ATHLETIC INSIGHT JOURNAL

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Volume 3 Number 2

Table of Contents

The Transtheoretical Model and Psychological Skills Training: Application and

Implications with Elite Female Athletes 95

Linda A. Keelerand Jack C. Watson II

Transitioning Out of Sport: The Psychosocial Effects of Collegiate Athletes’

Career-Ending Injuries 115

Amber L. Stoltenburg, Cindra S. Kamphoff, and Karin Lindstrom Bremer

Warming up and Staying Loose: The Prevalence, Style, and Influence of Prepartying Behavior and Drinking Games among

Intercollegiate Athletes 135

Justin F. Hummer, Joseph W. LaBrie and Andrew Lac

A Comparison of Psychosocial and Orthopedic Data in Injured College

Athletes: A Novel Application of Hurdle Regression 153

Jeremy Sibold, Alan Howard and Samuel Zizzi

The Effects of Directing the Learner’s Gaze on Skill Acquisition in Gymnastics 165

Thomas Heinen, Pia M. Vinken and Hardy Fink

Group Counseling for Sports Teams: A Conceptualization Linked to Practice 183

Michael B. Johnson, Javier Cavazos Jr. and Robert E. Corb

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Welcome to "Athletic Insight," the Journal of sport psychology. Over the past several years, both coaches and athletes have started to realize that strength, speed, and other athletic skills are not sufficient for the production of championship athletes. Athletic performance has three parts: physical preparation, technical skill, and psychological readiness. This model suggests that if any of the above areas are neglected, athletic performance will decline. However, psychological preparation is the component that is most often neglected by athletes and coaches alike.

Presently, the field of sports psychology and performance enhancement is growing exponentially. However, the sources of information related to the field are extremely limited. The purpose of this Journal is to provide a forum for discussion of topics that are relevant to the field of sport psychology through quarterly publications. The subjects covered will include theory, research, and practice of sport psychology, as well as social issues related to the field of athletics. It is our hope that this Journal will serve as a valuable resource for anyone who is interested in the field.

PROPRIETORS

Miguel Humara, Ph.D. Robert Schinke, Ph.D.

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Robert Schinke, Ph.D. Laurentian University E-mail: [email protected]

Athletic Insight is published 3x per year by

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

400 Oser Avenue, Suite 1600 Hauppauge, New York, 11788-3619 USA

Telephone: (631) 231-7269 Fax: (631) 231-8175 E-mail: [email protected]

Web: www.novapublishers.com Subscription price (2011): $280 per volume

ISSN: 1947-6299

Additional color graphics may be available in the e-journal version of this journal.

Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this Journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without permission from the Publisher.

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Robert Schinke, Ph.D. Laurentian University E-mail: [email protected] ASSOCIATE EDITORS Sandy Kimbrough, Ph.D.

Texas A&M University

Mary Pritchard, Ph.D. Boise State University

Jack Watson, Ph.D. West Virginia University

SENIOR PEER-REVIEWERS Kaori Araki, Ph.D.

Timothy Mark Baghurst, Ph.D., Henderson State University, USA

Harald Bakhoff, Ph.D., University of Hawaii, USA

Justin Carre, Ph.D. Cand., Brock University, Canada

Kim Dorsch, Ph.D., University of Regina, Canada

Mark Eys, Ph.D.m Laurentian University, Canada

Lisa Fender-Scarr, Ph.D., University of Akron, USA

Jenelle Gilbert, Ph.D., California State University - Fresno, USA

Shaun Galloway, Ph.D., University of Wolverhampton, UK

James Hardy, Ph.D., University of Bangor, Wales

Brandonn Harris, Ph.D., Kansas State University, USA

Katie Marie Heinrich, Ph.D., University of Hawaii, USA

Daniel B. Hollander, EdD, SouthEastern Louisiana University, USA

Martin I. Jones, Ph.D., University of Alberta, Canada

Linda Keeler, PhD., California State University - Chico, USA

Anthony Kontos, Ph.D., Humboldt State University, USA

Alan Kornspan, Ed.D., University of Akron, USA

Karla Kubitz, Ph.D., Towson University, USA

Todd Loughead, Ph.D., University of Windsor, Canada

David Marchant, Ph.D., Edgehill University, UK

John Mills, Ph.D., Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA

Kerry McGannon, Univ. of Iowa, USA

Katherine M. Polasek, Ph.D., Cortland University, USA

Emily Roper, Ph.D.,

Tatiana Ryba, Ph.D., University of British Columbia, USA

Jane Sheldon, Ph.D., University of Michigan, USA

Tara Tietjen-Smith, Ph.D., Texas A&M University, USA

Samuel Todd, Ph.D., Georgia Southern University, USA

David S. Waltemeyer, Ph.D., Texas A&M University, USA

Bart Weathington, Ph.D., University of Tennessee at Chatanooga, USA

Gregory Wilson, Ph.D., Boise State University, USA

Sam Zizzi, Ph.D, West Virginia University, USA

Rebecca Zakrajsek, Ph.D., Indiana State University, USA

JUNIOR PEER-REVIEWERS EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Shaun Fliault

Ph.D. Candidate Univ. of South Australia Adelaide Chris Gee Ph.D. Candidate University of Toronto Canada Hope Yungblut

Volume 3, Number 2 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Linda A. Keeler

and Jack C. Watson II

California State University, Chico, CA, USA

West Virginia University, WV, USA

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Despite evidence of how psychological skills training (PST) can help athletic performance, some athletes still resist its use. Applying the transtheoretical model of behavior change in consultations may be helpful for decreasing resistance to PST. In the present study, questionnaires measuring stages of change, self-efficacy and processes of change towards PST were given four times to forty-five elite female rugby athletes. Individual stage scores did not change over time with the exception of precontemplation. There were no differences in stage scores between those who received sport psychology consultations and those who did not. Self-efficacy was negatively related to precontemplation scores and positively related to action scores. Those who sought individual consultations were more likely to have been in contemplation (45.5%) at the onset of the study. Further, previously identified processes of change were confirmed to be used by this population.

