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[1] ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are numerous people I would like to give special thanks to who have supported me during the production of my dissertation.

To my Babcia, who has taught me, when times are hard, they could always be much worse. To my Mum, who has been my rock. I am not sure what I would have done without her. To Malcolm Cowburn, for advice and supervision during the production of my dissertation. Finally, a special thanks to close friends and family for emotional support throughout my degree and throughout the production of my dissertation.

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[2] ABSTRACT

This dissertation explores the online sexual solicitation of young people. A critical review of existing literature has been carried out in order to provide answers as to how internet sex offenders target and groom victims. Existing literature on topics such as: the internet, adolescent attitudes and internet sex offenders, is presented in order to provide the reader with an overview of the topic. The literature is critiqued throughout to further investigate how internet sex offenders operate. The dissertation also includes literature on online sexual solicitation prevention methods.

The findings of the literature based dissertation show that the vulnerabilities of adolescents increase the likelihood of them being groomed by online sexual predators. Factors such as privacy issues and self presentation also have the potential to contribute to an adolescent being groomed. Another main finding of the research is that the education of adolescents with regard to online sexual solicitation should be a priority. The dissertation discusses recommendations given by academics on what further prevention methods need to be implemented.

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[3] LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SNS- Social Networking Sites

CEOP- Child Exploitation and Online Protection SOA- Sexual Offences Act

SOR- Sex Offenders Register

i-SOTP- Internet Sex Offender Treatment Programme

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Table showing ‗Data Collection‘ method 12

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INTRODUCTION

The internet has become a colossal resource in recent years. In 2010, 30.1 million people in the UK used the internet on a daily basis (National Office for Statistics, 2010). Rigden (2010) describes the internet as a "…continually growing organism of information that is constantly morphing into new ways of communicating." The internet is used for business, communication, shopping, information, education and more recently, socialising (Rigden, 2010). Social Networking Sites have become the latest trend with regard to the internet, in which people are able to communicate online through their profile page (Lenhart and Madden, 2007). Although the internet holds many benefits and advantages, it also poses a number of risks (Dombrowski et al, 2004).

This research explores one of the risks of the internet: the online sexual solicitation of adolescents. Social contact online, such as through chatrooms and social networking sites, poses the risk of grooming by internet sex offenders. The research also explores the prevention methods that are currently in place and what further prevention methods are needed to protect adolescents from internet sex offenders, as the internet is forever increasing in size and accessibility (National Statistics Online, 2010).

The Research Questions of this research are:

 How do internet sex offenders target and groom victims? And  What measures are needed to make young people safer? The aims of the research are:

 To outline the different strategies used by internet sex offenders to target and groom victims;

 To outline key factors that influence adolescents becoming victims of internet sex crimes;

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 To outline what further prevention methods are needed to make young people safer. The rationale for the chosen research topic is due to the ever increasing amount of online sexual solicitation cases in which the adolescent has gone to meet a stranger they had previously met online and to determine what precautions can, or should be taken, to at least reduce, if not obliterate risk to adolescents. Ashleigh Hall, who was seventeen, was kidnapped, raped and murdered after she had gone to meet someone who she had previously met online (Carter, 2010). There are many other such cases (BBC 2003, 2004: Sky News, 2009).

The research begins with a methodology chapter (2), in which the method taken to research the topic is explained, explored and evaluated. The following chapter consists of a critical account of literature in relation to the internet; social networking sites (SNSs); the

vulnerabilities held by adolescents with regard to the internet and lastly the measures currently implemented to protect adolescents. The fourth chapter contains a critical account of literature regarding sex offenders, and how they use the internet to target and groom potential victims. The chapter also includes some of the prevention methods put in place as a response to adolescents who have fallen victim to these offenders. The final chapter aims to answer the research questions by discussing the relationship between previous chapters. It includes recommendations as to what further measures are needed to secure a higher level of protection for young people.

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METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Hart (1998:p13) states that the aim of a methodology chapter in a dissertation is: "To show the appropriateness of the techniques used to gather data and the methodological approaches employed. Relevant references from the literature are often used to show an understanding of data- collection techniques and methodological implications, and to justify their use over alternative techniques."

This dissertation is a literature based and theoretical study of data and information which is already available. This form of research has been chosen due to the sensitive nature of the study. The chapter examines the methodology of theoretical analysis and how existing literature has been identified and selected. A critical literature review is crucial for literature based dissertations and forms the basis for the author's argument, as repetition of the literature is not solely sufficient (Wisker, 2009). Engagement with the literature is essential to ensure that information being presented is reasoned, logical and backed up by other evidence (Wisker, 2009). Secondary analysis is also used within the dissertation to analyse and assess the relevance of data of other researchers. Hakim (1982: p16) states that a clear strength of using secondary analysis is "… that it forces the researcher to think more closely about the theoretical aims and substantive issues of the study rather than the practical and methodological problems of collecting new data." The chapter contains: an overview of a critical literature review; understanding and interpreting literature; the methodological relation to the study and existing literature.

RESEARCHING SENSITIVE SUBJECTS

The study is researching sex offenders and how they use the internet to target and groom their victims. This topic is deemed as a sensitive subject. Sieber and Stanley (1988: p49) define research which is socially sensitive as "… studies in which there are potential

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consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research…"

However, Lee and Renzetti (1990) note that any subject has the potential to be deemed as sensitive. They then suggest that certain areas of social research can be seen as more threatening, one of these being where research being carried out interferes with the "…private sphere…" (Lee and Renzetti 1990: p 512). As the dissertation topic seeks to explain how sex offenders use social networking sites to groom victims, it has the potential to intrude on others privacy.

Sensitive topics also raise other concerns, such as ethical and legal aspects of social research (Lee and Renzetti 1990). If the study was to undertake primary research, adolescents and their social networking site profiles would be studied, raising many ethical and sensitive issues instantly. As a result, it leads to a literature based dissertation being carried out rather than a primary research study.

CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE METHOD

This section of the chapter outlines the justifications as to why a literature based dissertation is being carried out. The justifications are in relation to existing research and literature.

A literature based dissertation is better suited for the topic of sex offenders, as any conclusive research to be carried out on this area would surpass the time limit of one year, which is all that is available for the author. Patchin and Hinduja (2010a) carried out a longitudinal study between 2006 and 2009 in which they studied the trend of social networking site, 'MySpace'. The author is unable to carry out a credible study over the given time period, making a literature based dissertation more suitable. A critical literature review allows time to focus on a vast amount of research, carried out by a number of researchers, for different purposes.

