Computers, Typesetting, and Lexicography

JÖRGEN Pin d

Computers, Typesetting, and

Lexicography

A bstract

As part o f the general strategy o f computerizing the lexicographic work process at the Institute o f Lexicography, we have adopted Donald

E. Knuths typesetting program as our typesetting engine. The main

characteristics o f the program wiU be briefly described, followed by a dis­ cussion o f its advantages for lexicographic work.

has already been used for the typesetting o f a 1300 page etymo­ logical dictionary o f Icelandic. A number o f other projects are under way. Special notice will be paid to the problem o f coding as it relates to the making o f dictionaries. The advantages o f a generic, or logical, coding over typographic coding will be emphasized. However, doubts will be raised about the possibility o f providing a set o f tags which are completely neutral with respect to typographic considerations.

1

Introduction

In th is p a p e r I w a n t t o d iscu ss o n e p a r tic u la r a s p e c t o f c o m p u ta tio n a l lexicogra^ p h y, n a m e ly th e ty p e s e tt in g o f d ic tio n a r ie s . T h is is p e rh a p s n o t an issue w h ich is c e n tr a l t o c o m p u t a t io n a l le x ic o g r a p h y , y e t it is a s u b je c t w h ich d eserv es stu d y, e s p e c ia lly n o w w h e n th e a rts o f ty p e s e tt in g h a v e b e e n m o v in g o n t o th e d e sk to p . I w ill s h o w y o u th e a p p r o a c h w e h a v e a d o p t e d a t th e In s titu te o f L e x ico g ra p h y ,

a n d r e m a r k o n h o w it fits in t o o u r o v e r a ll s tr a t e g y fo r c o m p u ta tio n a l lex icog ra r

ph y.

L e t m e b e g in , in all m o d e s ty , b y q u o tin g m y self. In 1986 I w a s in v ite d t o g iv e a ta lk a t th e N o r d D a t a C o n fe r e n c e in S to c k h o lm . A t th a t tim e w e w ere ju s t e m b a r k in g o n w id e s p r e a d u se o f c o m p u te r s a t th e In s titu te , a n d I a tt e m p te d t o d r a w u p a s c h e m a tic d ia g r a m o f a ‘ L e x ic o g r a p h e r s ’ w o r k b e n c h ’ (see figu re 1 ),

c o m m e n t in g th a t a n u m b e r o f fe a tu re s h a d n o t b e e n im p le m e n te d . “ T h is h o ld s es­ p e c ia lly fo r th e ‘ m a n u s c r ip t w r ite r ’ . O u r w o r k h a s n o t y e t rea ch ed th e s ta g e w h ere th is is in g r e a t d e m a n d , b u t w e e n v isa g e th e p o s s ib ility o f u sin g th e d a ta b a s e to tu rn o u t m a n u s c r ip ts fo r a ty p e s e tt in g p r o g r a m like (F in d 1 9 8 6 :8 7 ).

W e ll, th is w a s w r itte n b e fo r e w e e v en h a d a v e rsio n o f ru n n in g at th e In s titu te ! A s a m a t te r o f fa c t , th o u g h w e e x p e c t e d th a t ty p e s e ttin g w o u ld b e

Figure 1 : T h e lexicographer's w orkbench, 1 9 8 6 vintage.

so m e th in g th a t w e w o u ld d e a l w ith m u ch la te r, a lo t o f w o r k o v e r th e p a st c o u p le o f y ea rs h as b e e n d e v o te d t o th e ty p e s e tt in g sid e o f le x ic o g r a p h y .

T h e r e a re tw o m a jo r rea son s fo r th is. T h e first is th a t th e e d it o r w a n ts t o b e a b le t o prin t p r o o fs w h ich a re as c lo s e ly re la te d t o th e fin a l fo r m o f th e d ic t io n a r y as p o ssib le . T h u s a ‘ m a n u s c r ip t w r ite r ’ h as in fa c t b e e n im p le m e n te d as a fe a tu re o f th e ‘ w o r k b e n c h ’ w e a re c u r r e n tly w o r k in g o n . T h e re la tio n s h ip o f th is ‘ m a n u s crip t w r ite r ’ t o th e w o r k o n th e v e r b a l d ic t io n a r y h a s a lr e a d y

b een to u c h e d o n in th e p a p e r b y B jö r n P o r S v a v a rsson a n d J ö r g e n F in d in th is v o lu m e .

T h e s e c o n d rea son is th e fa c t th a t w e h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d in p r o d u c in g Ic e ­ la n d ic d ic tio n a r ie s fr o m m a n u scrip ts, ra th e r th a n fr o m a d a ta b a s e . F o r e m o s t a m o n g th e se is a n Ic e la n d ic e t y m o lo g ic a l d ic t io n a r y b y th e la te Å s g e ir B lö n d a l

M a g n u ss o n , fo r m e r e d it o r a t th e In s titu te , w h ich w ill a p p e a r la te r th is year.^ W e h a v e a ls o e m b a r k e d u p o n a series o f re p rin ts o f o ld e r Ic e la n d ic le x ic o g r a p h ic w ork s. T h e s e w o rk s h a v e b een c o d e d in th e TfeX t y p e s e tt in g la n g u a g e .

2

Named Categories and Visual Formatting

In recen t y ea rs a r e v o lu tio n h as b e e n ta k in g p la c e in th e t y p e s e tt in g in d u s tr y w h ere n u m erou s ‘ d e s k to p p u b lis h in g ’ p r o g r a m s h a v e g r a d u a lly b e e n r e p la c in g th e tr a d itio n a l t o o ls o f th e p rin ter. H o w fa r h as th is r e v o lu tio n a ffe c te d th e

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d ic t io n a r y p u b lis h e r a n d m a k e r? I w a n t t o a rg u e th a t su ch sy stem s a re n ot su ite d fo r th e m a k in g o f d ic tio n a r ie s .

T r a d itio n a lly , d ic tio n a r ie s h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d fr o m c o lle c tio n s o f slip s w h ich

h a v e b e e n u sed t o ea se th e ta s k o f k e e p in g th e d ic t io n a r y en tries in a lp h a b e tic a l o r d e r a n d t o a llo w th e m t o e x p a n d as n e e d e d , w ith o u t u n d u ly a ffe ctin g en tries w h ich fo llo w a lp h a b e tic a lly . T h e slip s h a v e th en o fte n b e e n u sed , w ith m in im a l

m a rk u p , as th e m a n u s c r ip t f o r th e p rin te r. In th e p a st fe w y ea rs a tte m p ts h ave, h o w e v e r, b e e n m a d e t o u se d a ta b a s e s y s te m s t o ea se th e a r d u o u s ta sk o f heindling th e c o lle c t io n s o f slip s, w ith s o m e s u cce ss ( c f . th e p a p e r b y B jö r n I>6r S vavarsson

a n d J ö r g e n F in d in th is v o lu m e ) . I f w e c o n s id e r fo r a m o m e n t th e n a tu re o f th e d a ta b a s e s y s te m , it is o b v io u s th a t o n e o f its m a jo r s tren g th s is th e fa ct th a t it a llo w s th e u ser t o a ssign n a m e s o r ta g s t o th e in d iv id u a l field s in th e d a ta b a s e . T h u s w e ca n e a sily im a g in e a d a ta b a s e sy s te m fo r le x ic o g r a p h ic w ork w h ich k n o w s a b o u t c a te g o r ie s su ch as headw ord, p r o n u n c ia tio n , gra m m a tica l

cod e, s e m a n tic field , u sa g e n o te s , a n d s o o n .

O n e o f th e ty p o g r a p h ic a l re q u ire m e n ts fo r a d ic t io n a r y is th a t s o m e o f these c a te g o r ie s s h o u ld b e re fle cte d in th e ty p e s e tt in g itself. T h is sh ow s fo r e x a m p le in th e u se o f d ifieren t fo n ts in d ic tio n a r ie s , t y p ic a lly u sed t o d istin g u ish s o m e o f th e

c a te g o r ie s . N o t e th a t o n ly s o m e o f th e c a te g o r ie s w ill b e th u s re flected , sin ce a ty p ic a l d ic t io n a r y c o n ta in s m a n y m o r e c a te g o r ie s th a n w o u ld b e d istin g u ish ed b y ty p o g r a p h ic m ea n s. S o m e d is t in c tio n s w ill th u s b e lo st in th e p rin te d d ic t io n a r y w h ich a re k e p t in th e d a ta b a s e sy stem s.

Id ea lly , th e le x ic o g r a p h e r w o u ld lik e t o u se th e d a ta b a s e t o a u to m a tic a lly g e n e r a te ‘s c r ip t s ’ f o r ty p e s e tt in g , s im p ly b y in s tr u c tin g th e d a ta b a s e t o prin t relev a n t ty p o g r a p h ic c o d e s a r o u n d s o m e o f th e field s a n d n o t o th e r s . A n even b e t t e r a p p r o a c h w o u ld b e t o ta g all th e c a te g o r ie s in th e ty p e s e ttin g s crip t a n d th e n in s tr u c t th e t y p e s e tt in g s y s te m as t o w h ich o n e s sh o u ld a ffect th e t y p e s e tt in g p r o c e s s a n d w h ic h o n e s s h o u ld n o t b e re fle cte d ty p o g r a p h ic a lly . T h is la t te r a p p r o a c h is e a s y e n o u g h t o a c c o m p lis h i f th e ty p e s e tt in g sy s te m a llow s

‘ g e n e r ic ’ o r a b s tr a c t c o d in g o f th e in p u t.