Keywords: transtheoretical model, psychological skills training, self-efficacy, processes of change, rugby

Reasons for neglecting or resisting psychological skills training (PST) have been explained by the stigma surrounding sport psychologists (Linder, Brewer, Van Raalte, & De Lange, 1991; Ravizza, 1988), lack of time, lack of access, low interest, and perceptions of ineffectiveness (Gould, Tammen, Murphy, & May, 1989; Zizzi & Perna, 2002). It has been suggested that a general rule of thumb when consulting with teams is that one-third will be excited about a consultant‘s presence, one-third will be indifferent, and one-third will not be interested (Ravizza, 2001). At the Olympic level, 86% of 1996 Atlanta and 1998 Nagano U.S. Olympians (Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001) reported using some form of mental practice and greater PST was found to discriminate between medalists and non-medalists at the 2000 Sydney Olympic games (Taylor, Gould, & Rolo, 2008). It is unclear what percentage of athletes at other levels utilize mental

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Corresponding author: Department of Kinesiology, Box 0330, Chico, CA, 95929 (530) 898-4072 office, (530) 898-4932 (fax) or Email [email protected]

skills. Thus, when sport psychology consultants attempt to develop, expand and increase effectiveness of consultations, the challenge exists for consultants to find effective ways to increase the use of these skills among athletes with whom they work. Applying a behavior change model to this challenge may be beneficial for active consultants. Application of a behavior change framework may prove especially helpful in team situations where there may be a wide range of attitudes towards the use of PST.

An effective first step for consultants when working with new clients may be to assess the athletes‘ current attitudes and behaviors related to PST since not all athletes may be willing to adopt PST practice. It has been advised by experienced consultants to only work with interested and willing participants (Ravizza, 2005). Heeding this advice may be problematic in two ways. First, even though athletes may be willing, they may not be equipped with the means to maintain new behaviors long-term. Second, according to the general rule of thumb previously stated (Ravizza, 2001), ignoring those athletes who are not interested or indifferent in sport psychology would likely be excluding approximately one to two thirds of an athletic/team population. Clearly, this may not be feasible or effective when working within a team atmosphere since only a fraction of the team would be ―buying in‖ to what the consultant has to offer. Further, only working with athletes who are ready to begin a PST program would limit the scope of potential clientele for consultants attempting to build or grow their business.

One possible theoretical approach to working with individuals who are unsure of the need to change their behavior (in this case, adopt PST) or who are not regularly practicing mental skills to reap the benefits, would be to approach the adoption of PST as a behavior change. Consultants often suggest interventions to athletes that include regularly practicing new skills (e.g. daily imagery or relaxation training). To ask athletes for compliance to interventions is to ask them to perform a behavior change. Behavior change has been widely studied in addictive and healthy behaviors, and the application of many theoretical models in the intervention process have been supported in the literature (e.g. DiClemente, et al., 1991; DiClemente, 1993; Gorely & Gordon, 1995; Herrick, Stone & Mettler, 1997; Janis & Mann, 1968; Marcus, Banspach et al., 1992; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). Once such behavior change model is the transtheoretical model of behavior change (TTM, Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). Prochaska and DiClemente formulated the TTM after studying smokers who were able to quit on their own. The authors postulated that at any given time, individuals could be categorized into one of five stages of change (SOC) relating to a particular behavior change process and change occurs as individuals progress through stages (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). The TTM has been applied to exercise behavior as an effective guide to tailor interventions to match a person‘s stage of change at the onset of the intervention (Marcus, Banspach et al., 1992). Not only has the TTM been successfully applied to many health behavior changes (e.g., alcohol addiction, dietary behavior, exercise) in individuals (Prochaska et al., 1994), it has, on a limited basis, been applied to the adoption of PST (Grove et al., 1999; Leffingwell, Rider, & Williams, 2001; McKenna, 2001).

The most standard form of the TTM consists of the notion that readiness to change can be identified and categorized into one of five stages of change (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). These stages include: 1) precontemplation (not changing and not

considering changing the behavior), 2) contemplation (considering a change in the behavior within the next six months), 3) preparation (taking steps to start the behavior change or starting the change without regularity), 4) action (regularly engaging in the behavior change but for less than six months), and 5) maintenance (having changed the behavior for longer than six months). According to Prochaska and DiClemente, movement through the stages of change is typically fluid: relapses may occur, reverting the individual back to a previous stage, however, chances for relapse significantly decrease once the maintenance stage is reached. The categorization of individuals‘ stages of change has been completed by use of questionnaires (e.g. Marcus, Selby, Niaura, & Rossi, 1992; Prochaska, Velicer, DiClemente, & Fava, 1988).

An assumption of the TTM is that the stage of an individual and processes used within each stage to change the behavior can be identified. Ten standard techniques individuals‘ use to change behavior on their own have been identified, namely the processes of change (POC; Prochaska, Velicer, DiClemente, & Fava, 1988), and found useful across different behaviors ranging from smoking cessation to alcohol addiction (DiClemente, 1993). One example of a POC is reinforcement management, which occurs when an individual rewards himself/herself for making progress toward a goal (e.g. buying a new shirt after regularly exercising for one month); thus, supporting the new behavior. Change enhancing processes have been categorized into an experiential component (e.g., consciousness raising, emotional relief) and a behavioral component (e.g., stimulus control, reinforcement management). Some of these processes have been found to be used more effectively in certain stages (DiClemente et al., 1991; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983), with more experiential or cognitive processes used effectively in early stages (i.e., precontemplation and contemplation) and more behavioral processes used effectively in latter stages (i.e., preparation, action and maintenance). Researchers have used the TTM to guide interventions by tailoring the intervention to the individual‘s stage of change. In these tailored interventions, stage matched processes of change are used as intervention techniques and have been found to be more effective at promoting change than standard interventions (e.g. Marcus, Banspach et al., 1992; Peterson & Aldana, 1999; Prochaska, DiClemente, Velicer, & Rossi, 1993).