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Many researchers, such as Livingstone (2008) and Patchin and Hinduja (2010b), who carried out studies in the area of internet and sex offenders, focus heavily on adolescents and their internet usage. Livingstone (2008) carried out a study on 16 participants aged 13-16 years. She interviewed each of them in their own homes about their SNS profiles and the information they provide about themselves to strangers online. A written explanation of the study was sent to the participants and their parents, before they were asked to sign a consent form. Livingstone (2008) states that her sample was small and although her findings do raise good qualitative points, these alone are not sufficient to generalise about adolescents who use SNSs. Alternatively, Patchin and Hinduja (2010b) carried out a content analysis of approximately 2433 randomly sampled adolescent social networking profiles. Although the sample is large enough to make generalisations about the social network population and gives a quantitative analysis, it does not give the same in depth detail as Livingstone's (2008) study, which in contrast offers explanations as to why the adolescents provide information online to strangers.

A literature based dissertation allows the author to collectively look at different results and combine them to build a solid argument. This gives a wider outlook on the topic and enables the author to combine qualitative and quantitative methods. However, a limitation to conducting a literature based dissertation, using existing literature and research, means that the research question of this dissertation will not be directly answered in the same way that primary research would.

CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

Hart (1998: p13) states “A literature review can be defined as the selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfil certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed.” Neuman (2006) states that

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one goal of a literature review is to stimulate new ideas from existing literature. A review allows a researcher to benefit from the work of other researchers and shows procedures and techniques used by others.

As the study is a literature based dissertation, a critical literature review needs to be carried out rather than a standard, general, literature review. This gives more depth to the study. A critical literature review entails analysing and evaluating research used to support the theory created by a researcher writing their dissertation (Hart, 1998). When engaging with the literature, Wisker (2009: p44) claims that taking a critical approach means that "…statements of value, interpretations of findings, arguments and the evidence of others are all questioned and need proof before they can be accepted as truths." This is crucial when engaging with existing literature. When developing a critical approach, it is important that different schools of thought and different arguments are explored and examined (Wisker, 2009).

It is important when reading the literature, to explore weaknesses of studies which have taken place; flaws in theories and possible developments for the future (McQueen and Knussen, 2002). Ridley (2010) states that when reading existing literature is it important to “...adopt a questioning and analytical approach towards the material.”

Ridley (2010) suggests eight questions that should be considered when reading a piece of literature. The questions are:

 What is the central argument of the literature? What does the author want to portray?  What conclusions does the author accomplish?

 What evidence was used to support the author's theories and conclusions?  Is this evidence reliable, relevant and strong enough to support those theories?  Does the author state any assumptions about shared beliefs?

 And can these assumptions be questioned?

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 Does the context, for example, cultural, influence the author's assumptions and how it has been presented?

This questioning strategy is used when addressing each piece of literature. Swetnam and Swetnam (2009) note that a common difficulty when writing literature reviews is to balance other literature which has been critiqued, with an evaluative perspective. When reading and writing in a critical manner, it is essential to only use information relevant to the author‘s topic of sex offenders and the internet and to be selective rather than summarising and critiquing every piece of literature one has read (Ridley, 2009).

STRATEGIES FOR IDENTIFYING, SELECTING AND ORGANISING DATA

This part of the chapter examines appropriate methods of identifying and sorting the data in accordance to relevant literature for the topic choice.

The strategy used to search and collect literature around the topic area is 'mapping'. Hart (1998: p144) states " Mapping ideas is about setting out, on paper, the geography of research and thinking that has been done on a topic. At one level, it is about identifying what has been done, when it was done, what methods were used and who did what. At another level, it is about identifying links between what has been done, to show thinking that has influenced what has been produced." A 'Summary Record Sheet' has been used when searching through the literature in order to organise the work (Hart, 1998). Titles have been used to categorise the relevant literature, such as: author; date; title; resource; abstract and keywords. Ridley (2010) also suggests using a checklist to keep a record of the literature search, including key items of literature for the dissertation.

Once the process of collection is complete, it is necessary to categorise the data in relation to themes and patterns (Wisker, 2009).

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[11] DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis is the process of searching for information that lies between the content of the data and literature (Denscombe, 2007). It is also defined as a process of engaging with data to discuss, describe, interpret and evaluate the data in relation to hypothesis and research questions of a research study (Matthews and Ross, 2010). Data analysis explores how the literature is critiqued and reviewed. Toulmin (1958) states that when analysing data, the research can be split into main components. Components such as: claim, evidence, warrant and backing, will be used to form arguments from the research. Another method when critiquing literature is 'Fisher's method of critical reading' (Hart 1998). Fisher (1993) sets a list of procedures for the analysis of the research which extracts words that structure the body of the argument.

THE STUDY- HOW DO INTERNET SEX OFFENDERS TARGET AND GROOM VICTIMS? AND WHAT MEASURES ARE NEEDED TO MAKE YOUNG PEOPLE SAFER?

This section of the chapter accounts for all of the above in relation to sex offenders and the internet and how the methods and strategies are used.

DATA COLLECTION

A 'Summary Record Sheet' has been used when searching through the literature to organise the work (Hart, 1998). Titles have been used to categorise the relevant literature. Ridley (2010) also suggests using a checklist to keep a record of the literature search, including key items of literature for the dissertation. The literature used in the dissertation has been chosen according to its date, its source and its relevance to the research topic.

When searching for sources, the keywords and hits received are shown in Fig.1. It is important to ensure the authenticity and reliability of the databases used.

PsychINFO provides systematic coverage of literature from 1800's to current. It is deemed as a key tool for those researching behavioural and social sciences and combines a mass of

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content from articles (American Psychological Association, 2011). This has therefore been used as it covers a large amount of literature over a long period of time.

Scopus state that they are the world's largest abstract database of quality web sources and peer reviewed literature. It also states that it is used by scientists and researchers and that it provides support for the process of the literature review (SciVerse, 2011). This is being used as it is apparent that many researchers use this database therefore making it a credible and reliable site.