T h e d e s k to p p u b lis h in g s y s te m s m e n tio n e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is s e c tio n d o n o t a llo w su ch a b s t r a c t c o d in g (in d e e d v e r y fe w o f th em a re a b le t o dea l

w ith tr a d itio n a l ty p e s e tt in g c o d e s ) , s in c e th e y a re a lm o s t u n iv ersa lly b a se d on th e id e a o f ‘ d ir e c t m a n ip u la t io n ’ o r ‘ v isu a l fo r m a t t in g ’ . T h e u ser m a n ip u la tes a p o in tin g d e v ic e , s u ch as a m o u s e , t o m a rk p a rts o f th e te x t fo r , say, a fon t

ch a n g e . T h e n o t io n o f a b s t r a c t c o d in g p la y s n o p a rt a t all in th e fo r m a ttin g , a n d th u s it is im p o s s ib le in su ch a s y s te m t o fo r m a lin k b etw een th e ca te g o rie s o f th e d a ta b a s e s y s te m a n d th e t y p e s e tt in g . H o w e v e r, th is is, o f c o u r s e , o f th e

u tm o s t im p o r t a n c e f o r th e le x ic o g r a p h e r . A p r io r i, I w o u ld h a v e th o u g h t th a t th is lim ita tio n o f th e d e s k to p p u b lis h in g s y s te m s w o u ld ru le th em o u t as b e in g s u ita b le fo r le x ic o g r a p h ic w o r k , a n d I w a s th u s ra th e r su rp rised w h en I ca m e a c r o s s th e fo llo w in g d e s c r ip t io n o f th e a p p r o a c h ta k en a t th e d ic t io n a r y o f O ld

E n g lish in T o r o n t o .

tio n s a n d c ro s s -re fe re n c e s w h ich a re d istin g u ish e d b y ty p e — e m p h a ­ sizes th e im p o r ta n c e o f in te r a c tiv e fo r m a ttin g . B e c a u s e th e w o r k in g c o p y o f th e e n tr y o n th e screen d e p ic ts th e fin a l a p p e a r a n c e o f a p a g e , w e h o p e t o im p r o v e c o n s is t e n c y .. .

. . . F o r e x a m p le t o p u t a k e y w o r d in b o ld in a c it a t io n , a n e d it o r ca n a c tiv a te th e a re a t o b e fo r m a tte d b y ra n g in g o v e r it w ith th e m o u s e , a n d th e n u se th e m o u s e t o s e le c t a n d a p p ly th e p r o p e r t y

b o ld fr o m th e C h a r a c te r L o o k s M en u (H e a ly 1 9 8 5 :2 4 8 ).

T h e s y s te m b e in g d e s c r ib e d is a X e r o x w o r k s ta tio n , ru n n in g p u b lis h in g s o ft ­ w a re sim ila r t o p ro g ra m s ru n n in g o n th e M a c in to s h c o m p u te r .

A s m e n tio n e d earlier, th is a p p r o a c h is se v e re ly h a n d ic a p p e d b y th e fa c t th a t

th ere is n o e a s y w a y in a v isu a l fo r m a ttin g sy s te m t o fo r m lin k s t o th e c a te g o r ie s o f th e d a ta b a s e sy s te m b e in g u sed . I w o u ld th e r e fo r e lik e t o a rg u e th a t th e req u irem en ts w h ich n eed t o b e m a d e o f a ty p e s e tt in g s y s te m fo r le x ic o g r a p h ic

w o r k a re tw o fo ld .

• T h e ty p o g r a p h y s h o u ld b e o f th e h ig h e st o r d e r .

• T h e sy ste m m u st b e a b le t o w o r k w ith g e n e r ic o r lo g ic a l m a rk u p .

T h e s e re q u irem en ts a re m e t b y a n u m b e r o f sy s te m s . W e h a v e c h o s e n t o

w o rk w ith I t j X . In th e fo llo w in g p a g e s I w ill d e s c r ib e th e w a y w e h a v e u sed TfeX. W h ile s o m e o f y o u a re u n d o u b te d ly fa m ilia r w ith I fe X , I w ill p r e s u m e th a t n o t e v e ry o n e is, a n d a sk th o s e k n o w le d g e a b le t o b e a r w ith m e w h ile I g iv e a s h o r t tu to ria l in tr o d u c tio n t o T ^ .

3

W hat is T^jX? A Tutorial Introduction

is a ty p e s e tt in g s y s te m ‘ in te n te d fo r th e c r e a tio n o f b e a u tifu l b o o k s ’ t o q u o te 1 ^ ’ s a u th o r . P r o fe s s o r D o n a ld E . K n u th o f S ta n fo r d U n iversity . T h o s e w h o h a v e re a d his T ^ b o o k w ill a ls o k n o w th a t th e p r e v io u s q u o t e c o n tin u e s w ith ‘ a n d e s p e c ia lly b o o k s th a t co n ta in a lo t o f m a t h e m a tic s ’ .

is in d e e d th e p re m ie r sy s te m fo r t y p e s e tt in g m a th e m a tic s a v a ila b le in th e w o r ld to d a y , s o it is p e rh a p s s o m e w h a t s u rp risin g t o fin d it u sed f o r th e m a k in g o f d ic tio n a r ie s , in d e e d d ic tio n a r ie s w h ich c o n ta in n o m a th e m a tic s at all!

I w ill a tt e m p t t o d e s c r ib e w h y w e h a v e fo u n d t o b e e m in e n tly s u ita b le fo r th e ty p e s e tt in g o f o u r d ictio n a rie s.

3 .1 T h e B eginnings o f

It is p e r h a p s ra th e r s u rp risin g th a t w e s h o u ld b e a b le t o u se 1^)X a t all c o n s id ­

e rin g th a t it w as c r e a te d fo r o n e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e , v iz . t o a llo w D o n K n u th t o ty p e s e t h is o w n m a g iste ria l tre a tis e o n th e A r t o f P ro g ra m m in g in w h a t h e felt w o u ld b e an a c c e p ta b le m a n n e r. T h e s e b o o k s s ta r te d o u t b e in g t y p e s e t in le a d in

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. . . w h e n I r e c e iv e d g a lle y p r o o fs th e y lo o k e d a w fu l— b e c a u s e p rin tin g

t e c h n o lo g y h a d c h a n g e d d r a s tic a lly sin ce th e first e d itio n h a d b een p u b lis h e d . T h e b o o k s w h e r e n o w d o n e w ith p h o to ty p e s e tt in g in stea d o f h o t le a d M o n o t y p e m a ch in e s; a n d (a la s !) th e y w ere b e in g d o n e w ith th e h e lp o f c o m p u te r s in s te a d o f b y h a n d (K n u th 1 9 8 6 f:9 6 ).

T h is w a s in 1 9 7 7 . T h is le a d K n u th t o te m p o r a r ily a b a n d o n th e p r o je c t o f w r itin g th e A r t o f C o m p u t e r P ro g ra m m in g w h ile h e w o u ld m a k e u p his ow n s y s te m f o r th e t y p e s e tt in g , a ta s k w h ich h e e s tim a te d w o u ld ta k e a b o u t o n e year. In fa c t it t o o k n in e y ea rs o f c o n c e n tr a te d w o r k t o finish a n d i t ’ s c o m p a n io n p r o g r a m M E TflF O N T, w h ich is a s y s te m fo r g e n e r a tio n s o f le tte rfo rm s.

T h e s o u r c e c o d e fo r th e s y s te m h a s g r a c io u s ly b e e n p u t in th e p u b lic d o m a in b y K n u th . T h e p r o g r a m s a re w r itte n in WEB w h ich is a s p e c ia l sy stem fo r ‘lite r a te p r o g r a m m in g ’ (K n u t h 1 9 8 4 b ). A WEB p r o g r a m is p r o c e s s e d b y tw o p r o g r a m s . TANGLE m a k es a P a s c a l p r o g r a m fr o m th e WEB s o u r c e w h ich c a n th en b e c o m p ile d b y a P a s c a l c o m p ile r , w h ile WEAVE m a k es a s crip t fr o m th e sa m e s o u r c e , c o n ta in in g th e s o u r c e c o d e w ith c o m m e n t s a n d d e ta ile d in d ices. R u n n in g th is s c r ip t t h r o u g h p r o d u c e s a ty p e s e t v e rs io n o f th e p r o g r a m . K n u th has t h o r o u g h ly d o c u m e n t e d th e a n d M E TflF O N T p r o g r a m s in h is fiv e v o lu m e w o r k C o m p u t e r s an d T y p e settin g (K n u th 1986are).

