience trauma before or since
arrival in the UK?
No
SENCO advice
APPENDIX 1
CULTURE SHOCK AND ITS POSSIBLE IMPACT ON BEHAVIOUR
1.1 CULTUREOnce learned, culture becomes a way of life, the sure, familiar, largely automatic way of getting what you want from your environment, and, as such it also becomes a value. Children and young people have a way of accepting their culture as both the best and the only way of doing things. This is perfectly normal and understandable.
To this attitude we give the name ethnocentrism, a belief that our culture is the norm.
Individuals identify themselves with their own group and its ways to the extent that any critical comment is taken as an affront to the individual as well as to the group.
1.2 CULTURE SHOCK
Culture shock afflicts most children and young people to some degree when they move to a country where the culture is significantly different. Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs are the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situations of daily life, such as what to do and say when we meet people or when to take statements seriously and when not.
These cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, customs, or norms are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which are unconsciously learned.
When children and young people enter a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removed and they can be like a fish out of water because a series of
cultural props have been knocked from under them. This is often followed by a feeling of frustration and anxiety, and many react to the frustration in the same way.
First they reject the environment that causes the discomfort: they perceive the ways of the host country are bad because they make them feel bad. A later phase of culture shock is regression. The home environment suddenly assumes a
tremendous importance, everything becomes irrationally glorified. All difficulties and problems are forgotten and only the good things back home are remembered.
1.3 SYMPTOMS OF CULTURE SHOCK CAN INCLUDE:
• excessive concern over cleanliness and the feeling that what is new and strange is ‘dirty’, eg in relation to drinking water, food and dishes;
• fear of physical contact with those around them;
• a feeling of helplessness and a desire for dependence on children from your own nationality;
• irritation over minor frustrations out of proportion to their causes;
• delay and outright refusal to learn the language of the host country;
• excessive fear of being injured;
• great concern over minor aches and pains;
• that terrible longing to be back home, to be in familiar surroundings, to visit your relatives, and, in general, to talk to people who really "make sense."
1.4 STAGES IN CULTURE SHOCK
Individuals differ greatly in the degree in which culture shock affects them,
depending on their personality. However, there are discernible steps in the process for those people who go through a serious case of culture shock and on to a
satisfactory adjustment.
During the first few weeks most individuals are fascinated by the new. This stage may last from a few days or weeks to six months depending on circumstances, but does not normally last when the child or young person has to cope with the real conditions of life.
It is then that the second stage begins, characterised by a hostile and
aggressive attitude towards the host country. This hostility evidently grows out of the genuine difficulty that the visitor experiences in the process of adjustment.
There is trouble with school, language, house, transport, shopping, and the fact that people in the host country are largely indifferent to all these troubles. They help but they just don't understand the child or young person’s great concern over these difficulties. Therefore the child or young person often thinks that English people must be insensitive and unsympathetic to their worries. The result is ‘I just don't like them’. The child or young person may become aggressive, band together with others from the same culture and criticise the host country, its ways and its people.
This criticism is not an objective appraisal based on an honest analysis, but a derogatory one. Instead of trying to account for conditions as they are through an honest analysis of the actual conditions, they talk as if the difficulties they experience are more or less created by the people of the host country for their special
discomfort!
Culture shock is lessened as the child or young person succeeds in getting some knowledge of the language and begins to develop independence: this is the
beginning of their adjustment to the new cultural environment. For example, their sense of humour begins to exert itself. Instead of criticising they make jokes about English people and even crack jokes about their own difficulties. They are now on the way to ‘recovery’.
In the final stage of adjustment the child or young person accepts the customs of the country as just another way of living. They can operate within the new milieu without a feeling of anxiety although there are moments of strain. Only with a
complete grasp of all the cues of social intercourse will this strain disappear.
However, for a long time a child or young person will understand what local people are saying, but they may not always be sure what they mean.
Gradually, the child or young person begins to adjust. The environment does not change, but what has changed is their attitude towards it. Somehow it no longer troubles them and they no longer project their discomforts onto the people of the
1.5 FACTORS IMPORTANT TO SUCCESSFUL CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT 1. Open Mindedness... The ability to keep your opinions flexible and receptive
to new stimuli seems to be important to intercultural adjustment.
2. Sense of Humour... A sense of humour is important because in another culture there are many things which make you weep, get angry, be annoyed, embarrassed, or discouraged.