Since standard interventions tend to be geared toward people who are ready for action, these interventions would not seem useful for those who are still weighing the risks and benefits of change (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). This is certainly true of PST where interventions are often structured towards teaching athletes how to implement mental skills into their training (Vealey, 1994). Although standard processes used in behavior change have been found in multiple behaviors, the need to confirm the same type of behavioral use in PST for sport is warranted (Leffingwell et al., 2001; McKenna, 2001). In other words, when athletes move from thinking PST is unnecessary in their training to incorporating regular practice of mental skills, it is unknown if athletes use the same cognitive and behavioral approaches to adopt a new behavior as they would for addictive and healthy behaviors. To date, only one known study has included an examination of the use of the processes of change in sport PST use (McKenna, 2001), indicating that a variety of processes were used across stages. Clearly, additional studies are needed to examine the application of the standard processes of change for PST use.

The TTM has been used to help describe and change behavior and has been related to other self-change concepts such as self-efficacy. Bandura‘s (1977) theory of behavior, which is based on a person‘s perceived self-efficacy towards successfully engaging in such behavior, has been found to positively relate to progression through stages of change (DiClemente et al., 1991). Self-efficacy has been found to be lower among those in precontemplation than those in action (DiClemente et al., 1991; DiClemente & Prochaska, 1985). More specifically, exercise self-efficacy scores were found to be greater with each stage from precontemplation to maintenance, with self-efficacy scores significantly differentiating each stage (except preparation and contemplation; Marcus, Selby, Niaura, & Rossi, 1992). When tailoring a consultation under the working framework of the transtheoretical model, a consultant may teach specific processes of change and focus on increasing self-efficacy for the change by allowing for short-term successful experiences.

Recently, the application of the TTM and self-efficacy has transcended addictive and healthy behaviors and has been applied to the adoption of psychological skills training for athletes (Grove et al., 1999; Leffingwell et al., 2001; McKenna, 2001; Zizzi & Perna, 2003). Leffingwell and colleagues adapted the original University of Rhode Island Change Assessment (URICA; McConnaughy, Prochaska, & Velicer, 1983) to measure behavior and attitudes related to mental skill use for performance enhancement, also known as readiness for change. Items were changed to reflect mental skill use and tested using two groups of intercollegiate athletes. The resulting scale, the Stage of Change – Psychological Skills Training (SOC-PST) reportedly measures readiness of change for PST in a complex manner similar to the URICA. The method of measurement reflects underlying assumptions that individuals have multiple attitudes and actions toward a behavior and may agree with attitudes or behaviors consistent with more than one stage of change (Rossi, Rossi, Velicer, & Prochaska, 1995). Thus, a respondent who completes the SOC-PST receives a score for each of four stages: precontemplation, contemplation, action and maintenance. Due to the complexities of the assumptions underlying the scale, the preparation stage was omitted by the researchers due to beliefs that this stage is merely a reflection of a combination of the contemplation and action stage. Leffingwell (2001) suggested that the SOC-PST can be used in three distinct ways including: 1) assigning a stage classification to an individual based on the highest subscale standardized score, 2) using the four subscale scores to understand a person‘s motivational readiness profile or 3) by calculating a readiness index by subtracting precontemplation scores from the sum of the remaining subscales.

Along the same lines as previous applications of the TTM, Leffingwell and colleagues (2001) developed a self-efficacy scale for use of PST (SE-PST) and examined how self-efficacy and sport psychology consultant contacts were related to stages of change for PST. In a college athletic population, it was found that athletes in the action stage for use of PST reported higher self-efficacy to utilize PST than athletes classified in precontemplation, contemplation, or maintenance (Leffingwell et al., 2001). In the same study, subsequent contacts with a sport psychology consultant were more common for those classified in active stages at baseline, particularly those athletes in contemplation (49% sought consultations), action (64% sought consultations), and maintenance (36%

sought consultations) compared to those in precontemplation (19%) over the course of a year. Thus, the application of the TTM could be a possible way of predicting client-initiated contacts, however, further research is needed in this area.

Although initial validation analyses for the SOC-PST had been completed by the authors in a research setting, it is unclear whether or not these scales are appropriate in an applied setting (Leffingwell, 2001). An earlier version of the SOC-PST was used to evaluate the impact of a brief sport psychology workshop (Zizzi & Perna, 2003). The authors of this study used the early version of the SOC-PST by assigning stage classification to college athletes in attendance. Not only was forward movement observed across athletes‘ stages of change (e.g., from precontemplation to contemplation and contemplation to action), but negative movement was also observed (e.g., from action to contemplation and precontemplation) from before to after the workshop. However, no longitudinal data past one month was obtained, so long-term impact of the workshop was unclear.

A standard stages of change algorithm scale for PST was used in an applied setting to evaluate the effectiveness of a mandatory mental skills training program (Grove et al, 1999). It was found that the program implementation had a positive effect on changing the proportion of team members‘ stages of change towards action and maintenance. So, the mere presence of a consultant and application of a standard intervention positively influenced movement across stages. However, the intervention in question was mandatory and provided to elite, male youth baseball players who were selected to an elite team and compared with those who did not make the team. In this instance the changes reflected could have been confounded by the differences in skill level or due to the involuntary nature of the mental skills training program. Thus, long-term, applied investigations including different demographics of participants need to be completed to test the effectiveness of application of stages of change to PST interventions.

