Thesis

Teacher Strategies for Creating Opportunities for Flow Experiences in Student Learning Through Music

Abby Reeves

Senior Honors Thesis School of Education

Contents

Introduction……….……….4

What Is Flow?………..………4

How Music Relates to Flow……….…………....5

Education and Flow………..6

Literature Review……….8

Methodology……….……….……….18

Observation Guide………...19

Participants………..20

Classroom Observations………..………21

Interviews………...….21

Results……….………22

Observation Results……….22

Initial Observations………..22

Classroom Observations……….………..23

Flow Criterion: Community……….25

Flow Criterion: Pedagogy……….……25

Flow Criterion: Engagement……….26

Flow Criterion: Music Aesthetics……….27

Integrated Arts Observations………27

Flow Criterion: Community……….30

Flow Criterion: Pedagogy………30

Flow Criterion: Music Aesthetics……….31

Interview Results………..…32

Background and Musical Experience………...32

Use of Music in the Classroom……….33

Opinion on Music in Education………35

Discussion……….…....37

Reflection on Observation and Interview Results……….………...37

Implications for the Field of Education………42

Trends Seen During Observations………...……….42

Emotional Influence of Music………..43

Limitations to Flow Research in General……….43

Limitations Specific to This Study………..…….45

Implications for Future Research……….46

References………..……..……47

Appendix A: Interview Questionnaire Survey………..51

Appendix B: Observation Guide………..……….53

Appendix C: Interview Questionnaire Survey Responses (Teacher A)………54

Appendix D: Interview Questionnaire Survey Responses (Teacher B)………59

Appendix E: Interview Questionnaire Survey Reponses (Teacher D)………..64

Introduction

Every day my second grade teacher spent time with the class gathered around a

repurposed surfboard, the whole class singing along as she played guitar. For a young student, this was a daily time of leaving the rules of school behind and simply enjoying the moment with my classmates and teacher, getting lost in the music. Singing gave me a sense of being a part of something greater than myself, belonging to a group in a significant way, and feeling pure joy through vocal expression: experiences that Csikszentmihalyi has conceptualized as “flow.” Experiencing this phenomenon in an educational setting made school more fun, accessible, and worthwhile. My love of choral music continued throughout middle and high school, as meeting the challenge of a difficult vocal performance provided me with an unmatched feeling of self-accomplishment, group connection, and high enjoyment.

This study is based on the possibility that if teachers are able to create this type of musical experience in an academic classroom, students may be more likely to become fully engaged in learning and “get lost” in the creation of a meaningful product during school time. How can teachers approach education in a way that captures the essence of a potential-fulfilling, body-consuming, emotionally immersive musical moment? What classroom strategies can teachers use to make such a meaningful phenomenon more likely among their students? This research will begin to answer these questions.

What Is Flow?

challenge. He claims that “the best moments in our lives, are not the passive, receptive, relaxing times… The best moments usually occur when a person’s body or mind is stretched to its limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile. Optimal experience is thus something that we make happen” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 3). Flow does not occur spontaneously while we sit passively by; reaching an optimal experience takes purposeful effort. Humans have the capacity to create opportunities for happiness through complete engagement in challenging, interesting, and meaningful tasks (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

How Music Relates to Flow

Music is one way for people to reach this level of complete immersion. Through personal experience, I have learned that creating music, an inherently emotional activity, can be both challenging and rewarding, and consumes full concentration. Encouraging students to engage with musical learning in a school setting creates an opportunity for flow that is often missing from formally structured, fact-based, strictly academic classrooms. Csikszentmihalyi deplores these typical limitations:

Our culture seems to have been placing a decreasing emphasis on exposing young children to musical skills. Whenever cuts are to be made in a school’s budget, courses in music (as well as art and physical education) are the first to be eliminated. It is

music continues to be forced out of schools (Humphries, 2011). Nevertheless, numerous studies have shown the benefits of musical learning for student motivation, creativity, and overall well-being (Hallam, 2010; Barrett, 2011). Music is inherently enjoyable for many people, and it is especially prevalent within the lives of young children (Lew, 2005). Engagement in music can positively influence intellectual skills, social skills, and personal development (Hallam, 2010). It serves as an emotional outlet, creates a sense of group belonging, and influences identity

formation in adolescents (Adderley, Kennedy & Berz 2003). Knowing the benefits of music, why is it so scarcely found in classrooms? I would predict that part of the problem is that many teachers may feel unprepared or underqualified to teach music as it is not part of their

certification programs. In the modern educational climate, there is also increasing pressure for students to perform on academic subject tests and limited time to dedicate to the arts. Perhaps the biggest barrier is the culture of our school system and the high expectation for academic

achievement from an early age (Baker, 2012). Education and Flow

The current system of public education in the United States attempts to create an “even playing field” by approaching children’s minds from a universal and systematic perspective, as shown through the focus on high-stakes testing (Baker, 2012). Trying to teach everyone the same things in the same manner at a rapid pace with the goal of high test scores creates intense

academic future begin as young as kindergarten and continue throughout the school years, as students are unknowingly forced to “buy in” to the narrow goals of our educational system (Baker, 2012). The dichotomous nature of schooling creates only success or failure, correct or incorrect answers. This environment leaves little opportunity for students to learn collaboratively or explore interests outside of the prescribed curriculum. The space for complete immersion in any task, especially the arts, is squeezed out in a fast-paced, test-driven education system.

create a classroom environment that invites experiences of flow as students are engaged in musical learning.

There are numerous studies regarding peak experiences within education generally, as well as within music education specifically, as it has influenced the philosophy behind teaching music among many professionals (Elliott, 1995). From the relatively recent field of flow research in education emerges particular practices that may encourage (or discourage) similar peak experiences. The following chapter will review some of the relevant literature regarding flow-like experiences through music and learning. Then, there will be observations of elementary classrooms, interviews of elementary teachers, and analyses of these results in order to identify teacher strategies that create opportunities for students to experience flow through learning with music within a classroom setting.