3. Ability to Cope with Failure... The ability to tolerate failure is critical
because everyone fails at something when moving to a new country. People who go to another country are often those who have been the most
successful in their home environments and have rarely experienced failure, thus, may have never developed ways of coping with failure. Alternatively, they may have moved because of very difficult circumstances and be experiencing traumatic shock.
4. Communicativeness... The ability and willingness to communicate your feelings and thoughts to others, verbally or non-verbally, is an important skill for successful intercultural communicators.
5. Flexibility and Adaptability... The ability to respond to or tolerate the
ambiguity of new situations is very important to intercultural success. Keeping options open and judgmental behaviour to a minimum describes an adaptable or flexible person.
6. Curiosity... Curiosity is the demonstrated desire to know about other people, places, ideas, etc. This skill or personality trait is important for intercultural travellers because they need to learn many things in order to adapt to their new environment.
7. Positive and Realistic Expectations... It has been shown frequently that there are strong correlations between positive expectations for an intercultural experience and successful adjustment overseas.
8. Tolerance for Differences and Ambiguities... A sympathetic understanding for beliefs or practices differing from your own is important to successful intercultural adjustment.
9. Positive Regard for Others... The ability to express warmth, empathy, respect, and positive regard for other persons is an important component of effective intercultural relations.
10. A Strong Sense of Self... A clear, secure feeling about yourself results in individuals who are neither weak nor overbearing in their relations with others.
People with a strong sense of themselves stand up for what they believe but do not cling to those beliefs regardless of new information, perspectives, or understandings which they may encounter.
This Appendix is an amended version of a document produced by Jim Mc Hugh (School Improvement Officer, Education Bradford) which was adapted from an Internet editorial by Dr Lalervo Oberg (Anthropologist – Health, Welfare and Housing Division, United States Operations Mission to Brazil).
APPENDIX 2
ETHNICITY AND SEN
2.1 SUMMARYAfter taking account of variations explained by year group, gender and socio- economic disadvantage, there is national evidence of SEN variations for minority ethnic groups relative to White British children or young people. Teachers should be aware that for some groups SEN is over-identified but for others SEN is under-
identified (see 2.2 below).
Black Caribbean and Mixed White & Black Caribbean children or young people are around 1 and a half times as likely to be identified as having Behavioural,
Emotional and Social Difficulties (BESD) as White British children or young people.
Research suggests teacher and school factors including racist attitudes and differential treatment of Black children or young people as a reason for their over- representation in the BESD category. However, the PLASC (Pupil Level Annual Survey and Census) data has not shown similar over-representation for all Black children or young people. It suggests differences between Black Caribbeans and Mixed White and Black Caribbeans compared with Black Other children or young people. Positive approaches to engage the children or young people and their parents and to focus on success, perhaps modelling on ‘Aiming High’ but with a specific additional SEN focus, should be considered.
Bangladeshi children or young people are nearly twice as likely to be identified as having a hearing impairment as White British children or young people. Pakistani children or young people are about 2 and a half times as likely to be identified as having Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties, a Visual Impairment, Hearing Impairment or Multi-sensory Impairment as White British children or young people.
The literature suggests a greater incidence of genetic factors related to
consanguinity (where parents are blood relations) as an important factor in the over- representation of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis for these SEN categories. However, care must be taken not to over-attribute developmental difficulties to this factor.
Asian and Chinese children or young people are less likely than White British children or young people to be identified as having Moderate Learning Difficulties, Specific Learning Difficulties and Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Research suggests that this could be because of difficulties in disentangling learning difficulties from issues associated with EAL and therefore work is needed to assess whether these children’s needs are being met appropriately or whether their EAL status is leading to an under-estimation of the nature and severity of cognition and learning needs.
The literature also suggests that lack of early take-up of health care among EAL groups may be an additional risk factor.
Children or young people from Traveller of Irish Heritage and Gypsy/Roma groups are over-represented among many categories of SEN, including Moderate and
Severe Learning Difficulties, and BESD. Research suggests a number of factors ranging from those associated with school such as negative teacher attitudes, racism and bullying, and a curriculum perceived as lacking relevance, to factors associated with Traveller cultures, such as high mobility, poor attendance and early drop out from school. However, the research base on this group is limited and therefore these conclusions are indicative only.
