Mid Year Review Outline: I. The Cell
A. Know similarity and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells a. Similarity (cell membrane)
b. Differences (nucleus and organelles in eukaryotic cells) B. Know which cells contain a cell wall
a. (plants and prokaryotic cells) C. Cell theory
a. All living things are composed of cells b. All cells come from pre-existing cells c. The cell is the basic unit of life II. Diffusion/Active Transport:
a. Diffusion-NO ENERGY REQUIRED.
i. Moves with the concentration gradient from high to low
b. Facilitated Diffusion: NO ENERGY REQUIRED, but needs protein channels to move molecules.
i. Still works with a concentration gradient. c. Active Transport: ENERGY REQUIRED
i. Moves opposite the concentration gradient ii. Moves polar molecules and very large molecules. III. The parts of the brain: Labeled in diagram
a. Cerebrum (frontal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe) b. Cerebellum
c. Hypothalamus d. Medulla Oblongata
IV. Kingdoms:
a. Animalia, Protista, Archea, Bacteria, Plantae
i. Photosynthesis is conducted in the Plantae, Protista, and Bacteria Kingdoms ii. Eukaryotic Unicellular organisms are classified as Prostista
iii. Prokaryotic unicellular organism is classified as bacteria iv. Plantae and Animalia are eukaryotic cells
v. Fungi can no longer be in the Kingdom of Plantae because they do not photosynthesis. They are heterotroph.
vi. Kingdom Bacteria have very resilient organisms. They can resist many extreme conditions. This is because the ones that adapt to an environment are the ones that reproduce and they reproduce exponentially (super-fast and in great numbers).
1. Bactetria is a unicellular organism V. Primitive Earth (Miller-Urey Experiment):
a. Was designed to show the gases that where present in primitive Earth.
i. The end product of the experiment was the amino acids that were necessary for life to start.
ii. NO OXYGEN was present in primitive Earth.
iii. The gases used for the experiment were that ones that were thought to be present at the time.
VI. Endosymbiotic Theory:
a. It explains how eukaryotic cells came about (had arisen).
b. It explained the interdependence between primitive bacteria and prokaryotic cells. i. The bacteria entered the prokaryotic cell and became the mitochondria and the
chloroplast.
1. This transform the prokaryotic cell into the primitive eukaryotic cell that could take in oxygen.
VII. Origin of Life:
a. Blue Green algae introduced oxygen into the primitive atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis.
VIII. Evidence of Evolution: a. Fossil:
i. Law of Superposition:
1. The deeper the fossil—the older the fossil. b. Homologous Structures:
i. Same bone structure---different function
1. Usually caused by environmental stresses. Organism must adapt to environment so their functions change.
c. Vestigial Structure:
i. Organ present but has no true use (appendix)
d. Embryological Development (All Organism look the same in early embryological stage): i. This shows that they all share a common ancestor
e. Cladogram (chart that has different branches. The closer the branches the closer they are related to each other):
i. Used to support the theory of evolution IX. Ecology:
a. Evasive organism: Non-native organisms that take over an ecosystem and can lower or even eliminate the native organisms in the area.
b. Climate Changes:
i. Increase temperature can cause: 1. Glaciers to melt
2. Rise in sea levels
3. Less marine food in many locations 4. Droughts
c. Food web: i. Marine:
Producer: Phytoplankton Primary Consumer: Krill Secondary Consumer: Fish, Other Seals, Bird, Leopard seal, Penguin
a. Which consumer would cause the collapse of the food web if they were completely removed? (Krill)
ii. Terrestrial:
iii. Producers are always on the bottom
1. They are autotrophs which means they make their own food (photosynthesis)
2. Most efficient energy transfer in a food web is the shortest food chain that can be created from the chain.
a. i.e.: grass→bird iv. Trophic Levels:
a. Energy is transferred from what is being eaten to the organism eating it.
b. Not all energy is transfers only 10%
i. 90% is lost in respiration and feces (lost to the environment)
v. Predator-prey relationship:
1. The number of prey determines the number of predators.
vi. Limiting factors:
1. Anything that cause a drop-in population size a. Food
b. Water c. Shelter d. temperature vii. Carrying capacity:
1. When a population reaches the amount of resources that any habit can handle.
a. The population starts to drop.