Sociological Abstracts is a database that indexes and abstracts sociological and behavioural science literature. This database provides many sources such as journal articles, book chapters, dissertations and book reviews (ProQuest, 2009). This database was chosen due to the range of different sources available therefore offering a wider scope of information.

Figure 1.

Keywords Used Database Used No. Of Hits

No. Of Hits Used ―Social Networking Sites‖ and

― Vulnerability‖  PsychINFO,  Scopus,  Sociological Abstracts 168 10 ―Social Networking Sites‖ and

―Cyber-grooming‖

8 3

―Vulnerability‖ and ―The Internet‖ 9792 12

―Sex Crimes‖ and ―The Internet‖ 1705 10

―Grooming‖ and ―The Internet‖ 949 14

―Sexual‖ and ―Grooming‖ 4087 8

―Sex Offenders‖ and ―Sensitive Area‖

340 1

"Sex Offenders" and "Treatment Programmes"

1648 3

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[13] THEMATIC ANALYSIS AND GROUNDED THEORY

Once the process of collection is complete, it is necessary to categorise the data in relation to themes and patterns (Wisker, 2009). A combination of techniques is being used to critically analyse the data in order to build a strong argument, such as the questioning strategy presented by Ridley (2010). This strategy is being applied for every piece of literature used. Fisher's (1993) method of critical reading is also being used for this research by searching for particular words which structure each piece of literature's main argument.

Grounded theory uses empirical literature and research as a starting point. It develops its analysis in reference to data producing explanations which are relevant to the topic of research. It is generally linked with qualitative data which is one aspect of the dissertation. (Denscombe, 2007).

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

As the topic of the dissertation is sex offenders and the internet, it is more credible and ethical to carry out a literature based dissertation. Cowburn (2010: p 65) states that when discussing the topic of sex offenders "Construing a research project with men who have sexually harmed other people inevitably raises questions of risk: risk of harm to known and unknown others, to the offender and to the researcher." This statement justifies why a literature based dissertation has been undertaken .It is important to ensure that the author is stable when reading around the topic, as researching sex offenders draws on the ethical issue of harm. It is important the material and literature being read causes no psychological stress (Burns, 2000).

SUMMARY

The literature based dissertation involves critiquing and analysing existing literature and secondary sources. Quantitative and qualitative results combined are used to build a strong argument to answer the research questions and aims of the dissertation. As previously stated there are a number of techniques and strategies to give guidance when dealing with

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the literature and then writing in a critical manner. Many methods have been put in place to give an organised structure to, the research collected for the dissertation and to the dissertation itself.

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[15] THE INTERNET

The dissertation seeks to explain how sex offenders target and groom victims on the internet. The internet massively alters the method of how sex offenders seek their victims, mostly by making them much more accessible. Also there is a greater amount of potential victims available. Background information on the internet and how it is used, is therefore essential in providing an understanding on how many people use the internet and how the dependency on the internet is increasing. The chapter explores the general statistics surrounding its usage; the various uses of the internet; adolescents and the internet; SNSs and their impact and lastly, the measures in place aimed at protecting adolescents from the dangers the internet can bring.

THE INTERNET

Interaction between people has changed greatly due to the internet. Forming and maintaining relationships online is now deemed socially acceptable and this form of communication is very popular amongst adolescents and young adults (Wolak, Mitchell and Finkelhor, 2003).

INTERNET USAGE

In the UK, 30.1 million (60%) adults accessed the internet on a daily basis in 2010. These statistics have almost doubled from 2006, when the amount of people using the internet daily was 16.5 million (National Office for Statistic, 2010). Internet usage is linked to a variety of factors, such as age, location, employment type, education and marital status. For example, 97% of adults who hold a University degree have accessed the internet; In contrast to 45% with no form of qualification (National Office for Statistics, 2010).

ADOLESCENT INTERNET USAGE

Livingstone and Bober (2005) carried out a survey on 1,511 children and young people aged between 9-19. In 2005, they found 75% of people aged 9-19 years had access to a

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computer from their home. Of the 1,511 participants, 92% accessed the internet from school, 75% accessed the internet from home and 64% accessed the internet from elsewhere, for example the library or someone else's house. The survey also found that one fifth (19%) of the participants spend around 10 minutes to half an hour online; 48% spend half an hour to an hour online and 5% spend over three hours online (Livingstone and Bober, 2005). Another survey, carried out in 2009, found that teenagers aged between 13-15 years spend an average of 31 hours per week on the internet (Hartley, 2009). Although the 2005 survey offers a much larger age variance, the survey carried out in 2009 shows what difference four years makes to the popularity of the internet and how more resources are being created online, as the averages have altered from half an hour to four hours online, a day. The two studies show how internet popularity has exploded between 2005 and 2009 and how the time adolescents spend online has changed. The longer and more frequent use of the internet by adolescents, increases the likelihood of them being exposed to certain risks.

When researching what children and adolescents use the internet for, Livingstone and Bober (2005) found that 90% of the participants use it for school or college work and 94% use it as a source of other information. Many of the participants use the internet as a social means by using emails, instant messaging and online chat rooms. The graph below (figure 2.) by Livingstone and Bober (2005: p10) shows popular uses of the internet by 9-19 year olds. The graph shows that 71% use the internet for emailing and 51% use the web for instant messaging. Also, 21% of the participants use the internet to go on chatrooms. The three uses each have a very social aspect, showing the impact the internet has on forming and maintaining relationships; how easy it is to do so and how big a part it plays in everyday life. Anderson-Butcher et al (2010:p1) note that the internet is used by peers to "…foster and nurture relationships with peers…" The internet has become a vital and essential component for most adolescents (Anderson-Butcher et al 2010).

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[17] Figure 2.

SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES (SNSs)

The use of Social Networking Sites (SNSs) is defined by Byron (2008:p48) as a place "…where users display their personal „profile‟, including information such as where they live, interests and tastes (for example in music, films or books) as well as photos or videos, music tracks and links to friends‟ profiles. They may also include facilities for chat, file sharing, blogging and discussion groups."

Lenhart and Madden (2007) state a SNS is a place, online where the user can build a personal network and their own profile so they are easily connected to other users.

The internet is heavily used by adolescents for SNSs, such as Facebook, MySpace and Twitter (Morgan Stanley Research, 2009). In a study that aimed to explore how teenagers used SNSs, Lenhart and Madden (2007) found that 55% of 12-17 year olds belong to such a site.