2.2 DETAILED RESEARCH
The information in section 2.1 is taken from the DfES report:
SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND ETHNICITY:
ISSUES OF OVER-AND-UNDER-REPRESENTATION Geoff Lindsay, Sulochini Pather and Steve Strand
Centre for Educational Development, Appraisal and Research Institute of Education, University of Warwick
May 2006 ISBN 1 84478 746 X Here are the findings in more detail:
Detailed Findings
Analysis of PLASC data identified that socioeconomic disadvantage (poverty) and gender have stronger associations than ethnicity with overall prevalence of SEN and of certain categories of SEN, and that year group is also associated.
For example, among all ethnic groups:
The identification of SEN is highest in Y6, with both younger children and young people being less likely to have identified SEN. Boys are over-represented, relative to girls, for most categories of SEN . The differences are most pronounced for ASD where boys are over-represented relative to girls 6:1 and BESD where boys are overrepresented 4:1. For SpLD and SLCN boys are overrepresented 2.5:1 and for MLD/SLD by about 1.75:1. There is no overrepresentation of boys in the more clearly ‘physiological’ categories of SEN, ie sensory or physical needs and PMLD.
The most prevalent categories of SEN (BESD and MLD), which together account for 52% of children or young people with SEN, are the most strongly associated with socio-economic disadvantage. Some categories have a significant but lower level of association (SLD, PMLD, PD, MSI, SpLD, and SLCN) and others have a weak relationship with socio-economic disadvantage (ASD, HI and VI).
The associations with year group, gender and socioeconomic disadvantage need to be taken into account when examining the relationship between ethnicity and SEN.
When this is done in our ‘adjusted models’, significant over- and under-
representation of different minority ethnic groups relative to White British children or young people remain but the associations between SEN and ethnic group are reduced. The extent of the remaining disproportionality varies by minority ethnic group and by category of SEN.
With respect to overall rate of being at School Action Plus or with a Statement After controlling for year group, gender and socioeconomic disadvantage, and compared to White British children or young people:
• Traveller of Irish heritage and Gypsy/Roma children or young people are 2.7 and 2.6 times more likely to have SEN.
• Black-Caribbean children or young people have a similar rate of identification.
• Black African children or young people are less likely to have identified SEN.
• Indian, Bangladeshi and Chinese children or young people are less likely to have SEN; Pakistani children or young people are under-represented but not to a substantial extent.
With respect to particular categories of SEN
After controlling for year group, gender and socioeconomic disadvantage, and compared to White-British children or young people:
• Travellers of Irish heritage children or young people are more likely to have SEN in relation to MLD, SLD, SpLD and BESD, and less likely to have SEN in relation to ASD.
• Gypsy/Roma children or young people are more likely to have SEN in relation to MLD, PMLD, HI and SLD and less likely to have SEN for ASD.
• Indian children or young people are less likely to have SEN in relation to BESD, SpLD, ASD and MLD.
• Bangladeshi children or young people are more likely to have SEN in relation to HI and less likely to have SEN in relation to BESD, ASD, SpLD, MLD and PD.
• Pakistani children or young people are more likely to have SEN in relation to PMLD, VI, HI and MSI, and less likely to have SEN in relation to BESD, SpLD and ASD.
• Black Caribbean and Mixed White & Black-Caribbean children or young people are more likely to have SEN in relation to BESD.
• Black African children or young people are less likely to have SEN in relation to MLD, SpLD, BESD and PD.
• Black Other children or young people are less likely to have SEN in relation to MLD, VI and PD.
• Chinese children or young people are more likely to have SEN in relation to SLCN, but less likely to have SEN in relation to BESD, SpLD, MLD and PD.
• Past evidence of over-representation of Black Caribbean children or young people in the MLD category has not been supported by the PLASC analysis: Black Caribbean (and Mixed White & Black Caribbean) children or young people are represented in comparable proportions to White children or young people.
Reasons for Disproportionality
There is strong evidence from our analysis of two broad groupings of SEN which differ with respect to the relative influences of physiological and societal/contextual factors.
• Those categories where the nature of the SEN has a stronger physiological element, eg hearing loss, and where the context is a relatively less important factor in the cause of the difficulties (although it is, of course, of great
importance in terms of action to address the SEN).
• Those categories of SEN that are more related to context, eg BESD.
There are two relevant factors. Firstly, these SEN are defined in terms of the child or young person’s actions within a context, mainly the school and classroom.
Furthermore, these needs are socially constructed in the sense that children or young people’s behaviour is interpreted in terms of expected patterns (norms) of behaviour. Secondly, there is evidence of a strong relationship for these categories with social disadvantage.