b. Density dependent factors: i. Disease
ii. Starvation iii. Competition iv. Stress
c. Density Independent factors: i. Natural Disaster viii. Eutrophication:(causes algal blooms)
1. Ecological impact:
a. Less dissolved oxygen in the water for fish and other marine organism. They all die.
ix. Forest clearing: (man-made) 1. Ecological impact:
a. More erosion b. Increase runoff x. Global Warming:
1. Ecological impact:
i. Causes coral bleaching b. Increase in land temperatures
i. Causes draughts xi. Water (unique Properties):
1. Polar properties
2.
3. Osmosis (water potential)
a. From more diluted to less diluted
4. Cohesion: water molecules are attracted to each other 5. Adhesion: water is attracted (sticks) to other substances
a. Cohesion and Adhesion are responsible for the movement of water up a plant.
6. Water can moderate temperature (it takes more energy to heat so it is cooler than any other surface)
7. Properties:
a. Solid (more dense) b. Liquid (less dense) c. Gas (no density) xii. Circulatory System:
1. Blood flow
2. The heart is the main organ
a. Lung supplies the oxygen to the blood
3. Veins (take blood back to the heat), arties (takes blood away from the heart), capillaries
4. Gives the oxygen supply to support physical activity (exercise) 5. Smoking, Drugs, Excess fat can damage the heart:
a. Emphysema is caused by smoking (damages the bronchioles) b. Atherosclerosis is caused by excess fat (leads to high blood
xiii. Immune System:
1. Antibodies are created by the immune system to destroy pathogens that enter the body
2. Antibiotics are given to treat bacteria (foreign pathogens) not viruses a. Primary response (general response):
i. inflammatory response
ii. first time the organism is exposed to pathogen iii. Aka: Inborn (Passive)
b. Secondary response (targeted/antigen specific):
i. Antibodies made by the body attack the specific pathogen
ii. Faster response iii. Memory cells present iv. Aka: Acquired (Active) xiv. Reproductive System:
1. Female Reproduction:
a. Uterus--Site for the attachment of the fertilized egg(blastocyst) b. Ovaries: produces the eggs
2. Male Reproduction:
a. Epididymis: site where sperm is stored after production. b. Testes: male reproductive gland
c. Urethra: provides exit for urine as well as semen xv. Pregnancy:
1. First Trimester:
a. Blastocyst (fertilized egg) b. Fetus develops
c. Heart begins to beat
d. Placenta and umbilical cord form 2. Second Trimester:
a. Eyes, ears, nose well developed
b. Facial expressions and they can start kicking c. Can swallow and suck
3. Third Trimester:
b. Organs completely develop and change to prepare for birth c. Can regulate body temperature
xvi. Photosynthesis: 1. Formula:
a. Only photosynthetic(autotrophs) organism can photosynthesize.
b. Chloroplast-organelle (site of photosynthesis)
i. Chlorophyll- pigment (captures energy from the sun) c. Reactants: carbon dioxide and water
d. Energy source: the sun
e. Products: glucose (simple sugar) and oxygen (waste product) f. Two Reactions involved in photosynthesis:
i. Light reaction and Dark reaction
1. Light reaction: energy taken from the sun a. Water molecule is broken and oxygen is
released.
2. Dark reaction: energy comes from the production of NADH and FADH and ATP from the light reaction
a. Glucose is made from the carbon dioxide present.