Literature Review

Before applying the theory of flow to an educational setting, it is important to develop a solid understanding of different definitions and frameworks surrounding the idea of an optimal experience. This section will first address some of the significant components of flow according to Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Then it will discuss another psychological perspective describing a similar phenomenon: Maslow’s work on self-actualization as it relates to the theory of flow and peak experience. Following will be a review of more recent literature surrounding the idea of flow in music as it applies within educational settings and overall learning experiences.

high level of enjoyment, one must be completely involved in an activity and the task must reflect the eight components previously outlined. Another key aspect of a flow experience is that it is autotelic or intrinsically rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The activity should be enjoyable enough to drive a person to want to continue it without external motivation. The flow-inducing practice is inherently valuable, making the expectation of any future benefit both unnecessary and irrelevant (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow occurs when high skill meets high challenge, eliminating the all-too-common experiences of anxiety and boredom when one becomes fully immersed in the task at hand, while feeling confident in one’s ability to successfully complete the task (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

One of the primary influences on Csikszentmihalyi’s work was psychologist Abraham Maslow’s theory of a peak experience, which he defines as temporary self-actualization (1968). The description of a peak experience shares some commonalities with Csikszentmihalyi’s explanation of optimal experience within flow theory, including loss of awareness of time and space, a lack of self-consciousness, fulfillment of potential, and temporarily going beyond the self (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, Maslow, 1968). Both theories relate to similar notions of complete momentary engagement, and each psychologist offers his suggestions on how to create

opportunities for full immersion, meeting high challenges, and increased happiness.

[T]he function of education, the goal of education—the human goal, the humanistic goal, the goal so far as human beings are concerned—is ultimately the “self actualization” of a person, the becoming fully human, the development of the fullest height that the human species can stand up to or that the particular individual can come to. In a less technical way, it is helping the person to become the best that he is able to become. (1971, p. 169). However, the structured environment and high academic pressure of the U.S. educational system has stifled the greater humanistic goals that should ideally define education (Maslow, 1971). In order to attempt to address these limitations and expand the possibilities for students’ personal growth, policymakers and teachers must embrace a multidisciplinary approach that incorporates music, visual art, dance, and movement into the classroom, to extend learning beyond solely academics (Maslow, 1971). Maslow continues:

[R]ather than think of [the arts] as a sort of whipped cream or luxury, they must become basic experiences in education…Such experiences could very well serve as the model, the means by which perhaps we could rescue the rest of school curriculum from the value-free, value-neutral, goal-less meaninglessness into which it has fallen. (1971, p.179).

This “meaninglessness” may be a result of the score-driven, dichotomous nature of schooling that was discussed in the previous section. Creating an educational environment centered on challenging, intrinsically motivating activities offers students the possibility for increased focus, value, and enjoyment of school (Maslow, 1971). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) also addresses the problem of limited arts learning and physical education in school, as well as the need for authentic musical experiences within classroom learning. Although society has changed

and significant policy alterations, many of the same issues continue to limit opportunities for moments of flow in public education. Therefore, the reasons to incorporate the arts, and music specifically, remain true for today’s students as much as in the past.

Recent research addresses the educational implications for music and flow. Custodero’s (2002) study of flow and music education addresses modern classroom environments and the effects of Csikszentmihalyi’s research on teaching practices. According to Custodero (2002), the conditions for flow are that goals are clear, feedback is immediate, action and awareness merge, concentration is deep, control is possible, and self-consciousness disappears. Then, she identifies three specific principles to guide teachers in creating an environment that encourages students’ “deliberate efforts to optimize their own experiences” through music learning: 1) building of a community that supports group and teacher interactions in order to establish and continue appropriately challenging activities, 2) acknowledging and supporting autonomy to allow students to improve skill level, as well as freedom to transform curriculum in “personally relevant ways”, and 3) encouraging students’ intrinsic engagement through teaching that is culturally and developmentally appropriate (Custodero, 2002, p. 6). Her study found that if teachers focus on establishing these conditions through their pedagogical practices, the learning environment they subsequently create should allow students a greater opportunity to experience flow, as well as promote student motivation (Custodero, 2002). Custodero’s research responds to a question similar to the current research; the following paragraph will explain the findings more in depth, as it is integral to the expectations of the present study.

nurturing the child’s autonomy, children were in flow. When adult intervention interfered with the child’s taking ownership of the musical material, flow was obstructed” (p. 6). The role of peers was more consistently positive, as having a group of equals to collaborate and learn with was directly related to increasing flow (Custodero, 2002). Teachers should also encourage the development of student autonomy in their learning, as it was found that “taking intellectual ownership of musical materials by transforming them into something individually meaningful provides both aesthetic delight and a means to learning” (Custodero, 2002, p. 7) that will

improve self-motivation. Finally, students are naturally susceptible to engagement with activities that encourage musical creativity and that align with their background or cultural expectations (Custodero, 2002). For example, performing a known song or participating in an interactive storytelling are “activities made authentic through their own subculture of childhood”

(Custodero, 2002, p. 7). Children are more likely to become fully engaged with musical material that they are fairly comfortable with. Custodero concludes that teachers should observe and respond to children’s cues about their own learning, as the goal of teachers should be in

“providing environments where children can develop dispositions for creating their own optimal experiences through music” (Custodero, 2002, p. 8). The findings of Custodero’s (2002) study were especially influential to development of interview questions and observational expectations of the current research (Appendix A and B).

support, coaching by supervisor, and performance feedback), as well as the balance between challenge and skill in their current occupational position (Bakker, 2003). Through the analysis of structural equation models, the data collected through questionnaires of music teachers and students supported the hypothesis (Bakker, 2003). Music teachers’ work resources were shown to have a positive impact on frequency of their own flow experiences, and intrinsic motivation of these teachers had an especially positive relationship to student reports of flow in the classroom (Bakker, 2003). This study’s implications for education as a field extends beyond music teachers in particular. Bakker’s research suggests that teachers’ effort and enjoyment of their work may be transferrable to their students.

[T]hese results suggest that students ‘caught’ the flow experience of their teachers in a partly conscious and partly unconscious way. The crossover process may include the automatic imitation of a cheerful and happy teacher, but also the more conscious crossover of teachers’ dedication to their work (Bakker, 2003, p. 38).

If teachers feel autonomous, valued, and are meeting workplace challenges by using sufficient skills, they will project these positive feelings of flow onto students through their own happiness and intrinsic motivation (Bakker, 2003). It is important to note the specific context of music classrooms for Bakker’s study, as musical engagement is associated with total immersion, high effort, and concentration, which can be achieved through different tasks depending on the class setting (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Additional research is needed to support Bakker’s findings for all classrooms and to determine whether similar results may occur more or less frequently in other types of academic settings.