Lenhart and Madden (2007) found from their survey that teen girls are the most likely to have a SNS. They also found that girls were using such sites as a way of maintaining and reinforcing relationships that already existed, whereas boys were found to use the sites as

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an opportunity to make new friends and for easy opportunities for flirting (Lenhart and Madden 2007).

Facebook

There are over 500 million active users of Facebook around the world. It was created in February 2004 as a "…social utility that helps people communicate more efficiently with their friends, family and co-workers" (Facebook, 2011). Facebook (2011), note that people spend over 700 billion minutes on Facebook in a month, making it one of the most popular SNS, They state their mission is to "… give people the power to share and make the world more open and connected" (Facebook, 2011).

MySpace

MySpace Inc. states that it "…is a leading social entertainment destination powered by the passions of fans" (MySpace, 2011). It was created in 2003, so it can be said it was one of the first most popular social networking sites (MySpace, 2011). However, MySpace has tried to're-brand' itself numerous times; this may be as a result of Facebook and Twitter's growing success. Patchin and Hinduja (2010a) carried out a study to research social networking site trends between 2006-2009. They found that many MySpace profiles active in 2006 were no longer active in 2009. This was because participants had adopted other SNSs such as Facebook (Patchin and Hinduja, 2010a).

Twitter

Twitter defines itself as a "…real-time information network that connects you to the latest information about what you find interesting" (Twitter, 2011). As of September 2010, Twitter has 175 million registered users and 95 million 'tweets' (messages) being written every day. Twitter was created in March 2006 and has come to be a very popular form of blogging, especially with celebrities (Twitter, 2011).

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[19] Chatrooms

Although chatrooms are not SNSs as such, they are a social place of interaction where many people meet. The Child Exploitation and Online Protection centre (CEOP) (2009) define a chatroom as "… an online forum where people can chat online (talk by broadcasting messages to people on the same forum in real time). Sometimes these venues are moderated either by limiting who is allowed to speak (not common), or by having moderation volunteers patrol the venue watching for disruptive or otherwise undesirable behaviour."

These sites have been increasingly adopted by adolescents and young adults worldwide. They offer a new method for presenting oneself ; managing a wide circle of friendships and relationships and managing other personal issues such as privacy (Livingstone and Brake, 2010). Although the internet and social networking sites have masses of beneficial resources, they also carry various hazards (Dombrowski et al, 2004). Livingstone and Brake (2010) note the risks created by SNSs include risks to oneself; loss of privacy and increase of vulnerability; online bullying and contact with harmful beings. The internet offers much greater opportunity and access for those who have deviant intentions, sex offenders being one example. The internet gives easy access to those who have a sexual interest in children and young adults (O'Connell, 2003).

VIRTUAL SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

PRESENTATION OF SELF

Goffman (1959) notes that self presentation is a process of information management. He states that there is a difference to the information one gives about oneself and the non-verbal information one conveys (Goffman, 1959). This can be applied to self presentation on SNSs. People can display what gender they are, what they like/dislike and descriptions of themselves; this is all information they have chosen to express. However, just as much

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information can be revealed through other means such as images of themselves, in which their chosen style and hairstyle is shown and these images give certain impressions that they did not intend to share (Boyle and Johnson, 2010).

Livingstone (2008) carried out research involving interviews with teenagers of mixed genders between the ages of 13-16. She (2008: 393) notes that the generation of the 21st Century have a ―...narcissistic fascination with self-display.‖ She found how the participants chose to represent themselves through SNSs, varied; some having very elaborate profile and pictures whilst others opting for a plain and mature approach to their profile page. One participant stated that a person‘s profile enables others to see who they are and their profile design demonstrates a particular mood or feeling. The same participant also stated that she likes it when people comment on a picture of her, saying how nice and attractive she looks. The participant suggests that because they have made the effort to comment on her picture, they care about her (Livingstone, 2008). As the research demonstrates, although some adolescents take their SNS profile rather seriously, others do not hold the same opinion when it comes to presenting themselves online. They state they have an SNS purely because it is a trend and it is thus treated as a joke. For example, one participant has represented himself through his SNS profile as being 36 years of age, from Africa and married, when this is obviously not the case. Although there is a humorous aspect of faking personal information about oneself, it can also hold the potential to pose huge risks as it demonstrates how simple this is to do for people with wrong intentions.

PRIVACY ISSUES

"Given that the main motivation for using social networking sites is to communicate and meet people, young people felt that disclosing personal information was essential" ( Jewkes and Yar, 2010:332).

Huffaker and Calvert (2005) studied the issues of online identity amongst adolescents and the content of weblogs and SNSs, in which personal details are revealed to the World Wide

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Web. They randomly selected blogs that were created by teenagers which they used to carry out a content analysis. Content and language expressed was examined from the blogs. The final sample consisted of 70 web blogs; 35 blogs belonging to females and 35 belonging to males. The participants' ages ranged from 13-17 (where age was revealed). Huffaker and Calvert (2005) found that adolescent bloggers exposed a substantial amount of personal information about themselves. The blogs showed that 70% of the teen authors displayed their first name and 67% revealed their age. Other personal information shown included: contact information (61%); location (60%); date of birth (39%) and full name (20%). Furthermore, they found no gender differences on the information revealed. This study demonstrates the amount of personal information published by adolescents on their web blogs. Although the study refers to web blogs, this can easily relate to SNSs, as the habits and ideals are mirrored. The study was carried out in 2005 when web blogs were more popular, whereas in 2011, the use of SNSs is proving to be a much more popular activity amongst adolescents.

Livingstone (2008) studied 16 adolescents aged between 13-16 and interviewed them about their computer and SNS habits. She argues that, although people adjust their social networking site profile to 'private', in which only their 'friends' on the site are able to view their profile and the information it holds, on SNSs, it is possible to have several hundred people as 'friends', the majority of which are only known casually or by acquaintance. In the interviews, the teenagers discussed what they thought about certain things that they should/should not disclose on their profile page. However, what previous generations believe to be private and personal information, differs to what adolescents of the 21st Century believe (Livingstone, 2008). Previous generations feel information such as age, location and political views should be private, but adolescents believe this information is acceptable to be viewed by hundreds of people online. This could be due to the format of SNSs as they ask for this information when setting up and view it as standard. It is therefore difficult to determine whether it is an adolescent‘s choice of privacy or whether this is simply the norm

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for SNSs. Stein and Sinha (2002:414) define privacy as "…the rights of individuals to enjoy autonomy, to be left alone, and to determine whether and how information about one's self is revealed to others." This definition conveys the term ‗privacy‘ as being very fluid and relative, depending on the individual, which in turn relates well to the notion of SNSs. Although this study examines the issue of privacy in a qualitative manner, the sample of 16 participants is not a substantial amount for generalisations and to claim that all adolescents hold the same views and beliefs on privacy.