The PLASC analysis shows that Black Caribbean children or young people (and to a lesser extent Mixed White and Black Caribbean children or young people) have a higher likelihood of being identified as having BESD than White British children or young people. There is also evidence from national statistics (DfES, 2005) of similar patterns of over-representation of Black Caribbean children or young people among excluded and low-attaining children or young people. The literature has suggested teacher and school factors including racist attitudes and differential treatment of Black children or young people as a reason for their over-representation within the BESD category. However, the fact that the PLASC analysis shows no over-
representation for other Black groups raises questions about any simple conclusions based on this research. Rather, an interaction between a number of inter-related, and often self-perpetuating, factors seems more likely, including: teachers’
perceptions and expectations of minority ethnic children or young people, their understanding of different cultures, children or young people’ responses and reactions to this, and teachers’ reactions to behaviours which they consider challenging.
The research suggests greater incidence of genetic factors related to consanguinity as an important causative factor for some groups. This is a factor in the over-
representation of Pakistani children and young people for VI, HI, MSI, and PMLD and Bangladeshi children or young people for HI. However, this is a complex field and care must be taken not to over-attribute these difficulties to consanguinity.
The under-representation of all Asian groups and Chinese children or young people for SpLD and ASD could suggest that there are sometimes problems in
distinguishing learning difficulties from issues associated with English as an Additional Language. Late and low levels of take-up of health care among Asian groups because of poor communication (which could be due to EAL), low levels of knowledge of services and delays in diagnosis have been identified as additional risk factors.
The high levels of SEN among Traveller groups appear to have a number of determining factors. These range from factors associated with school such as negative teacher attitudes, racism and bullying, and a curriculum perceived as
lacking relevance to factors associated with Traveller cultures, such as high mobility, poor attendance and early drop out from school. However, the research base is limited and so conclusions for this group can only be indicative.
Further generic factors are:
• Parent support within minority ethnic groups overall is equally as high (if not higher) than for the White population but some parents may experience barriers to involvement as a result of language difficulties.
• Poverty and socio-economic disadvantage are supported as important factors in those categories of SEN that are strongly associated with context: BESD and MLD.
• Poverty and socio-economic disadvantage appear not to be as important for those categories of SEN with strong physiological (within-child) causes, particularly sensory and physical needs, PMLD and ASD.
The above results give a picture of the national situation regarding over and under representation of different minority groups with regard to SEN identification.
However there is also substantial variation between LAs in these data. For example, while in general Pakistani children or young people and White British children or young people do not differ substantially in the likelihood of having an identified SEN, in 10 LAs Pakistani children or young people are half as likely as White British
children or young people to have an identified SEN. Meanwhile in four LAs Pakistani children or young people were 1.5 times more likely than White British children or young people to have an identified SEN. Identifying and exploring such variation may help us to better understand the reasons for over or under representation.
Recommendations
Where possible we present recommendations targeted either at the Local Authority/
Children’s trust or at the national level, primarily DfES but also Department of Health (DH) and Teacher Development Agency (TDA). However, for all of these
recommendations it will be important to ensure engagement at national and local levels and to engage all education practitioners including teachers, educational psychologists, advisory and support staff and health professionals (eg speech and
Local Authorities/Children’s Trusts should:
• Work together to consider the LA’s analysis of its PLASC data against the national dataset in order to identify local patterns of over and under
representation and to formulate appropriate action.
• Make more use of the extended codes to examine the particular
characteristics of their communities at a level of detail (eg the origin and demographics of groups such as Black African and Black Other will vary in different areas).
• Examine the SEN-ethnicity interactions for their locality, seek to identify whether there are local factors of importance, and address emerging issues.
• Ensure that training and support is provided to schools to optimise the accuracy of identification of category and level of SEN.
• Establish a two-way flow of information between those responsible for collecting and analysing PLASC data and other sections of the LA who provide services where the data are relevant. Thus (1) those delivering services (eg School Improvement Services, School Improvement Partners, Educational Psychology Services, Ethnic Minority Advisory Services and Education Welfare Services etc) should receive appropriate analyses of SEN and ethnicity data and (2) the services should provide feedback to help the LA/Children’s Trust in the interpretation of the data.
• Use the evidence produced in this report to support the development of Children’s Services that meet the needs of children and young people with SEN from minority ethnic groups.