In light of Bakker’s findings of emotional contagion theory in education, there is

views of teaching mathematics with music. A group of students studying education at a U.S. university were asked to fill out a survey that gauged their belief, confidence, and engagement in teaching and learning mathematics (An, et al., 2011). The group was then engaged in an

intervention activity, which taught a core math concept through the use of music integration, and then they were asked to take the survey again. The results demonstrated that most of the

preservice teachers’ attitudes, confidence, and engagement showed significant improvement after the intervention activity of mathematics with music (An, et al., 2011). This outcome is somewhat surprising, considering the idea that teachers may feel unqualified or unprepared to teach with music, which may be an underlying cause of music being pushed out of academic time in public schools. However, exposure to specific teaching strategies utilizing music may encourage teachers to consider the effectiveness of musical teaching and promote a positive view of their own ability. If teaching with music makes teachers more confident and positive in their

instruction, then students will in turn benefit from a more engaging and interdisciplinary classroom environment. It is important to note that “this exploration study…could serve to broaden and deepen educators’ understanding of different ways students experience their

learning and contribute to the creation of successful learning environments where more students can be engaged” (An, et al., 2011, p. 246) through music or other interactive techniques.

Utilizing music within teaching strategies may contribute to a greater likelihood of flow among student experiences, which is one of the main ideas supporting the present research study. However, An, et. al (2011) failed to cite any specific strategies or conditions of incorporating music with math that may increase students’ opportunities for flow.

something larger than oneself. Through narrative analysis of pre-service music teachers’ writings on their experiences as music makers, Bernard (2009) discusses the possibilities of increasing awareness of transcendence among educators. Bernard’s (2009) study argues that mindfulness of teachers’ own transcendent musical experiences may lead to the encouragement of similar experiences among students. This hypothesis is similar to the findings of Bakker (2003) regarding emotional contagion theory between teacher and student. Bernard focuses on the personal background of pre-service music educators in a graduate program that asked them to write specifically about their experiences as music makers, music learners, and music teachers (2009). The study’s results supported the hypothesis that teachers’ awareness of their own transcendent experiences can improve the likelihood of moments of flow among students. From this very specific context, further reaching implications for education can be drawn: “Educators in all subject areas can strive towards this goal by creating environments that facilitate

transcendent experiences with the subject matter that they teach, and by providing opportunities for their students to experience transcendence” (Bernard, 2009, p. 19) by activating knowledge of conditions for their own personal transcendent experiences. Bernard’s study suggests that creating such an environment is possible within any educational setting where instructors are cognizant and purposeful in their approach to teaching, but her research lacks specific strategies for achieving that goal.

This musical engagement allows participants to “experience their own lives more fully and grow from the experience”, a phenomenon that encapsulates a common theme surrounding flow theory (Parker, 2011, p. 314). While Parker’s study focuses on students’ self-reported experiences of music learning, it is limited in its pedagogical directives. This research also analyzed a very limited population, with participants pooled from three Midwestern high school choirs, which provides a highly specific context for the results. Despite these limitations, Parker’s work demonstrates the immense value in utilizing music as a means to help students to experience flow (or similarly enlightening phenomena) while learning.

Research by McPherson and O’Neill (2010) focuses on specific aspects of flow, comparing music to other academic subjects. A survey of students across eight countries and various grade levels tested competence beliefs, perceived task difficulty, and student values for different areas of study within schools (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). In seven out of eight countries, findings were consistent: most students hold low competency beliefs and values of music in terms of their own ability and its educational usefulness (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). Music learners, however, tend to report higher competency beliefs in their own musical ability, as well as more positive views of the value of music; the main way to alter students’ attitude toward music learning is to engage them in it (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). While there are undoubtedly other factors influencing which students are involved in music, such as parental guidance and personal interest, it would seem that increasing engagement in musical activities for children at school would help counteract the societal perception of its unimportance.

A study by Freer (2008) looks into the relationship between teacher language and student experience within an educational choral setting. In particular, middle school students were asked to self-report their own feelings of affect, challenge, and skill at the close of choral rehearsals, through both quantitative and quantitative methods (Freer 2008). The research found that increased use of scaffolding language by the instructor led to higher reports of flow-like experiences among students, as it gave them opportunities to explore approaches to solving musical problems and encouraged them to make their own decisions while learning (Freer, 2008). It should be noted that scaffolded language is often used for smaller groups or individual students and often overlooked for whole class instruction. Another important consideration when addressing students is the use of procedural language to create an established routine of feedback to performance; teachers in the study frequently utilized procedural language that encouraged self-awareness in an encouraging way, instead of prompting too much self-criticism (Freer, 2008). Freer’s research found that providing sequential units of instruction, as well as using scaffolding language, can help teachers to create a more positive and enjoyable learning experience for music students (2008). Such findings suggest that a teacher’s language is

important to creating an environment that guides students into full engagement and personal flow experiences. Extended research is needed to discover if these tenets may have similar effects in academic classrooms as well.

The studies described in this section relate to the idea of flow within an academic music setting. While the existing literature seems to focus on music education specifically, it is

When working with children, educators must remember that they experience the world through flow in a completely different way than adolescents or adults (Lew, 2005). Oftentimes, reported musical moments and other flow experiences occur after a level of mastery has been reached, implying years of practice and technical development (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). However, children may experience emotional freedom, loss of self-consciousness, full engagement, and other aspects of musical flow more readily than adults, despite a lack of technical training or prowess (Lew, 2005). Notably, some research has shown that amateur musicians are able to experience flow with similar frequency as elite performers, although they may feel specific dimensions differently (Sinnamon, 2012). As a teacher, it is important to be mindful of the capabilities and goals of one’s students, making a “musical moment” possible within the context of the developmental maturity of the grade level.

Methodology

The current study explored specific teacher practices and strategies that help create a classroom environment that encourages flow among students through music. The expectations for research were based on literature reviewed in the previous section, especially Custodero’s 2002 study, which outlines considerations of music education that foster an environment for optimal experience. Bernard (2009) summarizes Custodero’s (2002) findings in terms of its impact on overall educational experience:

encouraging of transcendent experiences can help to facilitate such experiences among their students (p. 18).

The purpose of this study was to identify pedagogical practices that create opportunities for flow experiences through students’ musical engagement in the classroom. This study utilized individual teacher interviews as well as observations of class time in order to either support or refute the hypothesized effective practices and the effect of these methods on optimizing student flow experience.