A contrasting argument from Patchin and Hiduja (2010), who studied the trends of the SNS, MySpace, note that adolescents were actually more aware of information they were publicising on their profile sites and making rational and sensible decisions on what to display about themselves and to whom.

Privacy issues are a great concern in relation to the internet. Not just for internet sex crimes, but for other crimes such as fraud and computer hacking (Newburn, 2007). The display of personal information can lead to easier access for those with ill intentions.

CREATING VULNERABLE IDENTITIES

Research indicates that there are factors that make specific groups of people more vulnerable to being groomed and targeted by online sex offenders (Jewkes and Yar, 2010).

Noll et al (2009) researched the risk factors for internet initiated victimisation of female adolescents. They hypothesised that female adolescents who were subject to some form of child abuse, were more likely to engage in risky sexual online behaviour, including meeting with those met online. The study consisted of female adolescents aged between 14-17 years, 104 of these participants had been abused as children and these were then compared to 69 participants who had not been abused. All participants were then surveyed and asked questions about different topics such as: internet usage; substance abuse and high risk sexual activities. Each participant was asked to create an avatar to measure their

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online self presentation. The results of the avatars were then quantified according to the degree of provocative physical features and dress sense. Noll et al (2009) found that 40% of the participants had experienced a sexual advance online and 26% had physically met with someone offline, whom they had befriended online. They found that females who had been abused as children were significantly more likely to respond to sexual advances and meet strangers offline, thus meaning that a history of child abuse may increase internet victimisation vulnerability. Noll et al (2009: 1081) notes that abuse may not be directly associated with meeting people offline but it is "…an indirect pathway, places abused adolescent girls at risk through the avenue of online sexual advances." Although this study separates those abused as children from those who were not, it is apparent that people who were not abused are also meeting those met online, offline. Although more adolescents who were abused are arranging meetings, vulnerability is still present in those who were not abused. Furthermore, the study has excluded research on males and their vulnerability to meeting strangers offline. Lenhart and Madden (2007) found that females are more likely to possess a SNS, and this may be the reason why only females were researched. This does, however, create difficulties in generalising about the adolescent population and their risky online sexual behaviour.

Wolak et al (2004) researched the characteristics of adolescents who became victims of sexual offences as a result of meeting someone offline, whom they had met online. He found that adolescents are more vulnerable due to the following factors: poor relationships with parents; depression and loneliness and confusion of sexual identity. Wolak et al (2004) notes that female adolescents who claim to have poor relationships and constant disagreements with parents, are more likely to resort to the internet to form close relationships with people met online, as opposed to male adolescents, who claim that their parents do not strictly monitor their behaviour. They also state that depressed youths may be "…turning to the internet to ameliorate their loneliness" (Wolak et al, 2004: 424). These adolescents may be more susceptible to becoming a victim of an online-initiated sexual offence. Lastly, Wolak et al (2004) found from the study that a quarter of the online

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relationships were between teenage males and adult males. These specific adolescents are confused about their sexuality or embarrassed about recognising their own homosexuality and resorting to the internet to gain information or contacts. Unlike the previous study, Wolak et al (2004) takes into account the male adolescent. Both studies have conflicting arguments, but both demonstrate how both genders are at risk of becoming victims of sexual online solicitation.

PREVENTION METHODS AND PROGRAMMES IN PLACE TO PROTECT ADOLESCENTS

It is evident that the internet has the potential to pose numerous risks to adolescents (Dombrowski et al, 2004).

The Child Exploitation and Online Protection centre (CEOP) (2011) is one of the main agencies which aims to eradicate the sexual abuse of children. It works alongside the police and is part of the UK Law Enforcement (CEOP, 2011). Two of the five main objectives of CEOP (2011: 5) include: "… To identify, locate and protect, children and young people from sexual exploitation and online abuse -both in the UK and globally," and "… To enhance existing responses to the sexual exploitation and online abuse of children and young people by developing a safer by design online environment and refining the management of offenders". CEOP is involved in a variety of campaigns to create awareness to adolescents, teachers and parents about the dangers of the internet, in an attempt to educate them to encourage safer practices online (CEOP, 2011). The CEOP has also had great success in implementing the 'ClickCEOP' button. The button can be downloaded onto any computer and acts as a safeguard. Once clicked, it offers advice and gives the option to report any online activity that is deemed inappropriate (CEOP, 2011). The 'ClickCEOP' can be regarded as a suitable tool for parents or schools who may have concerns regarding the safety of children. Another campaign CEOP created was 'Thinkuknow', which offers specific advice to adolescents (ages ranging from 5 to 16), parents or carers and to teachers (CEOP Thinkuknow, 2007) through leaflets, videos and case studies. Dombrowski et al (2004)

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recognise the importance of parents and care-givers having an active involvement in their children's internet activity. They state some adults sometimes falsely assume that the information sent online is only received by the intended recipient and is always private (Dombrowski et al, 2004). Dombrowski et al (2004) stresses that prevention is necessary through psychoeducation, rather than technological computer protection, such as firewalls.

Facebook (2011) also have a 'Facebook Safety' page which was set up following criticisms regarding the privacy of the SNS (Arthur, 2010). The page promotes safety and gives guidance on how to alter the privacy on one's personal profile. The page, which is officially run by the creators of Facebook states "Nothing is more important to Facebook than the safety of the people that use it" (Facebook, 2011). The page receives major input from charities and governing bodies that promote internet safety, specifically for adolescents. Dombrowski et al (2004) note the importance of adolescents recognising the risks, as not all computers hold such internet protection, for example, if the adolescent was to go to a friend‘s house and use their computer. They note that psychoeducation should be implemented, as predators who are technologically intelligent may still find ways to communicate online (Dombrowski et al, 2004).

There are many other projects that aim to educate online safety to adolescents, but the CEOP is the main agency in the UK that strives to tackle online issues such as sexual solicitation.