3 .2

T h e N a tu re o f TteX

c a n b e d e s c r ib e d as a d o c u m e n t c o m p ile r o r a ty p e s e tt in g la n g u a g e . B o th te r m s re q u ire s o m e c la r ific a tio n .

In th e h is to r y o f c o m p u t e r s c ie n c e , m a n y c o m p u t e r la n g u a g e s h a v e e v o lv e d . S o m e o f th e se h a v e b e e n g e n era l p u r p o s e la n g u a g e s lik e P a s c a l o r C , o th ers h a v e b e e n s p e c ific a lly c r a ft e d fo r s o m e p a r tic u la r ta sk . is an e x a m p le o f a

s p e c ia l p u r p o s e la n g u a g e , a n d s o is M E TflFO N T. as a la n g u a g e h as p rim itiv e c o n s t r u c t s w h ic h re la te t o th e tr a d itio n a l a rt o f p rin tin g .

T h e o b je c t s w h ic h h a n d le s a re ‘ b o x e s ’ a n d ‘g lu e ’ , t o u se K n u t h ’s ter­ m in o lo g y (s e e fig u re 2 ). T h e sm a lle st b o x e s w h ich m a n ip u la te s a re th o se s u r r o u n d in g th e in d iv id u a l le tte rs. L a r g e r b o x e s c a n b e b u ilt o u t o f th e u n d e- c o m p o s a b le b o x e s s u r r o u n d in g th e le tte rs. T h u s a lin e o f t y p e is a ls o c o n sid e re d a b o x fr o m 'I^jK ’s p o in t o f v ie w . G lu e is th e s t u ff w h ich g e ts p u t b e tw e e n w o rd s a n d o t h e r b o x e s (t h o u g h n o t b e tw e e n th e b o x e s m a k in g u p in d iv id u a l w o r d s ). L e a d in g , th e d is t a n c e b e tw e e n c o n s e c u tiv e lin es o f ty p e , is im p le m e n te d in 1 ^ t h r o u g h in te rlin e g lu e . T h is ‘ b o x e s a n d g lu e ’ m o d e l tu rn s o u t t o b e su rp risin g ly

p o w e r fu l a n d e n a b le s 1 ^ t o p e r fo r m e x tr a o r d in a r y fe a ts o f ty p e s e tt in g fo r e x ­ a m p le in th e t y p e s e tt in g o f m a th e m a tic s .

S o m e o f l ^ ’s a lg o r ith m s a re q u ite w ell k n o w n . T h is is e s p e c ia lly tru e fo r th e p a r a g r a p h s e tt in g a lg o r ith m (P la s s a n d K n u th 1 9 8 2 ), as w ell as th e h y p h e n a tio n a lg o r ith m d e v is e d b y F ra n k L ia n g (L ia n g 1 9 8 3 ).

Topline glue

Interword glue

KnutlVs hbxEs

affl 2luH mddtel

Interline glue

Line-final glue

Figure 2: T ^ 's boxes-and-glue model

b y n o tin g th e e x te n t t o w h ich th e in te r -w o r d g lu e h a s t o str e tc h o r sh rin k . sets th e p a ra g ra p h b y m in im iz in g th ese d e m e rits . T h e in te re s tin g th in g t o n o te is th a t th is m ea n s th a t th e pciragraph as a w h o le is ty p e s e t in o n e g o a n d a w o r d

c o m in g la te in a p a ra g ra p h ca n in flu e n ce th e s e ttin g o f lin es c o m in g ea rlier in th e p a ra g ra p h .

L ia n g ’s a lg o rith m fo r w o r d h y p h e n a tio n is p a tte r n -b a s e d , b u t d e p a r ts fr o m o ld e r v ersion s b y u sin g b o t h v a ria b le le n g th p a tte r n s a n d p a tte r n s w h ich b o t h

a llo w a n d in h ib it h y p h e n a tio n p o in ts . I w ill n o t d iscu ss th is a n y fu rth e r h ere, b u t s im p ly n o te th a t h is m e t h o d g iv e s e x ce lle n t resu lts in a n u m b e r o f la n g u a g e s b esid es E n g lish . In p a r tic u la r th e Ic e la n d ic h y p h e n a tio n ta b le d o e s a v e r y c r e d ­ ita b le j o b o f h y p h e n a tin g .

TfeX h as n u m e ro u s p rim itiv e s (a r o u n d 3 0 0 ) fo r d e a lin g w ith ty p e s e tt in g a n d a lso a v e ry p o w e r fu l m a c r o p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e . It is th is la tte r w h ich g iv e s

its s ta tu s as a p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e .

H ere a re a fe w e x a m p le s o f th e p r im itiv e o p e r a tio n s w h ich o p e r a te s w ith .

N o t e th a t p rim itiv e s a n d IfeiX m a c r o s a re e x p re s s e d w ith ‘ c o n t r o l s e q u e n c e s ’ . T h e s e u su a lly sta rt w ith a s p e cia l ‘ e s c a p e c h a r a c te r ’ w h ich is t y p ic a lly \, th e b a ck sla sh .

• \ k e r n . T h is c o m m a n d is fo llo w e d b y a d im e n s io n s p e c ific a tio n (e .g . in p rin te rs ’ p o in ts ) a n d m o v e s th e p la c e m e n t o f tw o b o x e s re la tiv e ly t o ea ch o th e r . N o t e th a t b o x e s c o m e in h o r iz o n ta l a n d v e r tic a l v e rsio n s a n d \ k e r n c a n b e u sed t o p o s it io n b o x e s b o t h v e r tic a lly a n d h o riz o n ta lly , d e p e n d in g

[image:6.595.100.486.174.392.2]

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( e .g ., le tte r p a irs lik e ‘ V ’ a n d ‘ A ’ w h ic h , b e c a u s e o f k ern in g, a re p rin te d as ‘V A ’ r a th e r th a n ‘ V A ’ .

• M o o s e n e s s . C h a n g e s t o lo o s e n e s s m ea n th a t w ill a tte m p t t o set a p a r tic u la r p a r a g r a p h in m o r e o r few er lin es th a n th e o p tim a l s e ttin g calls fo r . B y s e ttin g \ l o o s e n e s s = l an a t t e m p t is m a d e t o o p e n th e p a ra g ra p h a n d set it o n e lin e lo n g e r th a n w o u ld b e th e ca s e i f n o M o o s e n e s s is s p e c ifie d .

• \ f o n t d i m e n . T h is c o m m a n d e n a b le s o n e t o q u e r y th e ‘ cu rren t fo n t ’ fo r

fo n t p a r a m e te r s lik e th e x -h eig h t, n o r m a l s p a c in g , e tc .

• \ p e n a l t y . C o n t r o ls th e d e s ir a b ility o f b re a k in g a t a p a rticu la r p o in t. P en a l­ ties c a n b e b o t h p o s it iv e (m a k in g a b r e a k less lik e ly ) a n d n e g a tiv e (in d ic a t­ in g d e s ir a b le b r e a k p o in t s ) . In fin ite p e n a ltie s (h a v in g a va lu e g re a te r th an 1 0 0 0 0 ) e ith e r f o r c e ( \ p e n a l t y = - 1 0 0 0 0 ) o r p r o h ib it (\ p e n a lt y = 1 0 0 0 0 ) a

b r e a k a t a p a r tic u la r p o in t.

• \ s f c o d e . T h e ‘ s p a c e fa c t o r c o d e ’ is u sed t o c o n tr o l th e s tr e tc h in g o f sp a ces a fte r in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r s . U sin g th e \ s f c o d e m ak es it p o s s ib le t o , say, s tr e tc h s p a c e s a fte r p e r io d s m o r e th a n a fte r o r d in a r y ch a ra cters.

• \ h y p h e n c h a r . V e r y fe w th in g s a re h a r d -w ir e d in to 1 ^ . E v en th e h y p h e n # a tio n c h a r a c te r c a n b e c h a n g e d . B y s e ttin g \ h y p h e n c h a r \ t e n n n = ' \#, w ill u se th e h a s h -m a rk as th e h y p h e n a tio n c h a r a c te r fo r th e 10 p t R o m a n fo n t (w itn e s s th e first lin e o f th is p a r a g r a p h ).

3 .3

as a P rogram m in g Language

T tjX h a s a v e r y p o w e r fu l m a c r o la n g u a g e w h ich ca n b e u sed t o w rite m a cro s a t a lm o s t a n y le v e l o f a b s tr a c t io n . T h e e x e c u tio n o f th ese m £icros tak es p la ce t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f m a c r o e x p a n s io n , w h e re th e m a c r o s a re g r a d u a lly red u ced t o p r im itiv e s o f th e la n g u a g e . S in ce m a c r o s c a n c a ll o th e r m a c r o s , it is p o s s ib le t o s tr u c tu r e th e c o d e in a s y s te m a tic w a y b y g r a d u a lly m o v in g fr o m

p r im itiv e c o n s t r u c t s t o m o r e a b s tr a c t o n e s.