Observation Guide

An observation guide was created considering the elements that support flow that were found in the literature. When conducting research within a classroom setting, the following specific conditions were addressed in my observations:

Community

 Sense of community among students  Possibilities for peer collaboration Engagement

 Apparent student concentration on task Pedagogy

 Teacher support is available but not overwhelming/stifling  Feedback is encouraging and direct

 Students’ goals are clear and reasoning behind task is given  Freedom for students to explore beyond direct instruction  Creativity is valued

 Scaffolded support for diverse learners, appropriately challenging tasks  Teacher responds to student interests and engagement levels

 Direct feedback from teachers Music Aesthetics

 Music is used meaningfully, not as “fluff” to the curriculum Participants

The teachers in the study were employed at one public arts-integrated magnet elementary school in the Piedmont of North Carolina and selected based on their willingness and availability to participate. The school adopted the A+ Program, which focuses on integrating numerous art forms (music, dance, visual arts) within content learning. The school also followed Core

Knowledge® in their curriculum, which is an approach designed by E.D. Hirsch that focuses on cultural and world awareness and seeks to broaden knowledge in a more rigorous and engaging educational experience (The Core Knowledge Foundation). This school was chosen for research because music is frequently used within academic classrooms, whereas many non-magnet elementary schools rely solely on a separate arts time for exposure to music during the school day. The A+ program provided a setting to demonstrate a more integrated approach to the arts and academic subjects as a cohesive learning experience. The arts integration focus is what made the school appealing for the current research endeavor.

A), and an additional teacher for interview and observation who was not included in the initial observations (Teacher D).

Classroom Observations

Instructional time was observed in the two teachers’ classrooms who had agreed to more prolonged observation time and face-to-face interviews. During the observations I took notes using the premade observation guide. I looked for signs of student engagement and teacher strategies that encourage flow as suggested in the literature, using the criteria previously listed. Specific criteria can be found on the observation guideline sheet in the appendix (Appendix B). After the observations and interviews took place, I analyzed the results in light of prior research and observational expectations.

Initial observations were conducted in the spring of 2014, for 20 to 30 minutes in each of the three classrooms. Observations of the two teachers chosen for face-to-face interviews were almost full-day and were conducted on two separate occasions in the fall of 2014.

Interviews

Teachers A, B, and D were interviewed about their pedagogical beliefs involving music, as well as personal preferences regarding, experiences with, and thoughts on music. Due to an unavailability to meet in person, one of the first grade teachers (Teacher B) was interviewed via email. A second grade teacher (Teacher A) and the dance instructor (Teacher D) were selected for further observation and an in-person interview based on availability for participation and the work schedule for research. The two in-person interviews were conducted on the days of

engage students with learning in the classroom. A sample of the interview questions included: What kind of music do you enjoy listening to? What is your musical background? How often do you use music to teach lessons in your classroom? Do you think using music is effective in aiding student learning? A copy of the complete interview protocol used can be found in the appendix section (Appendix A).

Results

The results section includes observations from the initial visit to three teachers’

classrooms in the spring of 2014, as well as full-day observations from two teachers’ classrooms in the fall of 2014. Observation results are qualitative with a general overview of each day followed by a systematic report based on the observation guidelines established prior to the fall observations.

Observation Results

Observations are presented in three sections, one for each day I visited the school: initial observations from the spring, followed by classroom observations and integrated arts

observations from the fall.

Initial observation. I observed three teachers as they led specific lessons that

standing up, moving to the rhythm, and participating with enthusiasm. The teacher was actively involved with the students, leading by example of what she expected from students. Based on the high level of student engagement, I was eager to see more of this lively work, and I chose Teacher A for additional observation and an interview for the continued research.

Teacher B assigned her first grade students to small groups and asked them to create a musical composition for a particular part of a story they had read together during literacy time. Students were given freedom to be creative within their groups and were able to choose between different musical instruments available in the classroom, which opened the door for peer

collaboration and artistic expression. The teacher moved from group to group, offering support and feedback while listening to ideas as students worked together. I was impressed by the

aesthetic processes shown in Teacher B’s classroom, as giving students space to create their own music allows for valuable creative processes and expression that are absent from typical

academic classrooms. I was very interested in further observation of her work, but Teacher B was unavailable for additional observations due to a change in assignment. Teacher B completed the interview via email.

Teacher C showed a video about a science concept and had her first grade students mimic different movements to act out the words. Many students were up and moving, but there was little room for creativity as the class was expected to imitate the person on screen. The teacher facilitated students’ learning by prompting them to participate and follow the on screen example. The mimetic focus of instruction and lack of student engagement dissuaded further observation of this classroom.

Classroom observation. I returned to the school at the beginning of the following school

classroom throughout the morning, which was when music was consistently involved as a part of the curriculum. It was within the first month of school, so some of the routines were still new to students. I observed the opening exercises that initiate each day. Students participated in 8 or 9 chants and songs to review material that they were expected to remember. Over the school’s intercom announcements, the whole school recited The Learner’s Creed (an affirming chant about effort and success), followed by the school song, Corbin Bleu’s “Push It To The Limit” from the 2006 Disney movie Jump In!, with accompanying dance moves. Students appeared to thoroughly enjoy participating in the movement and singing, as they had probably been doing this same routine since kindergarten. Then, as a class, the students said the Pledge of Allegiance in both English and Spanish, the Second Grade Motto (which utilized stomping, clapping, and a distinct rhythmic pattern), and orally read certain word lists from the class word wall. Then they counted from 1 to 100 in different jumps (2’s, 5’s, 10’s) and sang a song they had recently learned about the procedure for solving math problems (to the tune of “The Farmer In the Dell”). Finally, the class chanted a verse they had memorized about high effort and academic success, which was also a school-wide song. These routines encouraged active participation and covered an array of important material, but most of the chants seemed to serve the purpose of

memorization rather than a transcendental or flow-like experience. Children participated in most of the songs loudly and enthusiastically, demonstrating their engagement in the activity.

referencing the song they had practiced during the morning routine, with individual students offering responses and the teacher demonstrating the appropriate answers. For each step in the mathematical process, the teacher would sing a line from the song they had practiced during the morning routine, prompt students to join in singing, and then complete each mathematical step. Before moving on, students were given time to finish or correct their written work and then had it briefly checked by the teacher.