SUMMARY

From the research, it is evident that the internet is a large part of adolescent daily life. Statistics of internet usage are increasing each year as new technologies are being developed, the latter making the internet more accessible for individuals. The internet has been integrated into most aspects of people‘s lives: school, work and even socialising. The rapid adoption of SNSs has become popular with adolescents to maintain and make friendships. This creates a greater opportunity for those with ill intentions including child

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exploitation and sexual solicitation, to access potential victims in much larger numbers and with much greater frequency. The studies presented demonstrate factors that could influence or add to an adolescent being groomed and targeted by internet sex offenders.

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SEX OFFENDERS AND THE INTERNET

This chapter explores how sex offenders use the internet to groom victims. The chapter initially looks at the definition of sex offenders and sexual offences and then links them to the notion of grooming. Existing literature is then used to outline the typical methods used by sexual predators in order to lure their victims. Real cases shown in the media are used to support the theories around the strategies used by sex offenders. Lastly, the chapter explores the responses the criminal justice has to internet sex offenders.

DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SEXUAL OFFENCES

It is important to outline the different definitions and descriptions of sex offenders and sexual offences, in order to make sound judgements on what constitutes a sexual offence according to the Sexual Offences Act (SOA) 2003.

According to Groth and Birnbaum (1979: p3) "…a non-consenting sexual encounter is one in which an unwilling individual is either pressured or forced into sexual activity by a person in position of power or dominance. In pressured situations, advantage is taken of a person's vulnerable status, so that refusal to engage in sexual activity may have serious social, economic or vocational consequences for her."

The definition has been used as a starting point to present the characteristics of a sexual offence. It uses words that relate well to what is believed to be involved when a sexual offence occurs. The words such as 'non-consenting', 'power', 'pressured' and 'vulnerable' offer the stereotype that people hold about sex offending. When taken in the context of the internet, the same components apply. Although this definition is a good starting point, it is outdated. As it was written in 1979, it holds sexist values, for example, that only females become victims of sexual offences, when this is in fact no longer the case (Newburn, 2007). Rather than trying to define a 'sexual offender', it is more successful defining a sexual offence. Most recently, Newburn (2007) notes that "A variety of crimes come under the

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heading 'sexual offences'. They include rape and indecent assault, indecent exposure, 'stalking', child sexual abuse, the creating and dissemination of child pornography".

Newburn's (2007) description of sexual offences can be related well to the context of the internet, as the offences are moving into a virtual world. The dissemination of child pornography, although massively harmful and illegal, is when the perpetrator of this crime has had no physical contact in the real world with the child. This is therefore clearly linked to grooming and, although there is no contact involved, it is still deemed a sexual offence. The SOA 2003 outlines what is defined as a sexual offence in England and Wales (Great Britain, 2011). The sexual grooming offence can be found under section 15 of The SOA 2003 (Great Britain, 2011). It states:

"… Meeting a child following sexual grooming etc.

(1)A person aged 18 or over (A) commits an offence if—

(a) having met or communicated with another person (B) on at least two earlier occasions, he—

(I) intentionally meets B, or

(ii) travels with the intention of meeting B in any part of the world,

(b) at the time, he intends to do anything to or in respect of B, during or after the meeting and in any part of the world, which if done will involve the commission by A of a relevant offence,

(c)B is under 16, and

(d)A does not reasonably believe that B is 16 or over."

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT INTERNET SEX OFFENDERS?

"Sexual predators are a heterogeneous group, and as a result it is difficult to define a typology of the sexual predator" (Dombrowski et al, 2004: 66).

Mitchell, Finkelhor and Wolak (2001) specifically researched typologies of internet sex offenders. They conducted telephone surveys and found that 19% of their participants had

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been subject to at least one online sexual solicitation whilst using the internet in the past year. They also found almost 48% of online sexual predators were under the age of 25 and that a quarter of online sexual predators were female (Mitchell, Finkelhor and Wolak, 2001). They do state that the research cannot be generalised for the entire youth population of America, as the internet is not distributed evenly among the sample, but that the sample does generally match other representative samples of youth internet users. Finally, the research shows that the typology of an internet sexual predator could differ from the typical sexual predator. In spite of this, the internet allows people to manipulate and misrepresent their identity and this therefore means that searching for sexual predator characteristics is a complex task (Mitchell, Finkelhor and Wolak, 2001). Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson (2000) found that sexual predators are usually viewed as older, middle-class men. They have also found that they are very introvert (Gudjonsson & Sigurdsson, 2000). This could be used to explain the behaviours of online sex offenders. They can use the internet to express themselves differently as it is a virtual world. There is no need to be reserved online; there is no risk of public embarrassment or humiliation. Research shows that those convicted of sex offences are predominantly male. Statistics show that 85-90% of sexual offences are carried out by males of all ages (Fagan et al, 2002).

However, other research suggests that the age of sexual predators can range from 18 to 72 years, with the most common ages being 30 and 42 (Elliott, Browne & Kilcoyne, 1995). Although the research reinforces the older, male sex offender stereotype, it states that younger males are also perpetrators.

Sexual offenders, young and old, have been found to be mentally less socially proficient (Fagan et al, 2002). Fagan et al (2002) also found that sex offenders have more sexually deviant fantasies, such as having sex with non-living objects and having sex with young children.

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HOW DO SEX OFFENDERS TARGET THEIR VICTIMS?

Before the sexual grooming of a victim takes place, the sex offender needs to decide who they wish to groom. Elliott, Brown and Kilcoyne (1995) interviewed 91 sex offenders on how they target their victims; the age range of their victims and how they selected and maintained them as victims. They found that 42% of the offenders stated that their victims must be 'pretty'. However, Elliott, Brown and Kilcoyne (1995) note that although physical characteristics were important, they were not as important as how the child behaved and acted. Of the 91 offenders, 13% were attracted to the innocence of the victim and that the victim trusted them. Almost half of the offenders, 49%, focused on victims who had low self esteem and were quite vulnerable as they had very low self confidence. Overall, Elliott, Brown and Kilcoyne (1995: 584) suggest "… according to the offender's perceptions, the child who was most vulnerable had family problems, was alone, was nonconfident, curious, pretty, "provocatively" dressed, trusting, and young or small" is the 'perfect' victim.