”IteX o b s e r v e s a b lo c k s tr u c tu r e , lik e m o s t o th e r p rog rsim m in g la n g u a g es. T h e b lo c k s tr u c tu r e is a c h ie v e d b y u sin g th e s y m b o ls fo r ‘ o p e n ’ a n d ‘ c lo s e g r o u p ’ w h ich a re u s u a lly th e c u r ly b r a c e s { a n d } . U sin g g r o u p in g , it is a s im p le m a tte r t o s tr u c tu r e c o d e , s u ch th a t th e lik e lih o o d o f n a m in g c o n fiic ts are lessen ed.

T h e m a c r o la n g u a g e , lik e m o s t o th e r m cicro la n g u a g es, u ses registers f o r th e diflferent ‘ d a t a t y p e s ’ w h ich a re a v a ila b le. T h e s e reg isters c o m e in five v a rieties:

C o u n t re g iste rs a r e u sed fo r k e e p in g in te g e r va lu es (3 2 b it ). h as p rim itiv e o p e r a t io n s f o r in te g e r a r it h m e tic o n ly , b u t th is is u su a lly n o t a p r o b le m . T h e fo llo w in g p ie c e o f c o d e d e c la r e s a c o u n t re g ister n a m e d \ f i g n o w h ich is in itia liz e d t o 0:

\ n e w c o u n t \ f i g n o

T h e c o d e fo r th e fig u re m a c r o w o u ld th e n ta k e c a r e o f p la c in g th e fig u re a n d a ssign in g a n u m b e r t o it w h ich w o u ld b e in c r e m e n te d f o r e a ch fig u re. T h is last

o p e r a tio n is a ch ie v e d b y ;

\ a d v a n c e \ f i g n o b y 1

D im e n s io n reg isters a re u sed fo r p r in te r s ’ d im e n s io n s , p o in ts , p ic a s , m illim e ­ ters, e tc . T h e fo llo w in g p ie c e o f c o d e d e cla re s a d im e n s io n r e g iste r a n d th en in itia lizes it.

\ n e w d im e n \ p a g e w id th \ p a g e v id th -1 7 0 m m

N e x t c o m e th e g lu e reg isters o r ‘ s k ip ’ reg isters. T h e s e c o n ta in g lu e sp e cifica r tio n s . T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le illu stra tes th e d e fin itio n o f th e \ s m a l l s k i p m a c r o

w h ich m ak es u se o f th e s m a lls k ip a m o u n t g lu e reg ister:

\ n e v s k ip \ s m a lls k ip a m o u n t

\ s m a lls k ip a m o u n t = 3 p t p l u s I p t m in u s I p t \ d e f \ s m a l l s k i p { \ v s k l p \ s n i a l l s k i p a m o u n t }

T h e \ s m a lls k ip a m o u n t re g ister is set t o 3 p t p lu s I p t m in u s I p t . T h e m a c r o \ s m a l l s k i p is d efin ed as a v e r tic a l sk ip ( \ v s k i p ) o f \ s m a lls k ip a m o u n t .

F in a lly , w e c o m e t o th e b o x reg isters w h ich a re u sed fo r h o ld in g th e b o x e s

g ra d u a lly a c c c u m u la te d fo r ea ch p a g e . B o x e s h a v e th ree d im e n s io n s , as m e n ­ tio n e d b e fo r e . T h e s e c a n b e q u e rie d o r se t, u sin g th e p r im itiv e s \wd, \ h t , a n d \ d p fo r th e w id th , h eig h t, a n d d e p th , re sp e ctiv e ly .

3 .4

D efining M acros

W e h a v e a lr e a d y seen o n e e x a m p le o f h o w m a c r o s a re d e fin e d . T h is is d o n e w ith th e \ d e f p r im itiv e . M a c r o s c a n ta k e a rg u m e n ts , it is e v en p o s s ib le t o h a v e m a c r o s w h ich ch e ck f o r o p tio n a l a rg u m en ts, a h ig ly u sefu l fe a tu re . A ty p ic a l m a c r o w ith a rg u m en ts is th e fo llo w in g sim p le m a c r o fo r s e ttin g h e a d w o r d s in b o ld fa c e . ( T h e

p e rce n t sig n 7. is u su a lly a co m m e n t c h a r a c te r in I ^ . A n y t h in g c o m in g a fte r th e 7. o n a lin e is ig n o r e d b y 1 ^ . )

\ d e f \ h v o r d # l{ 7 t m a c r o f o r t h e h e a d w o r d { \ b f # l \ m a r k { # l } } }

T h is sets th e h e a d w o r d in b o ld fa c e ( \ b f ) a n d d efin es a ‘ m a r k ’ . T h is m a r k c a n , fo r in sta n ce, b e u sed t o e s ta b lis h th e ra n g e o f en tries o n a p a r tic u la r p a g e o f a d ic ­ tion a ry . T h e p a ra m e te rs a re d e n o te d b y # a n d th e y a re n u m b e re d c o n s e c u tiv e ly , sta rtin g w ith # 1 .

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is th e n a s tr a ig h tfo r w a r d m a t te r t o ch e c k w h e th e r th e list o f h e a d w o rd s th u s g en ­ e r a te d is in c o r r e c t a lp h a b e tic a l o r d e r . T h is c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r:

\newwrite\hwordfile '/. first a file is defined

\newif\ifproofmode '/. A conditional is declared

\proofmodetrue

Are we printing proofs? Yes we are.

\ifproofmode \messaigef**** Printing proofs

* * * * * }

\inunediate\openout\outf ile=\j obname.hwrd

\def\hword#l{'/, macro for the headword

{\bf#l\mark{#l}}

\immediate\write\outf ile-f#!}}

\else \message{**** Final rim ***♦*}

\def\hword#l{% macro for the headword

■(\bf#l\markf#l}}}

\fi

T h e c o n d it io n a l c o n s tr u c tio n

\if

\else

\fi

th u s m a k es it e a s y t o p rin t d ifferen t v e rsio n s o f th e sa m e m a n u scrip t a c c o r d in g t o n e e d .

T h is h a s o n ly b e e n tlie b rie fe s t o f in t r o d u c tio n s t o as a p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e , b u t it s h o u ld , I h o p e , rev ea l t o th e re a d e r s o m e th in g o f th e fla v ou r o f th e TfeX la n g u a g e .

3 .5

in Iceland

T h e In s titu te h a s b e e n re s p o n s ib le fo r in tr o d u c in g TfeX in to Ice la n d . I have

ea rlie r d e s c r ib e d th e s te p s u n d e rta k e n t o m a k e T]eX w o r k w ith Ic e la n d ic (J ö rg e n P in d 1 9 8 8 ). In p a r tic u la r :

• It w a s n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e a set o f p a tte r n s fo r t o a ch ie v e c o r r e c t (o r n e a r ly c o r r e c t ) h y p h e n a tio n . T h e p a tte r n s w ere g e n e ra te d b y F ra n k L ia n g ’s p r o g r a m

PATGEN, u sin g as in p u t a 2 1 0 .0 0 0 w o r d d ic t io n a r y m a d e b y th e

In s titu te f o r I B M in Ic e la n d t o u se in I B M sp e llin g checkers.^

• T h e C o m p u t e r M o d e r n F o n ts h a d t o b e a d a p te d t o I c e la n d ic b y a d d in g a few ch a ra cte rs (e .g ., ‘9 ’ (e t h ) eind ‘ 1>’ (t h o r n ) ) .

• C h a n g e s h a d t o b e m a d e t o th e s ta n d a r d m a c r o c o lle c t io n s t o a llo w fo r n ew fo n ts a n d s o m e d ifferen ces in c h a r a c te r d e fin itio n s.

W it h th e se ch a n g es, h as b e e n fo u n d t o w o r k a d m ir a b ly fo r I c e la n d ic a n d h as a lr e a d y b e e n u sed t o ty p e s e t a n u m b e r o f b o o k s . I g u ess Ic e la n d m u st b e u n iq u e in h a v in g b r o u g h t o u t a n u m b e r o f T ^ e d b o o k s a n d y e t n o m a t h e m a tic s

b o o k h as b e e n ty p e s e t w ith th e Ic e la n d ic v e rs io n o f as y et!

4

Typography and Dictionaries

4 .1 Som e G eneral Observations

T h e ty p e s e ttin g o f d ic tio n a r ie s u s u a lly p resen ts fe w p r o b le m s . D ic tio n a r ie s a re u su a lly set in tw o o r th re e c o lu m n s w h ich a re ra th e r n a rro w . T h is c a n o ft e n le a d

t o difiSculties w ith lin e -b re a k in g , sin ce th e n a rro w c o lu m n s lea v e r e la tiv e ly little la titu d e fo r th e p a r a g r a p h -b r e a k in g a lg o r ith m . F o r th is r e a so n , it is a d v a n ta g e o u s t o c h o o s e a fo n t w ith a n a rro w set w id th , a n d , s e c o n d ly , it is n e ce s s a ry t o a llo w th e ty p e s e ttin g p r o g r a m m o r e fie x ib ility in s tr e tc h in g a n d c o m p r e s s in g in te rw o rd sp a ces th a n is n o r m a l in b o o k s w h ich a re set t o th e fu ll w id th o f th e p a g e . In

th is fle x ib ility is c o n tr o lle d w ith th e p r im itiv e \ t o l e r a n c e .