Research on stages of change relative to sport psychology services is an emerging area of study and the use of stages of change measures for PST has been limited. Because many questions remain unanswered, more research assessing the stages of change for PST with different populations is needed. Consultations with teams tend to be fluid (dictated by needs of the team and individuals) and varied (team and individual work), thus, it would be helpful to study the application of the TTM to the more dynamic, applied setting when individual PST may not be mandatory. It is unclear what happens to athletes‘ stage of change and self-efficacy for psychological skills training over time and whether measuring athletes‘ stage of change are related to their chances of seeking out individual sport psychology consultation services. It could be that additional individual consultation sessions result in a sustained positive change in an athlete‘s SOC due to individualized programs that may come from individual sessions. Thus, the central purpose of this investigation was to evaluate elite athletes‘ stages of change and self-efficacy related to PST across four time periods when exposed to voluntary access to a sport psychology consultant. Further, a second purpose was to examine any differences in scores between those who initiated contact with the consultant and those who did not. In addition, an exploration of the processes of change used by athletes in the use of mental skills over the course of the investigation was conducted.

Based on previously discussed literature, it was hypothesized that there would be an interaction over time on the transtheoretical model related variables (Zizzi & Perna, 2003); more specifically, that there would first be an initial increase in contemplation, action, and maintenance scores (from time1 to time2). Scores would then be maintained over time by those who initiated contact, while scores would decrease for those who did not contact the consultant because contact would presumably keep people thinking about PST longer after the initial contact. The opposite was expected for precontemplation scores. No difference was proposed to be found in precontemplation scores between those who contacted and those who did not contact the consultant.

It was also hypothesized that self-efficacy scores would be positively correlated with contemplation, action and maintenance scores over time, with the strongest positive correlation being with action and a negative correlation with precontemplation (Leffingwell et al., 2001). Based on pilot research, those classified in the contemplation stage at time2 were hypothesized to show the highest subsequent contact rates compared to athletes in all other stages. Further, each process of change that had been previously identified (DiClemente & Prochaska, 1985) was hypothesized to have been used by at least one of the participants as indicated by a positive response on a checklist.

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Participants

Forty-five elite female rugby athletes originally started the study. The term ―elite‖ refers to those athletes who were part of the pool of players that regularly attended National Team training camps and regularly competed in international matches. Respondents reported their age in ranges from less than 23 years, 23-28 years, 29-34 years, and greater than 34 years, with the majority (62.8%) of participants in the 23-28 year age range. Athletes represented seven different regions across the United States; 96% were Caucasian and 4% were African-American.

Participants attended a rugby skills testing and training camp in February (year withheld to protect anonymity). As members of the national squad, athletes trained or competed together four to five times per year for various lengths or time. After the February camp during this particular year, 33 athletes were selected to attend a smaller training camp in May, with 4 designated as alternates and 8 kept in the larger pool of elite players for possible future events.

Assessments and Measures

Demographics and contact

During the first data collection period, demographic information was collected to include participant age, number of years played, number of international matches competed in on a national level and previous exposure to sport psychology. Client-initiated contacts over the duration of the investigation were tracked.

Stages of Change. Leffingwell, Rider, and Williams (2001) constructed the Stages of Change for Psychological Skills Training Questionnaire (SOC-PST) to measure the readiness of athletes to adopt PST in sport. The SOC-PST is a 12-item questionnaire that measures 4 of the stages (3 items each for precontemplation, contemplation, action and maintenance sub-scales) identified in the TTM (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). Each statement is on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). ―It might be worthwhile to work on my mental skills‖ is an example of an item on the contemplation scale and ―I am actively working on my mental skills‖ is an item on the action scale. Items for each subscale (i.e., stage) were summed producing subscale raw scores. Raw scores were converted to subscale standardized scores. Thus, each individual who completed the questionnaire had scores calculated for each of the four stages of change being assessed. If a stage classification is desired, the highest standardized score across the four stages can be used to classify the individual as being in a single stage (Leffingwell et al.). It should be noted that the preparation stage is not assessed in the SOC-PST as the questionnaire‘s authors felt that accurate assessment of a stage that may be very temporary and overlapping with other stages may not be plausible due to the likely cross loading.

The authors‘ reported low to moderate internal consistency during original testing of the SOC-PST (see Leffingwell et al., 2001). Alpha coefficients in the present study were .69 for precontemplation, .70 for contemplation, .93 for action and .64 for maintenance. Divergent validity was demonstrated by the absence of significant correlations of subscales to the Marlow-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Leffingwell et al.). Leffingwell et al. reported that construct validity was supported by the even distribution of individuals across stages once a stage of change was assigned, which is theoretically consistent with the TTM. Additional criterion validity of the SOC-PST was obtained by comparison of stage assignment with athletes‘ previous and future involvement in sport psychology (Leffingwell et al.).

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy was measured using the Self Efficacy for Psychological Skills Training scale (SE-PST, Leffingwell et al., 2001). The SE-PST is a 5-item scale that measures the perception that PST can be utilized or maintained regardless of potential barriers. Respondents are asked to rate sentences that start, ―I am confident in my ability to work on my mental skills…‖ (Leffingwell et al., 2001, p.178) on a scale from 1 (not at all confident) to 5 (very confident). The items were adapted from Marcus, Selby, Niaura, and Rossi‘s (1992) self-efficacy measure related to exercise. In the present study, a comparable alpha of .86 was found to that of the original data (see Leffingwell et al., 2001). Comparisons between SE-PST scores and stages of change revealed significant differences between those in action (highest) and those in the precontemplation, contemplation and maintenance stages. The authors suggested the need for further validation of this scale since the relationship of the SE-PST was not as expected with the maintenance stage of the SOC-PST, finding no significant differences between athletes in this stage compared to early stages.