xvii. Cellular Respiration: 1. Glycolysis:
a. Takes place in the cytoplasm. (anaerobic—No oxygen) 2. Cellular Respiration:
a. Takes place in the mitochondria. b. Formula:
3. All aerobic (oxygen breathing) organisms perform cellular respiration. 4. 36 ATP are created
a. 2 in Glycolysis and 34 in cellular respiration xviii. Similarities of both photosynthesis and cellular respiration:
2. They both product ATP at some point in the process. xix. Fermentation: 1. Anaerobic: a. No Oxygen b. Glycolysis 2. Two forms:
a. Lactic (in muscles) and Alcoholic (yeast)
xx. Plants:
1. Stomata/Guard cells:
2. Make sure to know the function
and location of the guard cell. xxi. Parts of the plant:
1. Leaf:
a. Primary Site of photosynthesis (light dependent reaction) 2. Roots:
a. water and vitamin absorption b. storage of sugar(starch) 3. Stem:
a. Transport
i. Water (xylem)
ii. Sugar/nutrients (phloem) 4. Meristem: Site of growth in plants
a. Apical and axillary xxii. Reproductive parts of a plant:
1. Stamen: male 2. Pistil: female
xxiii. Genetics: 1. Darwin:
a. Beak sizes: Natural selection (Survival of the Fittest)
i. Environment dictates which traits are more favorable for survival and those are the traits that are passed on to each generation.
b. Evolution took a long time to happen. 2. Mendel:
a. Punnett Square: when you have two parents and you want to determine what the offspring will look like.
b. You the genetic makeup of mom (yy) is green and dad (Yy) is yellow/green
c. Then you cross them.
d. SEGREGATION: Each letter is an allele (a trait) and
e. INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT: the traits are independent of each other.
f. So, mom only has the trait for green color and dad has for both Y=yellow and y=green.
g. Y is dominant so whenever you have a capital letter in the genetic makeup that is the trait you will see. Because the dad has the trait for yellow it masks the green and he only shows yellow.
***The genotype is: 50% homologous recessive green & 50% heterozygote Yellow/green** 3. Homozygote and Heterozygote:
a. YY or yy (homozygote) same letter size
i. YY: dominate (physically only show dominant trait) ii. yy: recessive (ONLY time physically shows recessive
trait)
b. Yy (hetezygote) two different letter sizes i. Dominant traits--letter always capital
1. Dominate trait will always appear physically. xxiv. Cell Cycle:
1.
2. Interphase:
a. G1, S phase, G2: cell grows and gets ready to divide. b. DNA replication
3. Cell Division: a. Mitosis:
i. Cell produces 2 identical daughter cells
ii. Prophase-nuclear envelop disappears. Chromosomes become visible
iii. Metaphase- duplicated chromosomes line up in the center. Splindle fibers attach to them
iv. Anaphase-chromosomes are pulled into opposite ends of the cell.
v. Telophase-a nuclear envelope forms in each new cell 4. Cell Separation;
MITOSIS = TWO IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS (diploid cells)
5. Meiosis: (only produces sex cells) a. Goes through two cell divisions
i. Has half the total number of chromosomes of all the other cells in your body
ii. Prophase-nuclear envelop disappears. Chromosomes become visible
iii. Metaphase- duplicated chromosomes line up in the center. Splindle fibers attach to them
iv. Anaphase-chromosomes are pulled into opposite ends of the cell.
v. Telophase-a nuclear envelope forms in each new cell vi. Then they divide again:
1. Prophase II-nuclear envelop disappears. Chromosomes become visible
2. Metaphase II- duplicated chromosomes line up in the center. Splindle fibers attach to them 3. Anaphase II-chromosomes are pulled into
opposite ends of the cell.
4. Telophase II-a nuclear envelope forms in each new cell
(SECOND DIVISION CUTS THE NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IN HALF. NO LONGER IDENTICAL CELLS) (MEIOSIS PRODUCES 4 DIFFERENT CELS)
xxv. DNA :
1. DNA: 4 nitrogenous bases a. AT & GC
b. Adenine(A) only pairs with Thymine(T) c. Guanine(G) only pairs with Cytosine(C)
I. DNA Replication:
a. DNA replication takes place in the nucleus during interphase for both meiosis and mitosis
b. DNA Helicase Opens the latter
c. DNA Polymerase adds the complementary nucleotide. d. Its copies from 5’ to 3’.
e. “Proofreading” helps catch any errors when the complimentary base pairs (Nitrogenous bases) are added.
d. DNA replication:
1. Diagram
2. Steps for DNA replication:
1. Helicase splits the double helix to unzip the strand.
2. RNA primer binds to the template and begins to synthesis
3. DNA polymerase reads the templates
4. Once copied. The DNA ligase seals the gap
3.