Flow criterion: Community. There was a definite sense of community among students. Teacher A emphasized the classroom as a family, as well as the school as a community of learners. The chants and songs that the whole school participated in together helped build this feeling and encourage cooperation rather than academic competition. “Push It To The Limit”, the school song, was one of the most enthusiastically performed songs, as many of the second graders had been doing it in unison for up to 3 years. The chants seemed to bring students together and create a classroom community while they were engaged in singing or moving as a group. Individual students were also assigned special classroom jobs, which created

interdependence and responsibility that built the sense of community even further. For example, one student would change the date on the calendar to share out, and another student would be in charge of the pointer for directing the class during morning routine chants. Students were also seated at tables in small groups for collaboration and sharing ideas.

asked student leaders to help point at the words on the screen or demonstrate what to do. There were high expectations for students to control their own learning experience individually and seek help if they needed it. Clear steps were given for each task, so students knew what was expected of them. Teacher A was active in checking student work before moving on to a different subject, monitoring progress and providing direct encouragement: “Looks good! High five”, “You’re almost there”, “Show me illustrations for this part”, “you forgot to head your paper, put your name and date then bring it back”. This individualized progress assessment allowed for some scaffolded instruction, but most activities held similar expectations for all students.

There was little space for creativity within the morning music routine, as the chants were predetermined and had been learned as a group, mainly for content memorization purposes. Other areas of the academic day provided more opportunity for students to create a product with less strict guidelines (choosing and designing a unique visual representation for their family tree project, for example). Most goals were teacher-created, but the purpose of Teacher A’s high expectations was clear in one of the morning songs: students must do their best in order to succeed in school and elsewhere. While most of the instructional day did not involve explicitly musical activities, Teacher A’s pedagogical practices reflected many of the dimensions of a flow-enabling environment.

chants. During the non-musical tasks in the class, students seemed to get distracted from the academic activities more easily.

Flow criterion: Music Aesthetics. Music was incorporated directly with the second grade curriculum, and chants were meaningful to what students were learning. The music seemed to be relevant to student interests, with a focus on rhythm and beat that is reflective of types of music they likely enjoy outside of school. Teacher A was not leading students in songs “just for fun”; rather she was engaging them with meaningful information in a format that would get them engaged and excited. However, this total curriculum integration limited the amount of aesthetic appreciation for music as its own entity. Students were given little opportunity to listen to or participate in musical experiences that would encourage flow-like interaction with the music, as it was a memory-driven exercise.

Integrated arts observation. On my third visit, I spent the day with the school’s dance

The third grade class was studying water, so they did a warm-up involving water-like movements. Teacher D led by example, as she prompted students to respond to the sounds they heard with some vocal directives but mostly focusing on following her body movements. Students also practiced “scalloping”, which is moving across the flow in a series of half circular movements, demonstrated by the teacher and copied by the students in their rows. Teacher D explained that shifting your weight in dance is similar to the power that water has to shift and move land. While Teacher D read aloud from a text about types of water in nature, students were prompted to move their bodies to represent the text being read (a stream at the base of a

mountain, a waterfall plunging downward, etc.). If the movements weren’t showing the correct form, Teacher D would prompt them to do it differently. Before leaving class, the students revisited an assessment they had completed the previous week, in which they watched a video of children dancing and responded with a picture and caption of how the dancers were meeting expectations for dance class (focused, controlled body, not talking, etc.).

a “metal statue” and an “ice sculpture” with their bodies, which had to be connected in some way to their teammates. The instructions weren’t completely clear at first, but students were able to show their predictions for the speeds of melting depending on the substance (ice vs. metal).

In the next period, the first graders began class with the school behavior expectation song (as did the second grade class), during which they were all focused and participated. Since they were a younger age group, Teacher D used a recording to do a pre-scripted warm up of “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes”, providing additional support for their participation. When the students were given the opportunity to move freely in response to the music (asked to move around only when the recording was playing and stop during a pause in the music) there was clear enjoyment throughout the class, as they were smiling, laughing, and jumping around the dance floor. To connect to their unit on Mexico and Puerto Rico, Teacher D played music from both countries and had students dance in response to the varying instruments they heard. Students were also given rhythm sticks and tapped or twirled them as instructed by another musical recording; most participated fully while using their instruments, and only a few students were doing rhythms with their sticks that did not follow the pattern that the teacher was

demonstrating. There was clearly more support given for the younger children, as Teacher D focused more on direct instruction activities.

The fifth grade class came in fairly distracted and energetic, so Teacher D began the afternoon class by reminding them that dance is meant to be fun but it takes hard work,

lesson, students moved across the floor in their rows, walking or skipping to the tempo that Teacher D created by clapping or played on a drum. This exercise provided space to feel the music and respond independently in their movements, but a correct type of movement was anticipated. Overall, there was a focus on technicality and moving in a uniform way to create a group performance and to help create excellence in dance. When Teacher D mentioned auditions for an extracurricular dance group, there was clear excitement from the class, showing that they value dance and want to participate in it.

Flow criterion: community. Every class was seated in colored rows that formed “dance crews” for various group exercises, which helped develop a sense of community among students on the same row. Some work was done within these small groups, such as the second grade activity to become connected “statues” of different materials. There was also a focus on uniformity within the class, to create a successful dance ensemble. Individual interpretations were not as important as the collective performance, which emphasized the creation of a class community through dance. It was clear that Teacher D had experience performing in dance companies, and she wanted to support that same type of interdependence.

Flow criterion: pedagogy. Teacher D typically led each lesson by performing at the front of the group, facing the students and demonstrating the movements non-verbally. Her

given few opportunities to create their own dance movements without external direction or influence, and Teacher D continually prompted children to stay on task and focus on recreating the same movement that she was demonstrating.

Teacher D gave direct and encouraging feedback based on behavior, distributing

“dollars” to students who were quiet, attentive, and on task. However, there was little support for individual students as far as the actual dancing was concerned, beyond whole-group instruction. There was scaffolded support based on grade level, as the younger students were given more explicit direction and simpler step-by-step instructions for dance movements. The activities that each grade participated in were differentiated based on ability and content area as well. Teacher D emphasized listening to the music and responding accordingly, and she frequently reminded students not to talk or laugh while dancing, urging them to show their enjoyment through full engagement in the art of dance instead.