W h e n th e c o lu m n s a re set in reg ister, as is u su a lly th e ca se , w id o w lin es a re

b o u n d t o o c c u r b e c a u s e th e le a d in g (in te rlin e g lu e in I f e X ) is n o t a llo w e d t o waxy. T h e s e c a n b e g o t rid o f b y s tr e tc h in g o r sh rin k in g th e p a ra g ra p h ( o r p a ra g ra p h s o n th e p r e v io u s p a g e o r p a g e s ). In th is is c o n tr o lle d b y th e \ l o o s e n e s s

p rim itiv e . I f o n e is p re p a re d t o a c c e p t fu ll w id o w lin es (a s w e o c c a s io n a lly d id in th e e ty m o lo g ic a l d ic t io n a r y ), it is p o s s ib le t o a c h ie v e th is in b y s e ttin g th e g lu e re g ister \ p a r f i l l s k i p e q u a l t o 0 p t, th u s d r a w in g th e la st lin e o f a p a ra g ra p h o u t t o th e fu ll w id th o f th e c o lu m n .

I f th e c o lu m n s a re n o t set in re g ister (a s is, fo r e x a m p le , th e ca s e in th e O x fo r d E n g lish D ic t io n a r y w h ere th e q u o ta tio n s a re set in sm a lle r ty p e , th u s

fo r c in g v a ria b le le a d in g ), it is m u ch ea sier t o c o n t r o l fo r w id o w lin es sin ce th e s p a c e b e tw een p a ra g ra p h s ca n ea sily b e v a ried (th is is d o n e in 1 ^ w ith th e \ p a r s k i p p r im itiv e ).

It is c u s tu m a r y in d ic tio n a r ie s t o p rin t w o r d s a t th e t o p o f th e p a g e , s h o w in g th e ra n g e o f th e en tries o n th a t p a g e . T h is p r o c e s s ca n v e r y e a sily b e a u t o m a t ­ ed in I ^ , u sin g th e \m ark. B y \ m a r k in g all h e a d w o r d en tries a n d d e fin in g

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5

W ork Finished and in Progress

T h e m a jo r p e r fo r m a n c e te st o f fo r le x ic o g r a p h ic w o rk w as th e ty p e s e ttin g o f th e e t y m o lo g ic a l d ic t io n a r y b y Å s g e ir B lö n d a l M a g n u ss o n . T h is b o o k ru ns to 1231 t w o -c o lu m n p a g e s w ith fo r t y p a g e s o f in t r o d u c t o r y m a te ria l. t o o k ca re o f th e t y p e s e tt in g o f all th e p a g e s e x c e p t fo r tw o p a g es w h ich c o n ta in illu stra tion s d e m o n s tr a tin g th e u se o f th e d ic tio n a r y . T h e s e tw o p a g es w e re d esig n ed w ith a

d r a w in g p r o g r a m .

O rig in a lly , it w a s n e v e r in te n d e d th a t th e e t y m o lo g ic a l d ic t io n a r y w o u ld b e

t y p e s e t w ith 1 ^ . W h e n k e y b o a r d in g o f th e m a n u scrip t b e g a n in 1985, w e d id n o t h a v e I fe X , a n d th e c o d in g o f th e m a n u s crip t w as su ch th a t it w o u ld b e ea sy t o tra n s fe r it t o a p rin te r fo r ty p e s e tt in g w ith tr a d itio n a l p r in te r s ’ ty p e s e ttin g c o d e s . H o w e v e r, in J a n u a ry 1 9 8 9 , w h e n w e w ere re a d y t o tu rn th e m a n u scrip t

o v e r t o th e p rin te r, it tu rn e d o u t th a t th e y d id n o t h a v e all th e ch a ra cte rs n eed ed fo r th e ty p e s e tt in g , a n d w o u ld a ls o h a v e diflSculties w ith a ll th e d iv erse flo a tin g aurcents w h ich th e b o o k c o n ta in s . A t th a t p o in t I d e c id e d t o m a k e s o m e tria l runs

w ith u sin g P o s t S c r ip t fo n ts ( A d o b e T im e s R o m a n ). It tu rn e d o u t th a t n o p r o b le m s w h e re e n c o u n te r e d w h ich c o u ld n o t ra th er e a sily b e s o lv e d . E v en th e fa c t th a t P o s t S c r ip t h as a fa ir ly lim ite d ch a r a c te r r e p e r to ir e c o u ld b e rem ed ied b y d r a w in g th e m issin g ch a r a c te r s w ith F o n to g r a p h e r , a fo n t g e n e r a tin g p ro g ra m ru n n in g o n th e M a c in to s h (A lt s y s C o r p o r a t io n 1 9 8 9 ).

F ig u r e 3 s h o w s a s a m p le p a g e fr o m th e d ic t io n

2

iry.

O u r m a jo r p r o je c t in th e fu tu r e w ill, o f c o u r s e , b e th e d ic t io n a r y o f v erb s o u tlin e d in th e p a p e r b y J 6n H ilm a r J ö n s s o n in th is v o lu m e . T h e e d itin g w ill ta k e p la c e in a d a ta b a s e s y s te m , a n d th e o u t p u t o f th a t sy ste m , a s crip t, w ill b e g e n e r ic a lly c o d e d .

A d d itio n a lly , w e h a v e ju s t e m b a rk e d o n a p r o je c t t o rep rin t s o m e o ld e r Ice­ la n d ic le x ic o g r a p h ic w ork s. W o r k is n o w in p ro g re s s o n fo u r o ld e r d ictio n a rie s. T h e s e axe a ll c o d e d in th e la n g u a g e , a n d th e in te n tio n is t o b rin g th ese

o u t in n e w e d it io n s . T h e s e a re d e a lt w ith as te x tu a l o b je c t s , th o u g h th e g en eric c o d in g w o u ld , o f c o u r s e , c o n s id e r a b ly e a se th e ta sk o f p u ttin g th em o n lin e , if

th a t s h o u ld b e d e c id e d a t a la te r s ta g e (c f. A lsh a w i e t a l. 1 9 8 9 ).

6

Issues of Coding

In re ce n t y e a r s , m o r e a n d m o r e a tt e m p ts h a v e b een m a d e t o u se d a ta b a s e sy stem s fo r th e c r e a tio n o f d ic tio n a r ie s . W h e n a d a ta b a s e is u sed fo r a d ic tio n a r y , it b e c o m e s p o s s ib le t o n a m e th e field s w h ich a re b e in g en te re d . T h e d a ta b a s e

ädess afdan kaO u r

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édess. Oédeis h. (18. öld) 'öhreinindi; öhapp;

ådrepa'; af fs.

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'saurgast, versna’. Eiginl. ‘t>afi sem dettur å e-n eSa skellur å e-m’. Sjå

dess.

aOili k. 'hlutafieigandi'; aSild kv. 'hlutdeild', sbr.

sakaralUld, réttaraÖUd

o.s.frv. Orö jressi lutu

i

önd- verfiu aö skyldu og rétti æitingja (efia tengdamanna) i målaferlum, sk.

adal

(1) og

aOall.

AOill k. fnorr. karlmannsnafn, sbr.

aSall

og

aDili.

AOils k. karlmannsnafn; sbr. sæ.

Adils,

sæ. runar.

Apisl < *AÖglsl,

fe.

Eadgils.

Forliöurinn

a8- i

skylt viO

aöal-

(2) og

öDal,

sbr. fsæ. pn.

Adr,

um viSliBinn sjå

gisl

(1).

adfu, adjö uh. (18. öld) ‘kveBjuorÖ’. To. ur d.

adjø

<

fr.

adieu

<

a Dieu,

eiginl. ‘guB veri meB |jér’.

admfréll. aBmiréll k. (nfsl.) 'sjöliBsforingi'. To.

ur d.

admiral <

ffr.

a(d)miral

(s.m.) < arab.

amir

‘höfBingi’. Sjå

emir.

Adélf k. karlmannsnafn; lökunafn, Kkl. ættaB ur

)>., sbr. nhj).

Adolf,

Ih|).

Alhaiwolf, Alhulf,

gotn.

Aih-

aulfs;

llkl. <

*aj>a-wulfaz.

Sjå

aöall

og

ulfur.

adressa kv. (19. öld) 'heimilisfang'; adressera s.

‘skrifa heimilisfang, ...’. To. ur d.

adresse, adressere

ættuB ur fr.

adresser,

sbr. lat.

ad

'til' og

directum

(l.h.) 'beint'.

aBsjåll 1. ‘nfskur, naumur ( litlåtum’ <

*al-séall-,

e.t.v. leitt af gamalli forskeyttri so., sbr. gotn.

aisaih-

wan

‘gaumgæfa’ og fsl.

sjö ad sér,

-aBur, t-aSr k. viBsk. no. eins og

munadur, unad-

ur.