Processes of change

The processes of change (POC) were assessed using a checklist and an open answer question sheet. Ten processes utilized in multiple behavior change studies have been identified (DiClemente & Prochaska, 1985). In this study, a checklist was constructed (see Appendix) by modifying the actual definitions of the processes previously identified in other behaviors (Marcus, Banspach, et al., 1992). The checklist is comprised of one definition for each of the ten processes. Two open-ended questions were added at the end of the checklist for additional thoughts or behaviors used in PST.

Procedure

Athletes were notified in writing before the onset of the study that the sport psychology consultant did not have a vote in the team selections process and because of anonymity, participation would neither help nor hinder their role on the team. Participants were given the SOC-PST and SE-PST four times over four months. Time one (T1) was before the onset of the first try-out camp in February with time two (T2) at the end of that camp. The first follow-up was one month later (T3) after selections for the next camp were announced and the final time (T4) was four months after the first administration in May of the same year. An informed consent letter and demographic information sheet were included at T1 and the processes of change checklist and additional behavioral questions were included in T4. The additional behavioral information gathered at T4 included questions regarding sport psychology involvement, barriers to seeking services and perceptions of the consultant‘s approachability over the previous four months.

During the first camp, the sport psychology consultant held three, 1-hour team sessions and was available for individual consultations. The first session covered an introduction of the consultant‘s role on the team, team cohesion, stages of team formation and an ice-breaker activity. A second scheduled session occurred on the morning of the third day and the topics of concentration, performance routines and self-talk were covered. An impromptu meeting was held to resolve a team conflict on the final morning prior to intra-squad scrimmages. The conflict was related to reactions to a newly implemented team ritual during training the previous day. A preliminary resolution was achieved and was again revisited during the May camp. The questionnaires were again given at the end of the camp (T2) as exposure to a consultant during camp may have affected stages of change (Zizzi & Perna, 2003).

Within two weeks of the camp‘s end (T2), the sport psychology consultant sent an email to all players reminding them of the availability of PST services. Electronic and phone contact information for the consultant was included in all communication. Participants received three email reminders encouraging them to return T3 surveys over the course of three weeks.

Over the next three months, two email prompts reminding athletes of services offered and information available were distributed to the entire pool of players. Within this time, the second try-out camp for 33 of the participants was held and attended by the sport psychology consultant. Even though the complete original sample of 45 athletes was used

at each data collection period, these 33 athletes had additional in-person exposure to the consultant at this second camp. Three sport psychology related sessions were held at this camp: a problem solving activity and two workshop-like sessions on elements of successful teams.

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Contact Rates, Contact Themes and Previous PST Experience

Forty-five participants were initially involved in the study, 31 of whom completed and returned all four questionnaires, representing a 31% attrition rate. Out of the original 45 participants, 10 individuals contacted the sport psychology consultant for one session, another 2 individuals for two sessions and 1 individual for three sessions for a total of 17 sessions. Eight of these athletes who had individual sessions completed the study. Ten consultations occurred during the first camp, two between T2 and T3, and five between T3 and T4 (four occurring at the second camp, two weeks prior to T4). The majority of contacts were in person with three occurring by email. Themes of individual sessions were coded separately by two knowledgeable professionals in the field and then compared for agreement. Considering some contacts had multiple themes, there were a total of 20 different issues brought to the consultant. Of those, 25% involved concentration, 15% the team, 10% confidence, 10% motivation, 10% decision making, 10% goal setting, 10% external stress, 5% anxiety and 5% personal issues.

Participants who completed the entire study were split into two groups, those who initiated contact and those who did not, to assess any differences between groups among variables measured. The participants attended the first 5-day camp with 23 of the 31 attending the second camp. Those who did not attend the second camp were either not invited or had injuries or scheduling conflicts. The contact group reported an average of 8.5 (SD = 4.09) years playing experience and had an average of 4.88 (SD = 10.52) rugby 15‘s international matches played and .88 (SD = 2.47) rugby 7‘s international matches played compared to 6.54 (SD = 2.98) years of experience, 2.48 (SD = 4.75) rugby 15‘s international matches, and 1.17 (SD = 2.74) international 7‘s matches for those who did not contact. Statistically significant differences were not found between the group (n = 8) who initiated contacted and the group who did not (n = 23) using t-test analyses for years experience t(29) = -1.45, p = .158, international 15‘s match experience t(29) = -.881, p = .385, and international 7‘s match experience t(29) = .272, p = .788.

Fifty percent of those who contacted the sport psychology consultant had previous experience with a consultant compared to 43.5% of those who did not contact. The most commonly listed previous contact with a sport psychologist practitioner by 22 respondents was with the team‘s current consultant at previous team venues (81.8%). Others, as checked off a list or written in ―other‖, included coaches (13.6%) or with other teams or sports (22.7%). Previous experience with other types of mental skills training was reported by 37.5% of the contact group and 43.5% of the non-contact group. The most common other type of experience listed by 20 respondents was reading a book or

article (65%), followed by a sport science or psychology class (10%), relaxation tapes (5%), a nutritionist (5%), and a chiropractor (5%). The percentage of past experience with sport psychology appeared to be similar across contact groups, however, small cell sizes prevented the application of a chi-square analysis with this data

Stages of Change

Four, 2-way repeated measures ANOVAs were utilized to test the difference in means across stages of change standardized scores between contactors and non-contactors. Homogeneity of variance using Levene‘s test was found in all cases. The independent variables were group (contact vs. non contact) and time (pre-test, test, 1-month post-test, 4-month post-test), and the dependent variables were standardized scores for stages of change (precontemplation, contemplation, action, and maintenance). Significance levels were set at p < .01 to decrease the chance of Type I error that might have occurred with multiple analyses. Means, standard deviations, effect sizes, and power are shown in Table 1. A significant main effect for time was observed with precontemplation scores, F(3, 87) = 6.60, p <.001, η2 = .185, observed power = .967, but not for other stages. A Least Significance Difference post hoc analysis was used to reveal that scores at T1 were higher than all other time scores. No significant differences between contact groups or interaction across time were found for any stages.