• Use the evidence to plan resources and commissioning strategies for children or young people from minority ethnic groups identified as over-represented, eg Pakistani and Bangladeshi children or young people for sensory
impairment and PMLD.
APPENDIX 3
FEATURES OF COMMON FIRST LANGUAGES
Cummins (1979, 1981) suggests that children learning English as an additional language (EAL) take about two years to develop ‘basic interpersonal communication skills’ (BICS) – playground/street survival language. However, it takes from five to seven years to acquire the full range of literacy skills (CALP – cognitive academic language proficiency) needed to cope with the demands of GCSE.
Until fluently bilingual, certain features from the stronger language may ‘interfere’
with the second language. This influence will probably fade, particularly with younger learners, but sometimes they may become ingrained if not helped
specifically. These features may also be seen as areas of particular difficulty when learning English as an additional language.
3.1 Some differences between Polish and English
Punctuation: adjectives such as polish, english, days of the week, names of the months are spelled with small letters; different use of commas, dashes, semi-colons.
Articles: no definite or indefinite articles.
Word order: much more flexibility due to declination and conjugation.
Reported speech and conditionals: no sequence of tenses (He said he WILL come; I will go if he WILL come).
Length of sentences: Polish sentences are often longer and more words are needed to express the same thought.
Polite language: (eg please) certainly exists but is used less frequently.
Phonemes: the sound 'th' (voiced and unvoiced) does not exist in Polish and is frequently replaced by language learners with 'z' (there) or 'f' (maths). Encourage children or young people to use a mirror for tongue control! The vowel sound in 'cat' does not exist, either gets pronounced as 'e' (pet) or 'u' (but). 'R' is rolled like in Spanish or Italian.
Handwriting: Letter and number forms differ considerably to standard written English.
Gender: there are three genders: masculine, feminine and neutral. Every noun has a gender, it's impossible to find any logic in the division, eg a table and the moon are masculine, a lamp and a game are feminine, an apple and the sun are neutral.
Nouns, pronouns and adjectives: have six cases: nominative, dative, accusative, ablative etc in singular and six cases in plural.
3.2 Some differences between Portuguese and English
English and Portuguese grammars are similar in structure, both are based on Latin, but the usage of certain terms and verbs differ considerably, for instance:
Phonemes: The sound "th" (voiced and unvoiced) does not exist in Portuguese and it is frequently replaced by "d" in the word "mother" (voiced th ) and "t" in the word
"think" (unvoiced th). Encourage children or young people to use a mirror for tongue control!
The letter "r" (as in Robert) in English does not pose difficulties for Brazilians but it can be more difficult to pronounce by the Portuguese or Portuguese-speaking Africans (Angolans, Mozambicans).
The letter "h" is silent in Portuguese, but the letter r in the beginning of a word has the "h" sound in English, eg the word "robbery" would be pronounced "hobbery" in Portuguese.
Handwriting: Portuguese uses the Roman alphabet, although "w" and "y" are regarded as foreign letters and are thus uncommon, being generally used to write foreign words.
Punctuation: As in English, words that initiate a sentence are written with a capital first letter, but nationalities and days of the week use lower case.
Articles: Portuguese has definite (o, a, os, as) and indefinite (um, uma, uns, umas) articles. Portuguese speakers tend to use articles much more often than English speakers, when it is optional or not at all necessary in English, eg before names or singular/plural nouns.
Verb tenses: There are as many verb tenses in Portuguese as there are in English, but Portuguese has more variations, in particular when expressing the past (as in French).
Length of sentences: Sentences tend to be longer in Portuguese, just because more words are necessary to convey the same meaning and express similar idea in English.
Polite language: is certainly used when talking to older people or people of authority, eg Sr. (senhor/sir) or Sra (senhora/madam) and "voce" (formal you).
Gender: There are two genders in Portuguese; masculine and feminine. Every noun has a gender, but there are no rules to determine that. Children or young people learn the gender of words as they come, eg salt and sofa are masculine and television and table are feminine.
3.3 Some features of languages of the Indian subcontinent eg Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Gujerati
Punctuation in Urdu: there are no capital letters, a dash is used instead of a full- stop and there are no commas.
Definite/Indefinite Articles: There are no definite/indefinite articles – eg ‘She gave me sweet’. The number ‘one’ is sometimes used instead of ‘a’.
Word Order: The word order in a sentence is: subject-object-verb, eg ‘I window shut’ rather than: subject-verb-object (as in English), eg ‘I shut the window’.