SEXUAL GROOMING

Sexual grooming has proven difficult for academics to define (Craven, Brown and Gilchrist, 2006). Gillespie (2002) attempts to define sexual grooming as:

"The process by which a child is befriended by a would-be abuser in an attempt to gain the child‟s confidence and trust, enabling them to get the child to acquiesce to abusive activity. It is frequently a pre-requisite for an abuser to gain access to a child." (Gillespie, 2002: 411).

Sexual grooming was made law through The SOA 2003, following an increase in concern about sex offenders using the internet to target and access potential victims of sexual abuse (Craven, Brown and Gilchrist, 2007). This concern arose due to a number of cases where young teenage girls were arranging to meet people they had communicated with on the internet. An example of a case which greatly influenced the change in legislation, was the case of Patrick Green, who was forty- seven years old at the time (BBC New Online, 2001).

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He groomed a thirteen year old girl pretending he was a fifteen year old boy who was romantically interested in her. The teenage girl's mother was aware and was very worried so agreed to escort her to the meeting and watch from a distance as her daughter met whom they both thought was going to be a fifteen year old boy. The 'fifteen year old boy' was, in fact, forty-seven year old Patrick Green, who was grooming young teenagers in order to sexually abuse them. Although Patrick Green was arrested, he could not be convicted as he had not technically committed a crime under the law as it was in 2001, despite the intention (BBC News Online, 2001). This case, and many others like it, caught the attention of the media and the government and raised awareness of the risks and dangers the internet poses for teenagers and young adults. As awareness of sexual grooming increased it became illegal, after grooming, to meet with a child under the age of consent and this was eventually implemented into the Sexual Offences Act (Craven, Brown and Gilchrist, 2007). The updated law means that online sexual predators, like Patrick Green, can be convicted for meeting those they have groomed online (Craven, Brown and Gilchrist, 2007).

Dombrowski et al (2004) note that there is little research on the internet grooming process. They state that 'grooming' is a process in which the predator "…gains the affection, interest, and trust of children/adolescents through kind words and deeds" (Dombrowski, LeMasney, Ahia and Dickson, 2004: 67). Mcalinden (2006) also states that the creation and abuse of trust is the key variable of grooming. As adolescents crave attention and acceptance, they find being spoken to by someone new, appealing (Dombrowski et al, 2004). The online grooming process may begin with e-mail correspondence and the trading of pictures and gifts. If the adolescent initially engages in this behaviour online, the predator may try to escalate the relationship by introducing more sexually deviant behaviour such as exchanging pornographic images in order to normalise sexual activities (Dombrowski, LeMasney, Ahia and Dickson 2004). After a considerable amount of internet converse, the predator may suggest a meeting, especially if the adolescent has not objected to or shown any concern

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about any of the previous behaviour. The predator wants to gain the trust of the victim and then abuse this trust (Dombrowski, LeMasney, Ahia and Dickson, 2004).

The grooming process is outlined in detail in five stages by O'Connell (2003). O'Connell researched cyberspace and how it is used by sex offenders and paedophiles. The stages she presents are findings from ongoing research. These stages explain how a paedophile grooms a child online; however, this can also be applied to how sex offenders groom any victim.

Stage one is explained by O'Connell (2003) as the 'Friend Forming Stage'. She notes that this stage is when the predator is starting to get to know the victim. The amount of time spent on this stage does vary, depending on how strong the relationship between the two is and how much they converse online. The predator at this stage may ask for a non sexual picture of the victim, firstly to ensure that the victim is in fact who they claim they are and match the characteristics the predator is searching for. Secondly, there is a need to recognise and identify the victim, especially if specifically searched in the area of the predator‘s residence.

O'Connell (2003) suggests the second stage is the 'Relationship Forming Stage' which is explained as an extension of the 'Friendship Forming Stage' as the predator begins to ask more personal questions, for example, about their home or school life; they want to become the victim's best friend and confidante.

The third stage is the 'Risk Assessment Stage' (O'Connell, 2003). During this stage, the predator is perhaps assessing the risk of themselves being detected by family members or friends of the victim. They may ask the victims about other computer users in the household and about the location of the computer.

O'Connell (2003) suggests 'Exclusivity Stage' is the fourth stage. This is when the predator introduces the notion of the both of them being 'best friends' and wants there to be a sense of mutuality. This stage is when the trust is built and sets the victim up for the next stage.

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The final stage is the 'Sexual Stage'. This stage is when the predator begins to ask more sexually charged questions, such as asking the victim if they have ever had sex or if they touch themselves. These questions seem relatively innocent to the victim as the relationship has a deep level of trust following the previous stages. This is more than likely an unknown area to the victim, especially an adolescent victim, as the conversation has a level of intensity that they are not accustomed to. Because it is so unfamiliar to the victim, the predator leads and navigates the conversation. O'Connell (2003) suggests that predators modify their approach for each victim, for example, adolescents who have previously been victims of child abuse are more likely to engage in conversation with strangers in chat rooms and a predator will modify methods slightly, to suit a given situation. This can be supported by Noll et al (2009), who found in their study that teenage girls who were abused when they were younger, were more likely to meet a stranger they had met in an online chatroom. At this stage predators frequently say to the victim, 'You can talk to me about anything', maintaining the loving and trusting relationship the victim believes to be in (O'Connell, 2003). This would be the stage where the predator would initiate physical contact and try to arrange a meeting.

However, as O'Connell's (2003) research is ongoing, it is difficult to ascertain that this is a concrete method an online predator uses to groom a potential victim. Mcalinden (2006) critically notes that research of understanding grooming and the entire process and how it relates to sexual deviancy and child abuse is in the early stages. This therefore creates a problem in finding an adequate resolution to the problem of internet sexual predators. Urbas (2010) notes that another method used by sexual predators is the manipulation of identity. He suggests that because of the internet, identity can be easily manipulated and people are able to pretend to be someone else, usually creating characteristics that differ to their own.

The strategies outlined by O'Connell (2003) and Urbas (2010) can be viewed in real internet sex groomer cases:

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James Woolley, 34, targeted and groomed a 13 year old, whilst pretending to be a 19 year old university student. Woolley had gained the victim's trust and had asked her to send pictures of herself from her mobile phone and had then convinced her to meet him. After a friend of the victim notified the victim's mother, the police intervened, leading to Woolley's arrest. He was later sentenced to four years in prison for grooming underage teenagers online (Salisbury Journal, 2011).