Skiptist å viB

-udur

(s.t>.) og er komiB af germ.

*-ö-pu-.

betta viBsk. er runniö af verknaBarviBsk. *-/)i(- < ie.

*-tu-

sem skeytt var viB stofn ö-sagna. Vfxl

-ad-

og

-ud-

eru upphaflega håB sérhljöBi eftir- farandi endingar, t.d. nf. et.

*-apuR

>

-udr,

en ef. et.

*-apoR > -adar,

og gegndu jressar tvær myndir viBsk. (upphah sama hlutverki, en sfBar hefur

-ad-

veriB aB mestu sérhæft (verknaBarmerkingu, en

-ud-

aB mestu (gerandmerkingu. Sjå

-udur, -nadur

og

-nudur.

aBvenla kv. ‘jélafasta’. To., komiB ur lat.

adrenius

'koma', o: koma eBa fæBing Krists f heiminn.

aBventislar k.ft. krislinn truflokkur; nafngiftin

l^ur aB tru jreirra å endurkomu Krists.

aBvifandi Ih.nt.:

koma a.

‘koma aB eins og af til-

viljun’. Sjå

*\jfa

(2).

1af fs. (ao.) ‘frå, burt'; sbr. fær., nno. og sæ. av,

d.

af,

gotn.

(rf,

fe.

af, of,

fhji.

ab(a),

lat.

ah

(<

*ap),

gr.

åpolapö',

sk.

afar, afr

(2).

aflur, al

(4),

efja, eflir,

efsa, öfund, öfugur

og e.t.v.

afiann.

Sjå

af-

(2).

2af- forskeyti; sbr. fær., nno. og sæ. av, d.

af-,

gotn.

af-,

fe.

of-,

fh|).

ab-, aha-, abo-,

lat.

ab-,

gr.

apo-,

fi.

apa-.

Sjå fs.

af.

Ymist gamalt forskeyti eins

og t.d. (

afhragd, aflåt, afråd, afrek

o.s.frv. eBa sfB­ ar forskeytt fs. eBa ao., sbr. t.d.

afdrdnur, afhyda.

qfrakja

o.fl. ForskeytiB heldur oft eiginlegri (slaBar- legri) merkingu sinni, sbr. t.d.

afhjarga, affjalla, af­

hus, afhvarf,

en stundum verBur tåkngildi (>ess niBr- andi eBa herBandi, t.d.

afgelja, afgera, afdi

‘ofål’.

afgamall, afkostir, afstopi

‘ofstopi’, eBa meira eBa minna öeiginlegt, t.d. i

afråd, afrek.

ifa

kv., merking ekki fullljös, en Ifkl. ‘fjandskap- ur, mein', sbr. ffsl.

ipll ok

(5/u /

farik åsa Sonum

(Lokas.). Sumir telja aB

åfa

sé f ætt viB lo.

afur

og

åfa

kv., en stofnsérhIjöBiB, germ.

*é,

er annars ö|>ekkl f jreirri orBsift. ABrir ætla aB

åfa

(f Lokas.) sé eiginl. s.o. og

åfå

og |iå <

*åfo < *åfå.

Enn aBrir lengja orBiB viB vo/a kv.; Iftt sennilegt; d/aerstakorB og rithåttur ekki öruggur, e.t.v. stendur

åfu

fyrir

öfu

og orBiB jiå s.o. og

åfa

og lengt lo.

afur.

Allt övfst.

åfå kv. (18. öld) ‘åhrif, t.d. af vfnanda', sk.

åfengur

1. ‘sem hn'fur å’; åfengi h. 'vfnandi' og

åfang

h. E.t.v. <

*anfa(n)hö

dregiS af forskeyttri so.

*anfa(n)han,

sbr. fhj).

anafåhan

'byrja' (eiginl. ‘grfpa å’), eBa myndaB af so.

få

(1) eBa öllu heldur samb.

fåå.

åfang h. t ‘åtak, hnjask, ofbeldi’; e.t.v. leitt af

forskeyttri so.

*anfa(n)han

‘grfpa f, byrja', sbr. fh[).

anafang

‘ålak, hrifs, byrjun'; sk.

åfå

og

åfengur.

Sjå

få(l).

åfangi, tåfangr k. Sjå

åirangr.

afar ao. ‘mjög‘, einnig forskeyti afar-, sbr. afar- kostir; liklega sama orB og gotn.

afar

‘å eflir. sfBar',

(h|).

arar, ahur

'aflur', sbr. nfsl. afur- (<

*afr-)

sem

notaB er sem forskeyti f Ifkri merk. og

afar- (afuryrdi,

afurnagandi)

og

af-

(2) sem stundum er haft i herB­ andi merkingu, t.d.

afkostir

s.s. afarkostir,

afgamall

‘mjög gamall';

afar

s;^nisi vera einsk. miSstig af fs. eBa ao.

af,

sbr. h.

åpara-

‘aftari, sfBari'. ABrir telja aB

afar

sé sk. gotn.

ahrs

‘sterkur’. Sjå

afr

(2).

af-baka s. (16. öld) ‘aflaga, skekkja'; sbr. nno.

avbakleg

‘öfugsnuinn, 0hægur, erfiBur, afskekktur',

avhekl

‘jjver, öfugur’, sæ. måli.

dhdklig

‘luralegur, ölögulegur', fær.

avhekladur

‘illa iroBinn, aflagaB- ur (um skö)'. Myndun orBsins er öljös, t>6tt |>aB sé synilega tengi no.

hak.

F.J. (1914) ætlar aB |)aB merki f öndverBu

‘ab

bakfletla trjåviB, höggva åvala af trjåm' og slyBsI |iar m.a. viB umsögn B.H., en )>aB samræmisl Iftt merkingu og formi nno. og sæ. orBmyndanna. Sjå

hak

og

bekilk,

ath.

hakill.

-baldi k. (nfsl.) ‘ofsafenginn maBur’, sk.

baldinn

I. og

of­

beldi

h. -bragB h. ‘e-B fråbært’; sbr. nno.

avbragd

og

fær.

avbragd-

f

avhragdsstyrki

‘mikiB afl‘. Leitt af so.

*ab-bregdan

eBa

bregda af,

sbr.

afbrugdinn

‘fråbrugBinn, öllkur’ og

afhrudig(u)r.

-bråBig(u)r I., af-brySi (faf-brygBi) kv. Sjå

dhrudig(u)r.

-danka s.

(nfsl.) ‘svipla metorBum eBa stöBu’; -dankaBur I.

320

Computational Linguistics — Reykjavik 1989

T h e tr a d it io n a l w a y o f m a k in g a d ic t io n a r y h as b een t o p r o c e e d in a so m e ­ w h a t d ifferen t m a n n e r , w r itin g th e d ic t io n a r y en tries o n slip s o f paper.^

W h ile th e c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n slip s o f p a p e r , a file c a b in e t, a n d a d a ta b a se s y s te m is o ft e n m a d e , th is c o m p a r is o n is s o m e w h a t m is le a d in g sin ce ca te g o rie s on

th e w r itte n sh eets o r s lip s a re u su a lly n o t n a m e d . In th e case o f d ictio n a rie s th is is m o s t cle a r ly th e ca se. A n e x a m p le w ill sh o w th is. F ig u re 4 sh ow s a slip fr o m th e c o lle c t io n w h ic h w as u sed in th e m a k in g o f th e first sta n d a rd d ic t io n a r y o f

Ictur (-u rif pi. ds.) (le:døQ, le:tøe] n. 1. a. SbrifI, Typer: g o t n e s b t , l a t n e s k t /.; fæ r a e - d i letu r^ optegne n*t, fere i Pennen; s e t t /., en Slags Halvfraktur, nsrmende sig til Schwabacherlypen. ^ *b* l e t u r s la n d , Papir (DdluHj. 255); l e t r a r o lta (egl. Typefaar) (DdluHj. 217) = p r e n t s m i d f a , —

2. Indskrift: /. <t s t e i n i . -b a n d [«r-bani] n. Forkortelse, Abbreviatur.

•breyting l-brei:dii]k, >brei:l-] f. Udhævelse. -gerB , -gjorB I*QerB, •QdrB| f. I* Dogslavskrift, Typernes Karakter: l e t u r g e r d in e r a l t 6 n n - u r , Typerne er af en helt anden Karakter. — 2, Skrivning: h v o r u g u r k e i r r a h a f 9 i n u m i d s u o m ikt'B i le t u r g j o r B , a S ^ e i r m æ it u rita n S fn sin (]ThMk. 362). — 3. a. ( s a m n i n g r i t s ) Optegnelse, Affattelse af et Skrift.