Flow criterion: engagement. When students were given the freedom to create their own dances, some appeared to be acutely aware of their peers’ movements and opinions, making full engagement in the task less likely. Some students seemed very confident and focused on their dance ability, while others were more apprehensive to become fully engaged in front of others. Most students did participate fully while the music was playing, and they appeared concentrated on the dance movements being shown. For the younger classes, the first graders in particular, the school behavior expectations song prompted an immediate behavior change from fidgeting and distractedness to attentive enjoyment. The use of musical instruments, with which students could create music themselves, prompted apparent engagement and interest in the activity.

was studying states of matter, first grade was studying Mexico, and fifth grade was studying the water cycle. Teacher D chose music that would be appropriate for tying in content with the arts, which incorporated a variety of cultures, instruments, and genres. As students participated, they were being prompted to listen to the music and move accordingly; however, there was

consistently a purpose based on academic goals that superseded musical appreciation. Interview Results

In order to fully answer the research questions about teacher practices, I wanted to get an understanding of the teacher’s perspectives on their own practice as well. Finding out about participants’ backgrounds also helped when analyzing differences between classrooms. The interview questions sought to gain insight about three general categories of information: the teacher’s background and own musical experience, the teacher’s use and inclusion of music in the classroom, and the teacher’s opinions about using music in educational practice. It is important to note that the information presented is what the interviewees said, not what I

observed based on their practices. When statements are presented as facts, they are coming from the teacher’s perspective. The complete responses, as notated by me, of the three teachers interviewed (Teacher A, B, and D) are included in the appendices (Appendix C, D, and E).

Background and musical experience. Teacher A has been at the school for all 11 years

Teacher B has been at the school for all seven years of her teaching career. She

participated in vocal choirs in high school, and enjoys listening to R&B, classical, and jazz music as an adult. There were limited details given regarding Teacher B’s musical experience.

Teacher D has been at the current school for nine years, and she has taught elsewhere for 10 years prior, both in middle and high school settings. She comes from a very musical

background, as her parents competed in Latin dance competitions and listened to all kinds of music as a family. Teacher D mentioned the emotional power of music when discussing what genres she enjoys listening to: gospel in the morning helps with positivity to start the day, R&B or Top 40 radio on the way home encourages laughter and the feeling of freedom. She also enjoys classical, Afro-Cuban, jazz, reggae/Caribbean, and African dance music. Growing up, she listened to musicals such as Fiddler on the Roof and Annie, as well as Gloria Estefan and West Side Story, which led to her involvement in musical productions in high school. Prior to teaching,

Teacher D performed in professional dance ensembles, including those that work with chamber music and African music, which led her to become more interested in international music.

Use of music in the classroom. As for her instructional practices, Teacher A said that

she incorporates a “song or chant whenever possible” in order to help learn new topics and make information more relevant. This integration is present in social studies, science, and Core

memory devices, typically modeled by the teacher, done in a call-and-response pattern, or in unison. She rarely assigns musical tasks to individual or small groups of students, although it could be implemented during stations or other group work.

According to Teacher B, music is infused into her classroom 2-3 times per week, mostly during math and literacy time due to availability of resources and ease of integration. All forms of interaction with music are used, with listening as a daily activity and often followed by singing; instruments are utilized in lessons 1-2 times per week. When asked about student creation of music, Teacher B responded that students are able to mold or shape their own music in at least 1 of the musical lessons during the week, although it must be within the designated learning objectives. In her classroom, students use songs as memory devices for phonics rules, sounds of blends and digraphs, and math facts. She also cited the lesson that I observed during my initial observations, during which students created music to represent the events and emotions of a story read together in literacy time.

Opinion on music in education. Teacher A said that music gets kids more excited and

engaged, brings areas of study together with real life, and helps with memory retention. Teaching with music can also help bridge the gap of understanding for ELL’s, as they may be able to get involved with the music despite language difficulties. Music can help improve a student’s mood and change his/her emotions, it allows students to demonstrate their non-academic skills that otherwise may not be seen in the classroom, it helps students to build relationships when singing or creating music together, and it has clear academic benefits through memory retention.

Teacher B believes that teaching with music is beneficial because music is generally a dominant learning style that helps children become engaged, have fun, and take ownership of their learning. This ownership and enjoyment leads to getting more out of the learning

experience. However, there are difficulties of integrating music, such as limited resources (instruments, etc.) and time, especially with increasing curriculum demands from the district. There is little flexibility in her teaching schedule, since time is precious and every moment should be planned out effectively. When teaching lessons without music, Teacher B notices that it is more difficult to maintain students’ attention, as opposed to their excitement when they get to move around, express themselves through music, and become active participants. Music can help students that may struggle academically to demonstrate their knowledge in a way that matches their learning style. For this reason, teaching with music is effective in aiding student learning, as it allows diverse students to express themselves through a musical talent and reaches out to students that may not typically participate. Students have varying musical abilities that they bring to class, so most instruction with music is done in groups, to allow for sharing

It was very clear in her responses that Teacher D sees tremendous power in music, in both positive and negative ways. She believes that music can instantly change an atmosphere, attitude, and emotion. Teachers should be strategic in their use of music, playing upbeat or happy music to get students excited in the morning, and calm or classical music to help them calm down after lunch and recess. Music has the power to adjust behavior of even the most difficult students, it helps build relationships and community among classmates, it makes teachers more relatable, changes one’s state of mind, and uplifts/encourages students. However, Teacher D also noted that music has the potential to offend, devalue, or insult, especially when lyrics are

discriminating or demonstrate negative values. For this reason, teachers should be wary of using popular music in the classroom, and make sure it is helping to create a positive environment. Teacher D said that “used thoughtfully, music can impact learning” but it shouldn’t be overused, as too much of anything is not good. Music also has is the ability to show appreciation for diversity and reach students of various cultures. According to Teacher D, to help students who may struggle academically, music can be used to remember tricky concepts through songs, raps, or movements. As a teacher of the arts, she naturally sees value in teaching with music, and it helps with behavior as well as social and emotional development.

Discussion

The discussion section will include an analysis of both observation experiences and interview responses in light of prior research and expectations, as well as implications for teaching practice, limitations to research, and suggestions for future research endeavors. Reflection on Observation and Interview Results

In general, there was little evidence of flow experiences among students during research observations at the school. Although music was present in each class observed, the way teachers utilized music within their instructional practices did not allow for flow opportunities during observation time.

becomes nearly impossible to achieve. A common occurrence in education, the fast pace and tight structure of schools interrupts the opportunity for students to lose themselves in a

challenging and meaningful task, whether musical or not (Baker, 2012). Despite the daily use of music, it was mainly utilized within limited time and curricular space, and students were not experiencing flow through engagement with music.