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Effect Sizes and Power for Stages of Change Standardized Scores Between Those Who Contacted and Those Who Did Not

Contact the Sport Psychology Consultant Mean (Standard Deviation)

η 2

Power

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4

Precontemplation Contactorsa 49.22 (10.01) 41.90 (7.26) 44.34 (9.31) 41.29 (5.79) .30 .76* Non-Contactorsb 47.36 (10.54) 44.82 (10.36) 44.18 (10.29) 43.55 (10.29) Contemplation Contactors 57.24 (7.33) 57.24 (4.37) 53.55 (10.20) 54.16 (8.51) .04 .10 Non-Contactors 54.40 (9.11) 53.55 (8.66) 54.62 (9.03) 54.62 (9.96) Action Contactors 48.05 (11.22) 53.03 (11.47) 51.28 (8.94) 49.54 (10.42) .24 .61 Non-Contactors 46.43 (8.77) 50.87 (9.03) 49.65 (10.17) 48.78 (10.67) Maintenance Contactors 53.02 (12.31) 53.64 (13.81) 53.64 (8.25) 51.13 (8.88) .04 .12 Non-Contactors 49.74 (9.17) 50.61 (8.82) 53.02 (8.16) 54.54 (9.63) a n = 8. bn = 23.

*p < .01 for precontemplation main effects.

Self-Efficacy

Four Pearson Product moment correlations were used to explore the relationships of efficacy with stages of change scores at all four time periods. At all four times,

self-efficacy was positively correlated with action scores (T1 r = .657, T2 r = .591, T3 r = .584, T4 r = .703) and negatively correlated with precontemplation scores (T1 r = -.525, T2 r = -.609, T3 r = -.637, T4 r = -.431) at the p < .001 level. Correlations with contemplation (T1 r = .255, T2 r = .298, T3 r = .124, T4 r = .062) and maintenance were not statistically significant (T1 r = .094, T2 r = .014, T3 r = -.043, T4 r = -.047).

Contact Initiation

Stage classification as measured at T2 for those who contacted and did not contact the consultant during the course of this study are presented in Table 2. Small cell sizes prevented the application of a chi-square analysis on the data. However, of those who initiated contact, the majority (45.5%) were in the contemplation stage during T2. The remainder of those who contacted were categorized either in the action (27.3%) or maintenance stages (27.3%). No one from the precontemplation stage initiated contact with the consultant during the study.

Table 2. Frequencies and Percentages of Stages of Change (at Time 2) for Those Who Initiated Contact and Those Who Did Not Initiate Contact over the Course of

the Study PR CO AX MN Total Contact No 6 (20%) 11 (36.7%) 6 (20%) 7 (23.3%) 30(73.2%) Yes 0 (0%) 5 (45.5%) 3 (27.3%) 3 (27.3%) 11(26.8%) Total 6 (14.6%) 16 (39%) 9 (22%) 10 (24.4%) 41a

Note. PR = precontemplation, CO = contemplation, AX = action, MN = maintenance; a positive contact was counted if at least one initiated contact with the consultant was made that led to an individual session in person or from a distance (e.g. telephone).

a

Number reflects whole sample minus four missing values.

Processes of Change

Frequencies and qualitative analyses were used with the processes of change data. All ten processes of change included on the checklist were reported to have been used by almost half of the athletes in this study. The percentages of athletes who used certain processes were: consciousness raising (91.7%), environmental reevaluation (88.9%), social liberation (86.2%), stimulus control (80.6%), self-liberation (77.8%), counterconditioning (72.3%), helping relationships (72.2%), self-reevaluation (61.1%), dramatic belief (58.4%) and reinforcement management (44.4%). The 20 additional comments made by respondents to the open-ended questions were reviewed for themes by two researchers. Sixteen of these comments were determined to fit one of the 10 processes included in the checklist and previously identified by Prochaska and DiClemente (1983). The remaining four comments were classified as a description of the type of PST the participant used and not a method of change.

Additional Analyses

Participants were also asked to rate the approachability of the consultant during the last assessment period. On a scale from 1 (not at all approachable) to 7 (very approachable), the consultant‘s approachability had an overall mean of 5.8 (SD = 1.22) for all 37 respondents, 5.77 (SD = 1.30) for those in the final non-contact group and 6.09 (SD = 1.04) for those in the contact group. An independent t-test was calculated and no significant difference between the two groups was found, t(35) = -.723, p = .474. Of the 37 participants who indicated their reasons for not contacting the consultant, lack of time (27%) was cited most often, followed by not feeling as if they would benefit from services (13.5%), not being interested in the topic (5.4%), already performing at a high level (5.4%), and not being comfortable with the consultant (2.7%). Further, qualitative analysis of comments suggested that an additional 10.8% were uncomfortable asking, 8.1% lacked awareness or knowledge of the scope of consulting services, 5.4% stated they were currently doing PST on their own, and 2.7% stated they were lazy.

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The transtheoretical model of behavior change has been applied to multiple addictive and healthy behavior changes and has only recently been applied to psychological skills training. The purpose of this investigation was to apply a stage of change and self-efficacy model to the use of psychological skills training in an elite population over time and to observe if differences occurred between those who did and did not initiate contact with a sport psychology consultant. Further, a preliminary look at the processes of change used by some elite athletes to incorporate mental skills into their overall training was explored.