Because each strand can be used to
make the other strand, they are said
to be complementary
XXVI. RNA: Replicates, Translates, and Transcribes information from DNA: A-U and C-G d. Diagram:
i. RNA gets all its information from DNA
ii. mRNA: Transcription---copies DNA into RNA language iii. tRNA: Translation---codons (amino acids)
iv. rRNA: Ribosomal ---Proteins are made in the RNA and tell the cell what to do. Specifically, in the Ribosomes.
I. Transcription : mRNA: (occurs in the NUCLEUS) a. RNA Polymerase binds to DNA
b. Polymerase uses one strand of DNA to copy into DNA from 3’ to 5’ i. Introns are copies that stay attached to the DNA
ii. Exons are the copies that leave
c. When mRNA reaches the terminal signal, it is released and leaves.
d.
II. Translation: tRNA
a. The decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain is known as translation. b. Translation takes place on ribosomes.
c. During translation, or protein synthesis, the cell uses information from mRNA to produce proteins.
d. The cell uses all three main forms of RNA during translation. e. Summary of Protein production:
i. DNA serve as a template to RNA polymerase. ii. RNA polymerase creates a mRNA molecule. iii. mRNA enters cytoplasm and binds to a ribosome. iv. tRNA brings one amino acid at a time.
v. New amino acids are added to the polypeptide chain until stop codon. III. Muations:
a. Mutations that produce changes in a single gene are known as gene mutations. b. Mutations that produce changes in whole chromosomes are known as chromosomal
mutation
1. Gene Mutations: involving changes in one or a few nucleotides are known as point mutations.
• Substitutions, in which one base is changed to another.
• Insertions in which a base is inserted from the DNA sequence
• Deletions, in which a base is removed from the DNA sequence.
2. Chromosomal Mutations: involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes.
• Change the locations of genes on chromosomes. • Change the number of copies of some genes.
1. Deletions involve the loss of all or part of a chromosome
2. Duplications produce extra copies of part of a chromosome
3. Inversions reverse the direction of parts of chromosomes
4. Translocation occurs when parts of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another.
XXXVII. Macromolecules: Macromolecules are polymers constructed of many organic molecules called monomers.
b. Monomer - small molecular subunit which joins (form covalent bonds) with similar units to form a polymer.
c. Polymer - consists of up to millions of repeated, covalently linked monomers.
• Dehydration Synthesis:
1. Formation of large molecules by the removal of water.
2. Monomers are joined to form polymers • Hydrolysis:
1. Breakdown of large molecules by the addition of water
2. Polymers are broken down to monomers
Proteins(C,H,O,N): made of amino acids
• ( R-group is what distinguishes each group of amino acids).
• Tells the cell what to do.
• Enzymes: The catalyst will decrease the amount of activation energy needed to begin the chemical reaction, allowing the reaction to occur at a faster rate.
• Enzymes: always a protein. Speeds up a reaction.
3. Carbohydrates(C,H,O): made up of sugar. Energy source for cellular respiration. (all covalent bonds)
• Glucose: C6H12O6 this is a hexose sugar (six carbons) most commonly found in this ring structure.
• Glucose will be known to most students as a product of photosynthesis or the substrate molecule for respiration.
• Glucose is also found in a polymer as starch, glycogen or cellulose.
• Glucose is a reducing sugar and will give positive (Brick red) precipitate in a Benedicts test
• Glucose is metabolically active compound
• Glucose is soluble and has osmotic effects when in solution
4. Lipids(C,H,O): Fats. Used to store energy. a. Insulators and energy storage
b. Saturated: Solid @ room temperature c. Unsaturated : Liquid @ room temperature
d.
• Phospholipid: Are the principle molecule in the cell membrane they form the 'bilayer' that is the cell membrane.
• Polar (Phoso) head which is hydrophilic NonPolar tail (lipid) which is
hydrophobic 5.
6. Nucleic Acid: (Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus)