In a similar vein, opportunities for flow were limited due to the consistent connection between academics and the arts. While the school was initially selected because of its arts-integration focus and music would be frequently utilized in daily learning, arts arts-integration may have actually detracted from the aesthetic benefits of music. In Teacher A’s classroom, musical chants and songs were performed with the clear purpose of learning academic facts. There was little focus on music beyond singing as a memory device, which is helpful for content purposes, but neglects the value of musical engagement for children’s well being that was explored in numerous studies (Hallam, 2010; Barrett, 2011; Adderley, Kennedy & Berz, 2003). In the dance classroom, the need to incorporate an academic concept into every activity made it difficult to focus on dance as a valuable art form in itself. Teacher D talked openly about her disillusionment about content integration: when she first came to the school, she thought it was a great way to combine the arts and classroom learning, but she recently became more aware that forcing integration detracted from the appreciation of the arts as intrinsically valuable. This conflict between strict academic expectations and an emotional experience is directly related to the current research because flow requires complete immersion in a task, which becomes more difficult when the task is rooted in academic learning rather than experiencing the art form. If an artistic activity becomes superficial or forced, students lose the possibility of complete

Along with time constraints, the current educational climate also deters cooperative learning and encourages academic competition among students (Baker, 2012). The students in Teacher A’s classroom recited a song about effort and academic success as their ultimate daily goal, further ingraining the significance of school performance. For children feeling the pressure to do well in school, it becomes natural to compete for the best score, a focus that takes away from a holistic educational experience. Within the competitive arena of education, it becomes difficult to experience music for its full benefits: personal, social, intellectual, and emotional growth (Hallam, 2010). Students who appeared anxious or withheld from fully engaging in classroom activities may have felt constrained by academic expectations or afraid of judgment by their peers. Music can create a sense of group belonging when creating or experiencing music together, and flow is most likely when one is comfortable in the setting (Adderley, Kennedy & Berz 2003). This feeling of cooperative learning provides a safe space for individuals to become immersed in an activity without fear of social or academic repercussions.

On a surface level, there was evidence of the creation of a class community in both musical and non-musical interactions throughout the observations. Teacher A explicitly

conscious and less likely to lose themselves in the music. Others may have been worried about getting the correct information to perform well on class assessments, prohibiting their full engagement in music. While some level of insecurity is to be expected in a school setting, it detracts from the probability of a flow experience.

In both observation classrooms, most musical activities were in a whole group setting and focused on mimicry, which may have also affected the opportunity for individual flow

experiences. The type of musical engagement used in the classrooms focused on premade songs, chants, or dances, and it often required students to replicate the teacher’s voice or movement instead of allowing them to create their own music. Crossing over from reproduction into the creation of music may create more possibilities for flow, as making one’s own music leads to a closer connection with the art than more passive forms of interaction. My own choral experience in high school was in a full group setting, where my own vocal expression combined with the other members of the ensemble created a feeling of transcendence and flow. It is definitely possible to experience flow within a whole class setting, but social fear or pressure must not interrupt the individual experience. In creating opportunities for transcendent experiences, it is not only the type of grouping that matters, but the presence of an opportunity to create something meaningful through an individual contribution to something greater.

become immersed in the music. When working with children, focusing more on the product instead of the experience may prohibit the opportunity for flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). This conclusion may seem contradictory, as flow among adults is commonly reported due to a mastered skill and meeting a high level of challenge (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). My personal experience as a high school choral student involved a high level of vocal skill and exceeding expectations for musical mastery when singing together; it took immersion in the challenge of performing a difficult song to feel a transcendent moment. However, the prerequisites of flow among children may be different than those for adults. If the challenge is too great or pressure too high, young students are less likely to experience flow.

There were some discrepancies between the interview responses and the observations of each teacher’s classroom. Both Teacher A and Teacher C discussed the value of music beyond its academic benefits, helping emotional, social, and personal outcomes. However, most of the music observed in practice was centered on memorization or understanding of content. There was an emphasis on rules and following instructions, which are inherently unemotional practices. This discrepancy may have been in part due to the pressures put on teachers by state and district policymakers, as well as constraints of the A+ program, which requires academic integration into art-based classroom activities. The difference between responses and observed practice do not reflect untruthfulness by the teachers involved: rather, external influences affect the way teachers can perform their pedagogical beliefs. As mentioned in the introduction, it is difficult for

Implications for the Field of Education

Through the observation process, it was clear that music is a significant part of the language of children. When first walking into the school, a song from a popular Disney musical was playing from down the hall. While waiting in line, a child hummed a tune he had performed during class. The observation experience at the school confirmed the research about the

prevalence of music in children’s lives (Lew, 2005). Music is fundamental to the way children think and communicate, which is why arts integration programs have become increasingly popular in education. By bringing music into the classroom, teachers are able to better reach their students through a shared language. The results of the observations and interviews provided evidence that students are more likely to remember and participate in lessons that involve musical interaction. Although the musical strategies used by the teachers observed did not seem to increase opportunities for flow experience among students, there was evidence of many of the positive effects of music that were explored in my preliminary research.

Trends Seen During Observations. In Teacher A’s classroom, music was used to uplift

for students to become completely immersed in the music. Even when students are enjoying the musical activity, as the students in Teacher A’s classroom appeared to be, having a good time does not necessarily mean reaching a level of focus and engagement that can lead to a flow-like experience.

The Emotional Influence of Music. However, lack of flow does not mean that music is

not valuable for its intrinsic joy and emotional power. The responses of all teachers interviewed reflected the opinion that music has an observable effect on changing children’s mood and motivation. All three interviewees mentioned the emotional influence of music as an important reason for its integration into the classroom: it can change atmosphere, attitude, and emotion instantly; it uplifts and encourages students; it can improve mood and tap into emotional expression. The preliminary research for this study also mentioned the idea of music as emotionally powerful. Music serves as an emotional outlet and influences identity formation, making it a valuable instrument for educators to use when working with children (Adderley, Kennedy & Berz 2003). The teachers at this particular arts-integration school recognized the value of music as a tool for emotional expression and personal growth in their classrooms. While the specific application of music as a memorization technique may have limited flow among students, emotional engagement is a worthwhile endeavor which teachers can strive to achieve. Limitations to Flow Research in General

for teachers to create environments that support flow for a class of diverse students, which will be explored more in depth below.

In an ideal world, teachers could follow certain steps in their practice and be guaranteed to reach every student in their class. However, there is no formula to good teaching, and each individual student will respond in an unpredictable way to any given practice; this diversity has led to the differentiation movement in recent years (Santangelo, 2012). Diversity, adaptation, and change are part of the challenge of education, as well as what makes teaching a meaningful pursuit; to influence individual children’s lives is an exceptionally admirable ambition

(Santangelo, 2012). The goal of most good educators is to help each child as much as possible, which proves difficult when addressing various individual needs.

especially during their educational journey, any pedagogical techniques that encourage such experiences seem to have the potential to be extremely valuable.