Stages of Change over Time

It was hypothesized that the ―active‖ stages of the TTM (contemplation, action, maintenance) would increase initially and then taper off for those who did not use the sport psychology consultant‘s services. The opposite was expected for precontemplation scores. Overall, as seen in the results, the active stages of the model did not change significantly over time. One explanation for this is that the one-hour workshop specifically concentrating on PST skills (concentration, routines, self-talk) was not specifically tailored to influence stages of change, but rather to serve as a standard educational presentation, lends support for the need to tailor workshops to athletes of different stages. Those athletes who did seek individual consultations did not always want to discuss specific mental skills. This may explain why this group‘s contemplation, action and maintenance scores did not change over time. On the other hand, precontemplation scores did decrease over the five days at the first camp. The try-out camp and the presentations by the consultant at this camp could have influenced this decrease in scores. This camp marked the start of the season for many of these athletes

and the sport psychology and team building presentations may have served as a reminder of the importance of PST use in sport.

Stages of Change between Contact Groups

Differences were not found over the course of the study in stage of change scores between those who initiated contact and those who did not, nor did they differ over time. This may have been due to the small sample size which limited the power and made it more difficult to find significant differences. It could also be that some athletes in the non-contact group were already practicing and comfortable with their PST program and continued to do so without utilizing the sport psychology services. Perhaps given that all athletes were present for the team session workshops, these initial team sessions may have influenced attitudes towards and practice of PST. This is indicated by the second most selected reason for why athletes did not seek consultation services, which was that they did not think they could benefit from services. It may also be true that since the majority of the contact group only had one session with the consultant, this proved to be too little of an intervention to affect scores. Furthermore, the types of issues brought to consultations were often for specific on-field concerns that resulted in one or two suggestions for changes. Perhaps these small adjustments were not significant enough to be reflected in stage of change scores for PST use.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy was proposed to be positively related to contemplation, action and maintenance scores and negatively related to precontemplation scores at all time periods. Self-efficacy in this study was negatively related to the precontemplation and positively related to action scores at all time periods, partially supporting the hypothesis. Perhaps increasing athletes‘ self-efficacy in being able to incorporate a PST program into their training could decrease their precontemplation scores and move them into action. Since the present study was correlational in nature, cause and effect cannot be concluded; thus, it could be that self-efficacy scores increased as a result of PST training. Perhaps requiring a mandatory PST program would increase self-efficacy. Grove et al. (1999) found that a mandatory PST program influenced positive changes in soccer players‘ stage of change scores. The present results support cause for further research to examine the effectiveness of focusing on improving self-efficacy in adherence to PST programs. It should be noted that the absence of almost any relationship between self-efficacy and maintenance scores is concerning. This is similar to results from Leffingwell et al. (2001) where self-efficacy scores for those classified in maintenance were not different than those in precontemplation or contemplation. One possible explanation for this was the face validity of the maintenance items. Upon closer examination of the maintenance items, it seems that these items might actually measure relapse rather than maintenance (e.g., ―I have been successful working on my mental skills, but I‘m not sure I can keep up the effort on my own‖, ―After all I‘ve done to try to change my mental skills, every now

and again I slip back into old habits‖). Closer scrutiny of maintenance items before further use of the SOC-PST questionnaire (Leffingwell et al.) or use of the less complex stage of change ladder alternative (Grove et al.) is recommended.

Sport Psychology Contacts

It was also hypothesized that those who initiated contact with the consultant would be more likely to be classified in contemplation. The contacting group was more likely to have been in the contemplation stage which supported the results from the pilot study, but differed from Leffingwell et al. (2001) where contactors were more likely to have been in action. It is unclear if this difference was due to the level of athlete (elite vs. collegiate), conceptual definitions or due to differences in how services were marketed to the athletes between the two investigations. Another explanation is that the home bases of the athletes‘ who participated in this study were spread out across the country and the majority of participants may not have had close access to a sport psychology consultant as was the case in Leffingwell and colleagues‘ study. Therefore, the move from contemplation to action by the current sample could not happen until the athletes had exposure and access to a sport psychology consultant. In this case, this occurred at the first camp for some athletes. Regardless, the findings in the present study support that an initial assessment of individual athletes‘ stages of change might be helpful in identifying how many potential clients will seek services.

Processes of Change

In terms of those processes reportedly used by athletes regarding PST, as expected all processes previously identified (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1985) were reported to have been used by this sample of athletes. Further, the majority of processes of change had been used by at least 50% of the participants in this study. The most frequently reported process of change utilized was consciousness raising. Nearly all of the participants had used consciousness raising by gathering information about the use or effect of mental skills on sport performance (e.g., read a book). The encouragement of bibliotherapy or recommendations of informative websites for PST programs might prove beneficial when working with new athletes, especially those who are at a distance. Further, development of a processes of change for psychological skills training scale is necessary and may eventually help to tailor interventions according to stage of change.

Stages of Change Measurement

Upon closer inspection of scores and the scoring practice of the SOC-PST, the authors note validity concerns with this assessment tool. There are multiple recommended methods of use and scoring for the SOC-PST (Leffingwell, 2001). The present study used two of these scoring methods for different analyses. Individuals‘ standardized scores

were used for some of the previous analyses, and stage assignment was used in another. To assign a stage, the highest standardized score is chosen from all four stage scores per individual. In some cases, differences between stages were determined by 1/10th of a point. Sometimes this small disparity was the difference between assigning someone to the precontemplation rather than the action stage. It seems that a stage of change ladder may be more accurate in categorizing an individual‘s stage since the definitions of each stage are clear (Grove et al., 1999).

Another possible shortcoming of the SOC-PST that became evident post analysis was the absence of the preparation stage, which might prove to be detrimental in the study of psychological skills training in sport. Personal experience lends one to believe that practice of PST may be irregular, coinciding with seasonal play or game importance (e.g., working more on positive self-talk during pre-season compared to off-season); this irregular practice is not discernable from regular weekly practice of PST on this scale. Although from the current study it appears that the transtheoretical model is a model that has some application use for PST and athletes, the SOC-PST scale should be used with caution. Further validation between the SOC-PST and perhaps a stage of change ladder suggested by Grove et al. (1999) is warranted before integrating this assessment into an intervention package.