Adverbs: come after the subject – eg ‘I quickly window shut’.
Pronouns: There is a common word for ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘they’. There is no
differentiation between genders and there is no neuter gender – ‘it’ does not exist.
Prepositions: These are post-positional. They follow the noun they go with – eg
‘Pencil table on is’. Also, many prepositions are used in a different way to English, eg ‘He hit me in my arm’.
Direct/Indirect Speech: The tense of the verb does not change when using indirect speech: ‘He said that he needed some money’ = ‘He said that he some money needs’.
Polite Language: ‘Please’ and '’thank you’ are often omitted.
Script and Directionality: In Hindi the script is written below the line rather than on it. The direction of writing in Urdu is from right to left.
Phonemes: Some phonemes do not exist in some Asian languages and may need focused teaching: eg “v”.
Use of vocabulary: There are some differences in vocabulary use between the Asian and English languages. For example, ‘aangadi’ in Gujerati refers to toes as well as fingers.
APPENDIX 4
FURTHER INFORMATION FOR FILTER QUESTIONS
4.1 Has the child or young person had less than 6 month's exposure to English as the first language?
Research shows that some children or young people will remain silent or are reluctant to speak for at least 6 months when first experiencing the English
language. This does not mean that they are not learning; in fact, they are learning all the time and it is important that they are seated with good users of English so that they are exposed to the best possible role model.
No child or young person should ever be forced to speak or write during this period.
It is unlikely that during this time they will show any ability to read or write in English but this does not mean that they are not absorbing and developing their skills.
It can take up to two years for a child or young person to show any real command of English as a new language and 5 years or more for them to attain at an age
appropriate level. During this time they need the support and guidance of their class teacher, their peers and the EAL team. They are trying to catch up with a 'moving target' as all children are developing English at the same time.
Learning should embrace as many non-verbal clues as possible – for example, the use of photographs, pictures, diagrams – which will all enable a child or young person to communicate non-verbally and develop their learning.
When a child or young person does start to use English, every effort should be made to praise their efforts as this will be a significant milestone for the child or young person. It is again important that the child or young person is working alongside those children or young people who will be sympathetic to their needs.
4.2 Do all children or young people read and write in their first language?
Not necessarily! When determining whether or not a child or young person has SEN, it would be appropriate to discover the extent to which they can read or write in their home language. Clearly if they are literate in the home language but not in English, then their needs are EAL.
If the child or young person is familiar with the conventions of reading and writing, then the barrier to learning is probably EAL. EAL support is therefore needed for this child or young person. Try further exposure to English and for that child or young person to be seated and working with good users of English.
If however, the child or young person is unable to read and write in the home language then it is important to determine why not.
• Is it because there has been no exposure to the written language at home?
• Do both parents read and write in their home language?
• Is the home language available in written form?
Some young children who have been born in the UK have been exposed to little or no English before school. A bilingual language assessment can be particularly useful in diagnosing language difficulty for those children or young people whose learning progress is already causing concern compared with other bilingual peers from a similar background.
Assessing children or young people in their first language, alongside an assessment in English, can also help to sort out whether the lack of adequate progress is
concerned with the acquisition of an additional language or whether conceptual or information processing difficulties are present. It can work as an indicator to guide monolingual teachers in arranging more appropriate support for diagnosed
difficulties. Bilingual language resources are available from Somerset's EMA team.
If the barrier to learning is that the child or young person has not experienced any language in the written form, then English should be taught as a written language.
If the child or young person continues to fail to thrive, despite having good oral skills in English, then it would be sensible to assume that the child or young person has some SEN. As the flow charts indicate, oral fluency is usually necessary before tackling written skills.
APPENDIX 5
BEHAVIOUR – SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DIFFICULTIES
5.1 Supporting transition to the English Education System
All schools have a structure to their day that may be very different to any previously experienced and for some children or young people it will be the first time that they have been into such a formal environment. If you are unfamiliar with the education system in the home country, we recommend you use an interpreter at the initial interview with the family to find out more.
We recommend a welcome pack (in addition to the school prospectus) for your school that explains the routines and expectations. It could explain about break and lunchtime arrangements, uniform, toileting facilities, arrangements for arriving and collecting from school – all the things that help a child or young person to settle into the way of life in school and will help them avoid being different. This pack could be available in a variety of languages; www.mantralingua.com sell a Welcome Booklet CD-Rom that produces a tailor made guide in any of its 19 languages.