Figure 4: A sample entry from the dictionary by S ig f u s B lo n d a l and one o f the dictionary slips on which it is based

m o d e r n I c e la n d ic , S ig fu s B lo n d a l’s Ic e la n d ic -D a n is h d ic t io n a r y (B lo n d a l 1923). It is q u ite o b v io u s th a t n o c a te g o r ie s as su ch are m a rk ed o n th e slip . T h e y ca n ,

h o w e v e r, b e in fe r r e d fr o m th e s lip b y th e u se o f m a rk in g s w h ich in d ic a te differen t fo n ts . T h e slip im p lic it ly m a rk s c a te g o r ie s b y th e use o f u n d e rlin in g a n d oth er t y p o g r a p h ic a l m a rk s.

[image:13.595.157.443.339.575.2]

T h is a p p r o a c h is q u ite n a tu ra l, c o n s id e r in g th a t d ic t io n a r y e d it o r s , su ch as Sigfiis B lö n d a l, w ere w o r k in g w ith th e s o le a im o f p r o d u c in g a p r in te d d ic tio n a r y . T h e y th o u g h t o f th eir w o r k as th a t o f p r o d u c in g a text, a n d th e ir a p p r o a c h w as q u ite p la in ly a ‘ ty p o g r a p h ic a l’ o n e w h e re th e o n ly th in g s th e y n e e d e d t o k eep d is tin ct in th e m a n u scrip ts w ere ch a n g e s w h ich w o u ld s h o w u p o n th e p rin te d p a g e, lik e fo n t ch a n g es.

T h is a p p r o a c h has n o d o u b t b e e n a lm o s t u n iv e rsa lly fo llo w e d , a t le a st un ­ til q u ite recen tly . S o m e p u b lis h e d d ic tio n a r ie s h a v e b e e n m a d e a v a ila b le t o re­ sea rch ers. T h e s e a re g e n e ra lly t y p o g r a p h ic a lly c o d e d a n d b r in g in g th e m o n lin e has o ft e n p r o v e d t o b e a fo r m id a b le ta sk (A ls h a w i et a l. 1 9 8 9 ).

T h is d is c r e p a n c y b etw e e n th e d a ta b a s e re p re s e n ta tio n o f a d ic t io n a r y a n d th e p r in te d , ty p o g r a p h ic a l, re p re se n ta tio n is q u ite u n fo r tu n a te a n d v a rio u s step s h ave b e e n ta k en t o c lo s e th e g a p . T h is is c u r r e n tly n o t t o o d ifficu lt a ta sk a n d I w an t t o d iscu ss h ere b rie fly h o w o n e c o u ld a ch ie v e th is a im w ith T ^ .

A p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e su ch as m a k es it p o s s ib le t o c o d e th e meinu- s c r ip t a t a n y level o f a b s tr a c t io n w h ich o n e fin d s m o s t co n v e n ie n t. T h e p rim itiv e s

w h ich d ea ls w ith a re fo r th e m o s t p a rt t y p o g r a p h ic a l o n e s , as a lr e a d y d is ­ cu ssed . H ow ev er, it is b y n o m ea n s n e ce ssa ry t o u se th e se p r im itiv e s d ire ctly . L et m e illu stra te th is b y ta k in g th e e n tr y fr o m th e Ic e la n d ic -D a n is h d ic t io n a r y sh ow n in fig u re 4 as an e x a m p le . T h is c a n b e ty p o g r a p h ic a lly c o d e d as fo llo w s in (th e p h o n e t ic tr a n s c r ip tio n h a s b e e n left o u t ) :

\bold{letur (-urs,} pi. ds.) [...] n. 1. a. Skrift, Typer:

\ital{gotneskt, latneskt 1.; færa e-d i letur}, optegne n-t,

f^re i Pennen; \ital-fsett 1.}, en slags Halvfraktur,

nærmende sig til Schwabachertypen. --- \bold{*b.}

\ital-fleturs land}, Papir (BöluHJ . 255);

\ital{letra rolla} (egl. Typefaar) (BöluHj. 217)

= \ital-(prentsmidja}.

T h is e x a m p le sh o u ld b e m o s t ly s e lf-e x p la n a to r y . T h e in s tr u c tio n s \ b o l d a n d \ i t a l c h a n g e r e s p e c tiv e ly t o th e b o ld a n d it a lic fo n ts . T h is re p r e s e n ta tio n is fa irly c lo s e t o th e o n e g iv en o n th e slip s th e m se lv e s, as d e p ic te d in fig u re 4. N o t e in cid e n ta lly th e s o m e w h a t stra n g e u se o f fo n ts in th e first lin e w h e re p a ren th eses

d o n o t b a la n c e c o r r e c t ly w ith re s p e c ts t o fo n ts . T h is u se is p r o b a b ly q u ite n a tu ­ ral fo r th e p rin te r (w h o h as, a fter all, b e e n ta u g h t th a t a d e lim ite r c h a r a c te r , fo r e x a m p le , sh o u ld b e lo n g t o th e sa m e fo n t as th e p r e c e d in g t e x t ) . T o s o m e o n e a c ­ c u s to m e d t o th e n o tio n s o f ‘ b lo c k in g ’ a n d ‘ e n v ir o n m e n ts ’ fr o m c o m p u t e r s c ie n c e th is m a n n er o f fo n t c h a n g e d o e s seem illo g ic a l.

I f w e ca re t o a n a ly z e th e e x a m p le fr o m a fu n c tio n a l p e r s p e c tiv e , w e ca n ea sily see th a t it c o n ta in s a n u m b e r o f d ifferen t c a te g o r ie s . T h e r e is th e h e a d w o r d , w h ich is p rin te d in b o ld ty p e , a n d s o is th e g r a m m a t ic a l e n d in g s ig n ify in g th e g en itiv e. H ere w e h a v e a n e x a m p le , ev e r s o c o m m o n in d ic tio n a r ie s , o f o n e fo n t

322

Computational Linguistics — Reykjavik 1989

A d ifferen t w a y o f c o d in g w o u ld b e t o c o d e th e ca te g o r ie s d ir e c t ly w ith o u t a n y re fe r e n c e w h a ts o e v e r t o th e ir ty p o g r a p h ic a l im p le m e n ta tio n . T h is a p p r o a c h , w h ic h h a s q u ite a s h o r t h is to ry , h as b e e n v a rio u s ly n a m e d ‘ lo g ic a l’ o r ‘g e n e r ic ’ c o d in g , a n d c a n th u s b e d is tin g u is h e d fr o m th e v isu a l c o d in g sh ow n a b o v e . G e n e r ic c o d in g h a s r e c e n tly r e c e iv e d in c r e a s e d a tte n tio n th r o u g h th e sta n d a rd ­

iz a t io n o f th e S G M L (S ta n d a r d G e n e r a liz e d M a r k u p L a n g u a g e ) (IS O 1986, B a r­ r o n 1 9 8 9 , B r y a n 1 9 8 9 ). S im ila r c o n c e p t s h a v e b een e x p re sse d in o th e r la n g u a g es a n d fo r m a tte r s , th o u g h S G M L ca rries it t o its lo g ic a l c o n c lu s io n : S G M L is sim p ly a m a n n e r o f c o d in g a m a n u s c r ip t, a n d h a s re a lly n o th in g d o d o w ith ty p e s e ttin g , o r d a ta b a s e m a n ip u la tio n . It d o e s , h o w e v e r, e m b o d y a m a n n e r o f rep resen tin g th e s tr u c tu r e s w h ic h a re t o b e fo u n d in a p a r tic u la r d o c u m e n t.

In p a r tic u la r , as re g a rd s I ^ , L eslie L a m p o r t ’s m a c r o p a ck a g e is v ery m u c h g e a r e d to w a r d s lo g ic a l c o d in g (L a m p o r t 1986; see a lso L a m p o r t 1988).

is a m a c r o p a ck a g e u sed fo r g e n e ra l d o c u m e n t p r o c e s s in g . It uses th e c o n ­ c e p t o f s e p a r a te ‘s ty le file s ’ t o c a p tu r e th e d ifferen t fo r m a ttin g n eed s o f re p o rts , a r tic le s , b o o k s , e t c . F u r th e r m o r e , it d efin es c a te g o r ie s su ch as ‘ title s ’ , ‘ s e c tio n s ’ , ‘ c h a p te r s ’ , ‘f o o t n o t e s ’ , a n d s o fo r t h t o e x p re s s th e d ifferen t lo g ic a l ca te g o r ie s o f d o c u m e n ts .

T h e m a c r o la n g u a g e is su ch th a t o n e c a n ea sily im p le m e n t m a c r o s t o a n y d e g r e e a f a b s tr a c t io n r e q u ire d . U sin g su ch an a p p r o a c h , it w o u ld b e e a sy en o u g h t o c o d e th e a b o v e e x a m p le fr o m S igfu s B lo n d a l’ s d ic t io n a r y in th e fo llo w in g

m a n n e r (I h a v e fo r m a tte d it h ere fo r ea sier r e a d a b ility ):

\ h w o r d { l e t u r } ( \ d e c l { - u r s } , \ i i { p l . d s . } ) \ p h o n { [ . . . ] } \ p o s { n . }

\ s e n s e { l . }

\ s u b s e n s e { a . } \ t r a n s { S k r i f t , T y p e r } : \ V

\ e x a n i p l - { \ i c - { g o t n e s k t , l a t n e s k t 1 . ; f a r a e - d l e t u r } , \ d a { o p t e g n e n - t , f ^ r e i P e n n e n } } ;

\ e x a m p H \ i c - [ s e t t 1 . } ,

\ d a { e n s l a g s H a l v f r a k t u r , næ rm ende s i g t i l S c h v a b a c h e r t y p e n } } .