Limitations

The use of the national pool sample limited the generalizability of the results as the athletes were only women, represented one sport and possessed a high skill level. The field study research design utilizing an intact group limits the inferences that can be drawn as there was no control group and various external components could have influenced the results. Another limitation of these procedures was that the first author served as the consultant for the team. This dual role could have inherently caused potential experimenter bias, as the participants may have perceived inadvertent subtle behaviors or cues from the researcher to increase contacts or reinforce positive attitudes towards mental skills training. Another possible limitation affecting the number and type of contacts was the need for athletes to initiate long distance contact. Zizzi and Perna (2002) found that younger athletes preferred electronic methods for contacting a consultant compared to traditional methods such as using the telephone or in person, but this may not have been consistent for these older athletes.

S

Overall, the findings from this study provided some preliminary evidence that the TTM can be successfully applied to PST program development and evaluation of interventions. Further examination of stage of change assessment tools is needed in future research; however, the present findings could potentially offer consultants with valuable information regarding self-efficacy of PST use, profiles of consultation seekers, and processes of change used in self-development of PST programs. The reason most often

reported for not contacting the consultant was lack of time, which is similar to past research findings (Zizzi & Perna, 2003). Therefore, addressing how one can fit consultations and mental skills practice into their daily training in one of the initial consultations could be beneficial to athletes and increase their self-efficacy. Perhaps asking athletes in maintenance to share with their teammates the ways that they practice their mental skills could increase self-efficacy and move them along the stages. The findings were promising concerning the processes of change, having supported the same processes used for PST as in other behaviors. This was an initial theoretical concern as it was not clear whether or not these processes of change, which are essentially mental skills in themselves, are used to change the use of mental skills for performance enhancement. The development of a more detailed scale to assess and monitor the processes of change would seem useful to help tailor interventions to individual stages. Tailoring interventions using the transtheoretical model and processes of change framework may be one method to approach the recommendation to individualize consultations to athletes (Gould et al., 1989).

Future research does need to critically assess the validity of the types of scales used in this area to determine the best method of measurement. A stage of change ladder may be more reliable and convenient in multiple assessments as it is only one item per stage and includes a preparation stage. However, in order to do this successfully there needs to be a standard definition of the regular use of mental skills in a PST program.

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Directions: The following are a list of thoughts or behaviors that can be experienced or utilized during behavior change. Please indicate if you have had similar thoughts or have done similar behaviors in relation to mental skills use in sport EVER and/or in the LAST 4 MONTHS.

EVER LAST 4 MONTHS

Yes Yes I have made an effort to seek new information and to gain understanding and feedback about mental skills training (e.g. read a book, etc.).

Yes Yes I have substituted mental skills training for alternative behaviors (e.g. relaxation training at night instead of watching television). Yes Yes I have had intense emotional experiences (i.e. dramatic thoughts)

related to using or not using mental skills training

Yes Yes I have considered and assessed how mental skills training affects the physical and social environment (e.g. teammates, interactions with coaches, etc.).

Yes Yes I have trusted, accepted, and utilized the support of caring others during attempts to change my use of mental skills.

or maintain my use of mental skills.

Yes Yes I have made a choice and commitment to use mental skills, and believe that I can implement these skills.

Yes Yes I have emotionally or thoughtfully reappraised my values or self-image with respect to the use of mental skills training (i.e. I have reevaluated my self-image as an athlete who works on her mental game)

Yes Yes I have had an awareness, availability and acceptance of psychological issues related to performance enhancement

Yes Yes I have controlled situations and other causes which trigger the use of mental skills

Please list other common thoughts you have about mental skills training:

Please list other common practices (behaviors) you do regarding mental skills training:

R

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Volume 3, Number 2 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Amber L. Stoltenburg, Cindra S. Kamphoff

, and Karin Lindstrom Bremer

Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN, USA

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Career-ending injuries constitute a unique type of transition that any athlete may face (Wylleman, Alfermann, & Lavallee, 2004). Therefore, the intent of this qualitative study was to examine the psychosocial effects that accompany an athlete‘s transition out of sport due to a career-ending injury. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven Division I and II athletes who experienced a career-ending injury in the last five years. After a comprehensive and extensive analysis of the interview transcripts, five themes emerged: 1) Consequences of the injury, 2) Social support, 3) Athletic identity, 4) Nature of the injury, and 5) Pre-retirement planning. In general, findings indicated that athletes experienced a wide array of both positive and negative emotions triggered by the realization that their sport career had come to an end. Findings support the Conceptual Model of Adaptation to Career Transition (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994).

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The termination of a career in sports is a significant time in an athlete‘s life (Alfermann, 2001) that is accompanied by a process of transition and change (Taylor et al., 2006). The adjustment includes a change in self-perception, the social environment, and emotions and relationships (International Olympic Committee, n.d.). Given the significance of athletic retirement, researchers have begun to examine athletic retirement as more of a life event rather than a single event (Blinde & Greendorfer, 1985; Wylleman, Alfermann, & Lavallee, 2004). Similarly, Taylor and Ogilvie (2001) argued that in order to understand athletic retirement in its entirety, the experience must be viewed as a transition; a process streaming from the beginning of athletic involvement through post-athletic participation.

Researchers have identified many different reasons why athletes leave their sport career; these reasons can generally be categorized into two clusters: normative and

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Corresponding author: Cindra S. Kamphoff, Ph.D. Department of Human Performance 1400 Highland Center Minnesota State University, Mankato Mankato, MN 56001 Email [email protected] Phone: (507) 389-6112 Fax: (507) 389-5618