Introducing a buddy system with other children can help to ease the transition, especially if there is another child in school who has come from the same or similar country or who can share the same home language (but see 6.2 below).
Parents may be anxious as their child tries to adapt to the new routines but may not speak sufficient English to be available to discuss this. A good idea is to use a home – school diary as a link. The School (with the EMA team if needed) selects about 5 phrases that they think will be important – X was happy today, X made a new friend today – and writes all the phrases in the book in English and the mother tongue.
Each time one of the stock phrases is subsequently used, parents/carers can
translate it and therefore gain some insight into how their child is faring. Clearly this can be used from home to school too. If there are a number of issues between home and school then it may be pertinent to involve the EMA team and/or an interpreter but developing a good relationship is equally important. Information on finding interpreters can be found at www.six.somerset.gov.uk/equalites and enter the key work "interp". Involving interpreters at an early stage can help develop a good relationship between home and school.
5.2 Asking children or young people to carry out instructions
It is vital that when a child or young person from an unfamiliar culture enters the classroom for the first time, the teacher should be aware of the new culture. It is important to understand what the child or young person may and may not do and what the implications are for that child or young person if they disobey the culture instilled at home. A child is likely to become distressed and display inappropriate behaviour in order to delay carrying out the instruction if they believe it is wrong for them to do so. The following are examples of some cultural norms:
• For Polish children instructions need to be direct. If you use “please” the child may not think you are serious about what you are saying.
• Girls from some Asian countries may be taught not to look men in the face.
• Boys and girls from some Asian countries may be taught not to make eye contact while they are being told off.
• Some Muslim children may be taught not to draw humans.
5.3 Responding to racism in school
Racism can have a significant impact on the lives of children and young people.
When families move to predominantly white British areas such as Somerset, children and young people may experience racism for the first time. This can be a significant shock.
It is very important that school staff respond effectively to racial incidents. Refer to the Somerset County Council Guidance Achieving Race Equality Revised guidance for Somerset schools. Go to:
www.six.somerset.gov.uk/equalities and enter the keyword "race equality".
APPENDIX 6
RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES FOR ALL EAL CHILDREN OR YOUNG PEOPLE
6.1 Create an inclusive environment
Make your classroom feel and appear welcoming and secure. Label classroom objects and rooms in children or young people’s languages. Reflect diversity in your photos and displays – resources are available from GLADE, SPAEDA and R4L.
Make links to children or young people’s cultures and experiences. Prepare your class before they arrive. Ensure all staff are aware of a child or young person’s background and needs. Use sensory materials to create a tactile environment. Give the child or young people a map of the school if you think it is appropriate and use symbols or photos on the map. The New Arrivals Excellence Programme (NAEP) Guide recommends that the child or young person is told to which adult to turn to if they have any concerns.
6.2 Set up peer support and mentoring
Set up a buddy system before a child or young person arrives. Use several children or young people to share the support, ideally a group of friends. Introduce the child or young person to others who share their language but don’t assume they will become friends. Remember there are conflicts within some countries between different language, religious or tribal groups. Arrange for children or young people to work with both younger and older pupils during their first few weeks to broaden their experiences and their opportunities to hear and try language.
6.3 Set up practical activities
Involve a new child or young person in collaborative activities from day one so they can participate – use objects, drawing and cameras or other recording equipment.
Use them to give out and collect things in class and to deliver messages in school, to build their confidence in speaking. Use PE to develop language.
Encourage the use of puzzles, board games and scrap books and ask the child or young person to bring in board games they have from their country to see if they can teach their friends to play them.
Hand over hand writing can help younger beginners. Say together what the child or young person wants to write. Let the EAL learner put their hand over the hand of a competent child or young person or adult as they write the words. Then repeat with hands reversed so the other person puts their hand over the child's hand to guide the writing.
6.4 Use key words
Pre-teach key words whenever possible. Send a list of seven words home for the child or young person to translate and learn using a dictionary, the internet or their family. Some children or young people with SEN will not benefit from pre-teaching as it will be out of context – use Key Visuals instead. Refer to key words (see below) often and make dual meanings clear, eg “plug” in a sink and "plug" in electricity.