---\ s u b s e n s e { * b . }

\ e z a m p l { \ i c - [ l e t u r s l a n d } , \ d a { P a p i r } \ s o u r c e { B 6 1 u H j. 2 5 5 } ; \ e i a m p l - C \ i c f l e t r a r o l l a } \ d a { ( e g l . T y p e f a a r ) }

\ s o u r c e { B 6 1 u H j . 2 1 7 ) } = \ x r f - ( p r e n t s m i d j a } .

\ s e n s e { 2 . }

T h is , I h a ste n t o a d d , is ju s t a d e m o n s tr a tio n o f th e m a n n e r b y w h ich it w o u ld b e p o s s ib le t o p r o c e e d . In p a r tic u la r , in n o w a y is th is c o d in g b a s e d u p o n a s t u d y o f th e e n tries in th is d ic t io n a r y , a s tu d y w h ich it w o u ld b e n e cessa ry t o u n d e r ta k e i f it w e re d e s ire d t o c o d e th e d ic t io n a r y in th is m a n n er.

T h e c a te g o r ie s m e n tio n e d a b o v e s h o u ld b e e a s y e n o u g h t o u n d e rsta n d sin ce th e y h a v e b e e n g iv e n n a m e s w h ich a re fa ir ly s e lf-e x p la n a to r y (t h e c a te g o r ie s \ i c

n ecessa ry t o g iv e d e ta ile d e x p la n a tio n s fo r ea ch o f th e m . It is, o f c o u r s e , im m e ­ d ia te ly a p p a re n t th a t th e m a n u s crip t g e ts c o n s id e r a b ly m o r e c o m p lic a t e d w h en su ch a s y s te m o f c o d in g is e m p lo y e d . A ft e r a ll, a lo t o f c a te g o r ie s a re d e lim it e d w h ich w ill n o t fin d a n y p a r tic u la r re a liz a tio n in th e p r in te d t e x t . B y w o r k in g fr o m su ch a m a n u s crip t it is m u ch ea sier t o set u p a o n e -t o - o n e re la tio n s h ip w ith a d a ta b a s e re p re se n ta tio n w h ich o f c o u r s e is c o n s id e r a b ly m o r e d iffic u lt w h en d e a lin g o n ly w ith a v isu a lly c o d e d m a n u s c r ip t.

T h e a s tu te rea d er w ill p r o b a b ly o b je c t t o th e c h o ic e o f te rm s fo r th e e n tries

la b e lle d \ s e n s e a n d \ s u b s e n s e in th e a b o v e e x t r a c t , sin c e th e se o n ly refer t o n u m b ers a n d le tte rs a n d c a n n o t s t r ic t ly b e s a id t o d e n o t e th e sen se. T h is is, o f co u rs e , tr u e . In th is ca se it w o u ld h a v e b e e n b e t t e r t o la b e l th e w h o le p a ssa g e

b e lo n g in g t o th e p a rticu la r sen se, le a v in g o u t th e n u m b e rs a n d le tte rs a n d le t tin g a ssign th e se a u to m a tica lly . T h e p o in t h ere is s im p ly th a t it is p o s s ib le t o a p p r o a c h th e ta sk o f c o d in g in d ifferen t w a y s, a n d it is d ifficu lt t o s p e c ify o n c e a n d fo r all a fin ite set o f c a te g o rie s th a t w ill ta k e c a r e o f a ll th e e n titie s o n e c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly w an t t o cod e.^

O n e e x a m p le w ill illu stra te th is. T h e e t y m o g ic a l d ic t io n a r y , lik e a ll o f its k in d , co n ta in s n d ifferen t a c c e n ts w h ich h a v e t o b e c o d e d fo r . In 1 ^ , a c c e n ts a re ex p re sse d w ith s p e c ia l m a c r o s w h ich m a k e u se o f a n \ a c c e n t p r im itiv e . T h u s o n e w o u ld w rite \ = a t o g e t

‘a’,

w h e re th e \= sig n ifies a fio a tin g b a r a c c e n t, o r \ ’ a t o g e t a e t c . B u t th is c o m m a n d w ill n o t a lw a y s g iv e th e c o r r e c t resu lt. T h u s if o n e a tte m p ts t o p u t a n a c u te a c c e n t o n t o p o f a ‘ k ’ b y w r itin g \ ’ -( k } th e resu lt is L T h e c o r r e c t v e rsio n sh o u ld lo o k lik e ‘ k ’ . T h is reflects a lim it a tio n o f th e \ a c c e n t p r im itiv e in w h ich ca n b e c ir c u m v e n te d b y w r itin g s p e c ia l

p u rp o s e m a cro s fo r le tte rs lik e ‘ k ’ .

T o o b ta in th is e ffe ct it is n e cessa ry t o w r ite a s p e c ia l p u r p o s e m a c r o in

H ow ever, in th a t ca se , it is o f co u r s e n e ce s s a ry t o k n o w a b o u t th e fo n ts b e in g used fo r ty p e s e ttin g . O n e o f th e m a jo r p rem ises o f g e n e r ic m a r k u p is th a t su ch

k n o w le d g e is n o t n ecessa ry , in d e e d it is n o t n e ce ssa ry t o k n o w h o w th e te x t w ill e v e n tu a lly b e u sed , say, w h e th e r it w ill b e p r in te d o r p u t in to a d a ta b a s e .

6.1

V isu al C o d in g said D irect M an ipu lation

T h e a p p r o a c h t o c o d in g w h ich h as b e e n d e s c r ib e d h ere, is la n g u a g e -b a s e d a n d th u s c o n tr a s ts v e r y m u ch w ith th e ‘ d ir e c t m a n ip u la t io n ’ a p p r o a c h w h ich h a s in recen t y ea rs b e e n p o p u la r iz e d e s p e c ia lly o n th e M a c in to s h c o m p u t e r . A s re g a rd s ty p o g r a p h y , th e d ir e c t m a n ip u la tio n a p p r o a c h en ta ils th a t th e u ser p o in ts t o o r ‘ click s ’ o n w o rd s o r le tte rs o n th e scre e n a n d th e n t y p ic a lly c h o o s e s th e rele­ vant fo n t fr o m a m en u . T h is w as th e p a tte r n o f u sa g e w h ich w as e m b o d ie d in

M a c W rite , th e a r c h e ty p ic a l M a c in to s h w o r d -p r o c e s s in g p r o g r a m . T h e e ffe c ts o f th e fo n t ch a n g es c o u ld b e im m e d ia te ly seen o n th e scre e n , in a WYSIWYG ‘ W h a t y o u see is w h a t y o u g e t ’ r e p re se n ta tio n . T h e u ser in te r fa c e w as im m e d ia te ly h a iled as a b r e a k th r o u g h , w h ich o f c o u r s e it w a s, a n d y e t, as tim e h as s h o w n , it has its p ro b le m s . T h is c a n b e seen in th e e v o lu tio n o f w o r d -p r o c e s s in g p r o g r a m s

324

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fo r th e M a c in to s h w h ich te n d t o m o v e th e m c lo s e r t o a la n g u a g e -b a se d rep re­ s e n ta tio n . T h u s th e n o t io n o f ‘ sty le s h e e ts ’ , a n id e a b o r r o w e d fr o m B ria n R e id ’s p r o g r a m S crib e, h a s n ow b e e n c a rrie d o v e r in to a lm o s t e v e ry w o r d -p r o c e s s in g

p r o g r a m f o r th e M a c in to s h (R e id a n d W a lk e r 1 9 8 0 ). U sin g sty le sh eets, it b e ­ c o m e s p o s s ib le t o m a r k s e c tio n s in a s e m i-g e n e ric o r lo g ic a l m a n n er. U n fo rtu ­ n a te ly th e n o t io n o f s ty le sh eets o n ly a p p lie s t o p a ra g ra p h s, a n d is th u s useless

fo r th e m a k in g o f d ic tio n a r ie s w h e re o n e is m a in ly in te re ste d in c a te g o rie s a t a m u ch fin er g r a n u la r ity (i.e . s u b -p a r a g r a p h c a te g o r ie s ).

A s d e m o n s tr a te d in th is p a p e r , a la n g u a g e -b a s e d fo r m a tte r lik e ca n

e a s ily b e a c c o m m o d a t e d t o a m a n u s crip t g e n e r a te d fr o m a d a ta b a s e a n d thus it c a n d e a l w ith c a te g o r ie s a t a n y lev el. I ca n s ta te w ith o u t h e sita tio n th a t ou r e x p e r ie n c e u sin g h a s s h o w n th a t it is e m in e n tly su ited fo r le x ic o g r a p h ic w o rk .

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