Especially within populations of children who may not have the ability to express their experiences, flow is very difficult to define, pinpoint, and record. Researchers can only learn about flow experiences through self-reports and personal accounts, a method that limits results when working with young children who may not be articulate enough to explain their feelings or thoughts. However, this is not to say that children do not have peak experiences; it only means that it may be more difficult to measure flow within younger populations. Again, it is worth noting that difficulty “proving” flow experiences does not detract from the value of relevant research efforts.

Limitations Specific to the Study

expectation for academic integration with the arts. This finding provides an interesting perspective of the way teachers use music at public, magnet, and private schools in different locations. It would be interesting to see if further research on the effectiveness of A+ schools in relation to flow experiences confirms the findings of this study.

Implications for Future Research

A significant question regarding the implementation of music in the classroom is whether teacher training changes the effectiveness of musical learning. When selecting teachers for observation and interview, the musical background of each candidate was considered.

Teacher A had no formal musical training, Teacher B had choral experience, and Teacher D was involved in professional dance ensembles prior to teaching. I hypothesized that one reason that music is not used more extensively in many classrooms may be a lack of training for many teachers, which leads to a lack of confidence. It is a logical assumption that feeling adequately prepared to teach with music is a factor in its prevalence and effectiveness. Teacher A utilized mainly chants and familiar song melodies in her morning routine, which may have been reflective of her cheerleading (not strictly musical) background. Teacher D focused on

lesson, but students created their own songs with interest nonetheless. Teacher D performed as an example to her students daily, which allowed them to mimic her high level of skill and learn the technique themselves. Children in all three classrooms were engaged with the music that the teacher was using. This research is not conclusive as to what level of musical training is most likely to lead to student opportunities for flow, but further research could shine a light on what level of teacher preparation leads to effective implementation of music in pedagogy.

While the research was focused on how flow opportunity is maximized through the use of music, it is important to note the possibility of flow (or flow-like characteristics) in academic subjects without music (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Prior research has touched on flow experiences through full immersion and challenge in mathematics or other activities. One of the major questions that resulted from this study is whether teachers can encourage flow in non-musical activities in their classroom as well. There were moments when students were fully engaged in a math task, trying their best, being challenged to think harder, and supported by their teacher and classmates: can this involvement and focus lead to flow? Learning more about how to encourage flow in all aspects of education through varying avenues—including music—would be a

References

Adderley, C., Kennedy, M., & Berz, W. (2003). “A Home away from Home”: The World of the High School Music Classroom. Journal Of Research In Music Education, 51(3), 190-205.

An, S. A., Ma, T., & Capraro, M. (2011). Preservice Teachers' Beliefs and Attitude about Teaching and Learning Mathematics through Music: An Intervention Study. School Science And Mathematics, 111(5), 236-248.

Baker, R. (2012). The Effects of High-Stakes Testing Policy on Arts Education. Arts Education Policy Review, 113(1), 17-25.

Bakker, A. B. (2005). Flow among Music Teachers and Their Students: The Crossover of Peak Experiences. Journal Of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 26-44.

Barrett, M. S. (2011). Musical Narratives: A Study of a Young Child's Identity Work in and through Music-Making. Psychology Of Music, 39(4), 403-423.

Bernard, R. (2009). Music Making, Transcendence, Flow, and Music Education. International Journal Of Education & The Arts, 10(14).

The Core Knowledge Foundation. Core Knowledge®. 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2014 from http://www.coreknowledge.org.

Custodero, L. A. (2002). Seeking challenge, finding skill: flow experience and music education. Arts Education Policy Review, 103(3), 3-9.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. (Harper Perrenial) New York.

Freer, P. K. (2008). Teacher Instructional Language and Student Experience in Middle School Choral Rehearsals. Music Education Research, 10(1), 107-124.

Hallam, S. (2010). The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. International Journal of Music Education, 28(3), 269–289.

Humphries, C. A., Bidner, S., & Edwards, C. (2011). Integrated Learning with Physical

Education and Music. Clearing House: A Journal Of Educational Strategies, Issues And Ideas, 84(5), 174-179.

Lew, J., & Campbell, P. (2005). Children's Natural and Necessary Musical Play: Global Contexts, Local Applications. Music Educators Journal, 91(5), 57-62.

Maslow, A.H. (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York, NY. Second Edition.

Maslow, A.H. (1971). The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. The Viking Press. New York, NY. Part IV: Education (p. 155-198)

McPherson, G. E., & O'Neill, S. A. (2010). Students’ motivation to study music as compared to other school subjects: A comparison of eight countries. Research Studies In Music Education, 32(2), 101-137.

Parker, E. (2011). Uncovering Adolescent Choral Singers' Philosophical Beliefs about Music-Making: A Qualitative Inquiry. International Journal Of Music Education, 29(4), 305-317.

Nichols, S. L., Glass, G. V., & Berliner, D. C. (2006). High-Stakes Testing and Student

Achievement: Does Accountability Pressure Increase Student Learning? [computer file].

Santangelo, T., & Tomlinson, C. (2012). Teacher Educators' Perceptions and Use of

Differentiated Instruction Practices: An Exploratory Investigation. Action In Teacher Education, 34(4), 309-327.

Appendix A Interview Questionnaire Survey

1. How long have you been teaching? How long have you been at your current school? 2. What grade level do you currently teach?

3. What kind of music do you enjoy listening to?

4. Do you remember any music that you enjoyed when you were the age of your students? 5. What is your musical background and experience? (Have you been involved with

instrumental or choral music? Different musical organizations? Knowledge of how to play a musical instrument or read music?)

6. How often do you use music to teach lessons in your classroom?

7. During which subjects or time blocks during the day do you typically integrate music into the curriculum? Why those subjects or times?

8. What are the signs that tell you kids are really into/engaged with the music that you are working with?

9. How often do students create music to aid their learning in your classroom?

10. When music is used in your classroom, is it typically listening, singing, instruments, or other types of musical involvement? If multiple types are used, please explain the frequency of each in your teaching practices.

11. Can you give a few examples of ways you have used music in your teaching or for lessons with your students?

12. Do you think there are benefits to using music in your classroom instruction? a. If yes, what do you think those benefits are?