The stages outlined above can also apply to SNS. This is evident in the case of Peter Chapman, 33, who groomed, kidnapped, raped and murdered seventeen year old Ashleigh Hall, who he initially met on social networking site, Facebook. Chapman had created a fake profile, pretending to be an attractive, 17 year old teenage boy. He used Facebook to lure Ashleigh Hall into meeting him offline. The prosecutor of the case stated that Ashleigh Hall suffered from very low self-esteem, making her an easy and vulnerable target. A detective from the case suggests that through the tentacles of the internet, the sexual predator was able to reach out to young and vulnerable girls (Carter, 2010).

However, Wolak et al (2008) note that the stereotype of an online sexual predator is widely inaccurate. They state that most online sex-initiated crimes are carried out by adult males who use the internet to fulfill sexual purposes. The notion of trickery, used by sexual offenders portrayed in the media from high profile cases, has created a moral panic. Wolak et al (2008) found in their study that only 5% of sexual predators pretended to be teenagers when engaging in online conversations with other teenagers and that the predators rarely hide their sexual interests and aims. They note that when deception does occur, it relates more to the love and romantic relationship the victim believes to be involved in (Wolak et al, 2008). Holmes (2009) reiterates this point, stating that there is little research that supports the fears society holds about online sexual predators. From reviewing other literature, Holmes (2009) found that online communication holds small risks and the literature is largely focused on specific groups within the population. He states that the fear has been generated

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from the publicity of safety campaigns and from the media (Holmes, 2009). The two cases above (Salisbury Journal, 2011 and Carter, 2010) prove how the media uses these specific cases and creates a moral panic, as they are the worst case scenarios.

RESPONSES TO INTERNET SEX OFFENDERS

It is important to recognise the measures currently in place which respond to internet sex offenders and how these are used by the agencies to prevent further offending.

The internet has developed rapidly and although it holds benefits and advantages, it also holds many potential risks, especially towards adolescents (Dombrowski et al, 2004). The increase in internet related crimes has led to new approaches being devised by treatment providers (Middleton, Mandeville-Norden and Hayes, 2009). In 2006, a treatment programme was created for internet related sexual offences, the Internet Sex Offender Treatment Programme (i-SOTP) and was given accreditation by the National Probation Service, as a community punishment (Middleton, Mandeville-Norden and Hayes, 2009). The i-SOTP is for men who have committed an internet sexual offence (Devon & Cornwall Probation Trust, 2011). The Programme aims to teach offenders skills and coping mechanisms for situations and feelings that have previously led to offending. It also outlines what has to be done to prevent further reoffending and how to recognise and deal with risks. Lastly, it teaches the offender to avoid certain patterns of behaviour that result in reoffending (Devon & Cornwall Probation Trust, 2011). Middleton, Mandeville-Norden and Hayes (2009), conducted psychometric assessments on 264 convicted internet sex offenders; the assessments were carried out before and after the treatment programme occurred. The treatment was found to improve deficits with regard to how the offenders function emotionally and socially. A decrease in pro-offending attitudes was also found. Middleton, Mandeville-Norden and Hayes (2009) conclude by stating that due to the encouraging results found from the study, the i-SOTP should continue as a treatment requirement, deeming it successful and effective.

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The Sex Offenders Register (SOR) is another protective measure provided by the criminal justice system. The document contains details of all those who have committed any offence under the Sexual Offences Act 2003 (Kidshield, 2011). The register allows agencies to monitor sex offenders. Offenders must give their name, date of birth, home address and national insurance number. The length of time an offender remains on the register is dependent upon their sentence (Kidshield, 2011). However, it does have limitations. The register comprises of any person who has been cautioned or convicted of a sexual offence. This can include teenagers who engage in underage consensual sex and those convicted of child molestation. There is a large gap between the two offences with regard to seriousness; however they are labelled the same. On the other hand, it could be argued that those who are cautioned for minor crimes, can be monitored to see if their sexual offending behaviour is repeated (Kidshield, 2011).

SUMMARY

From literature and research, it is evident that in the past, there has been confusion on what constitutes as a sexual offence. However, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 aims to address these concerns and laws now include responses to internet sex offences. The chapter provides research on grooming strategies and the modus operandi of internet sex offenders. Although grooming strategies have been found to differ slightly, the main components are still present, such as trust and the formation of a relationship. The real cases presented show how sexual predators used grooming strategies to fulfil their sexual needs. However, research has shown that the concerns society hold, are in fact, exaggerated, as the media has created fear from certain real – life cases. On the other hand, the issue of internet sex offenders cannot be ignored, thus the production of the i-SOTP and the SOR, which both aim to treat and punish internet sex offenders and protect the public.

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This chapter aims to reassert and provide answers to the research questions presented at the beginning of the dissertation. The research questions are as follows:

 How do internet offenders target and groom victims?  What measures are needed to make young people safer?

The chapter summarises how internet sex offenders target and groom victims and what factors may contribute to a young person being groomed. It goes on to summarise what measures are currently in place to protect potential victims. In order to answer the second of the research questions, the chapter explores what issues remain to be addressed and what further measures need to be implemented, as suggested by academics. Further measures to protect young people include those taken by adolescents themselves, parents, teachers etc and the measures taken by the criminal justice agencies to stop sexual predators using the internet to search for potential victims.

HOW DO INTERNET SEX OFFENDERS TARGET & GROOM VICTIMS?

Malesky Jr (2007) found that the modus operandi used by sexual predators to target their victim was initially entering chatroom sites geared towards younger people. As stated previously, Elliott, Browne and Kilcoyne (1995) found that, although sexual predators seek attractive people, they are more concerned with the vulnerable nature of the potential victim. This can be related to Noll et al's (2009) study; they found that those who were abused as children are more likely to become victims of internet sex offences as they are deemed more vulnerable. This may be due to either the sexual predator targeting the individual because he/she seems more vulnerable and thus the predator perseveres with the grooming, or, because the individual is vulnerable, he/she allows the grooming to occur. Once a sexual predator has targeted the victim to be groomed, conversing on a regular basis commences (Dombrowski et al 2004 :O'Connell, 2003). Malesky Jr (2007) also states that internet sex predators spend significant amounts of time searching through social networking profiles in

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