6.5 Use visual support and key visuals
Use pictures, diagrams, flash cards, Somerset Total Communication (STC), picture dictionaries, software, DVD clips, artefacts and interactive whiteboards. Make a personalised action book to learn verbs, using a digital camera to take photos of friends or the child or young person doing things around school. Use large print books, drama and role play. Oxford Reading Tree texts have associated support materials on the EMAS website. For KS3 or above, Zoom reading scheme (Ginn) or Livewire (Hodder) texts can be very effective as they are simple but the material is age appropriate.
Key visuals show sequences or information visually and include timelines, tables, flow charts, pyramid or diamond diagrams and mind maps. Sequencing activities are ideal as they promote discussion, are non-threatening and easily corrected.
Colour code words on cards to help with sentence building – nouns in blue and verbs in green. Numbershark and First Keys have proved useful software for children or young people with SEN learning EAL.
Where possible use pictures rather than symbols as some symbols do not communicate an idea effectively across cultures.
6.6 Dictionaries
Use picture dictionaries and bilingual dictionaries in print or on-line. Some on-line dictionaries have audio support. Further strategies can be found in the New Arrivals Excellence Programme guidance.
APPENDIX 7
FIVE KEY PRINCIPLES AND CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
These principles were developed by the National Association for Language Development in the Curriculum (NALDIC).7.1 Activating prior knowledge in the child or young person Rationale:
Bilingual children or young people’s experiences will vary, as will their use of English and knowledge of culturally specific frameworks for learning. Learning involves integrating new information (‘input’) into their existing mental model of the world (or schema). In second or additional language learning, prior knowledge of content and language plays a major role in helping to make second language input
comprehensible by providing hooks to connect to new learning. Prior knowledge can include shared experiences in class since the child or young person arrived, such as fieldwork and science investigations.
Examples:
Finding out what children or young people know about a topic through questioning, using KWL (Know, Want to find out, Learned) charts, thought showers or
investigations in small groups or pairs. Enable use of first language if you have 2 or more children or young people with the same language.
7.2 A rich contextual background Rationale:
Children or young people learning EAL require opportunities to draw on additional contextual support to make sense of new information and language. Content learning for children or young people learning EAL can be greatly improved through the use of visual support. This can help learners to conceptualise learning tasks that are being presented to them, or in which they are engaged, even when their
knowledge of the target language is limited.
Examples:
There is a distinct difference between a visual aid (for example, a picture of a frog) and ‘key visuals’ (for example, a diagram of the life cycle of a frog). Key visuals or graphic organisers are linked to tasks which support the development of conceptual and language knowledge. They provide a summary of information but they also show a structure for the information. They also offer opportunities for children or young people to engage in active learning experiences. Visual support and graphic organisers might include: maps, diagrams, charts, tables, semantic webs, graphs, time-lines, outlines of causal sequences. DVDs, computer graphics and web pages can also provide useful visual support.
7.3 Actively encouraging comprehensible output Rationale:
Children and young people are actively encouraged, when they are ready, to produce spoken and written language from an early stage of the lesson onwards.
This is important for both cognitive and linguistic development. The active use of language provides opportunities for learners to be more conscious of their language use, and to process language at a deeper level. It also brings home to both learner and teacher those aspects of language that will require additional attention.
Examples:
Use peer tutoring, collaborative learning, drama and role-play, opportunities for scaffolded teacher-learner and peer-peer interaction. Use oral feedback to move children and young people towards the forms of language used in writing, use questioning strategies.
7.4 Making key grammatical elements explicit Rationale:
Whatever language is needed to talk about the content, it should be used in ways that allow learners to take note of the language itself. Attention should be drawn to language and how it is used to express the content knowledge. This can mean explicit comment on forms, structures and functions of the language that is used to convey the content as well as in more indirect ways of calling attention to language.
Examples:
Drawing attention to the grammatical forms used to recall past events or to express doubt (eg ‘may’ and ‘might’) in texts, modelling and extending its use, providing opportunities for practice; talking about ways of expressing politeness when asking for something; noting how paragraphs present information in different subjects; how subtitles are used.
7.5 Developing learner independence Rationale:
Learners need increasingly to become more independent in their use of a range of learning strategies. The teacher may plan for learning that includes children or young people in planning, grouping/classifying and co-operating. The teacher has a key role in encouraging independence through the selection of planned activities, and by assisting children and young people to apply strategies that develop self- reliance.
Examples:
Providing opportunities to model and extend what has been taught; scanning texts to look at sub-headings and diagrams prior to reading, using diagrams to demonstrate knowledge; note-taking; teaching study skills.