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Scholarship at UWindsor
Electronic Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Major Papers
1936
Catholic ideals in social life
Catholic ideals in social life
Mildred Elizabeth Sullivan University of Windsor
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation
Sullivan, Mildred Elizabeth, "Catholic ideals in social life" (1936). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 5895.
https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/5895
By
Sister Mary Henrietta
(Mildred Elizabeth Sullivan)
Ho l y n a m e s Co l l e g e
W I N D S O R , O N T A R I O
UMI Number: EC54072
IN F O R M A T IO N T O U S E R S
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which may be se c u re d only lay p e a c e fu l p o l i t i c s , co n g en ial
s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s , and m a te r ia l p r o s p e r ity , founded on r e l i g i o u s
mid e t h i c a l p r in c ip l e s . B ut th e c o n d itio n s upon which th e
h ap p in ess and w elfare o f mankind depend a r e v io la te d by a p o s ta
sy from r e l i g i o n , from C h r is tia n m o ra ls, and from c h a r i t y ,
which i s a re p u d ia tio n o f th e d o c tr in e e s ta b lis h e d by C h r is t
and fo s te r e d by th e a u x i l i a r i e s o f t h e Church o f C h r is t.
’’Peace on e a r th t o men of good w l l l i ” So sang th e
a n g e ls in harmony w ith th e message d e liv e re d to th e w orld by
j
C h r is t, th e P rin c e of Peace. And when l e was ab o u t t o le av e
I i s A p o stle s, who were d e s tin e d to c a rry His message t o o th e r s ,
Me s a id : ’’P eace I le a v e you, My peace I g iv e u n to you.” " And
His words o f p a r tin g have re-ech o e d in t h e h e a r ts , o f men down
through th e c e n tu r ie s . The d e s ir e f o r peace i s in h e re n t in
every human being ir r e s p e c tiv e o f r a c e , c o lo u r, c re e d , o r s t a t e
o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . ‘’Whoever d e s ir e s an y th in g d e s ir e s peace” I s
a t r u t h which u n d e r lie s a l l human a c t i v i t i e s and a s p ir a t i o n s ,
say s S a in t Thomas o f Aquln, th e g re a t d o c to r o f m edieval t h e
ology and p h ilo so p h y . But t r u e peace f o r th e in d iv id u a l,
fa m ily , o r S ta te w ill be found only where human conduct and
2
-a re seek in g -above -a l l "th e Kingdom o f God -and l i s j u s t l e e . ”
When P iu s XI ascended th e p ap al th ro n e I n 1922, th e a f t e r -
math o f th e World War en g u lfed th e w o rld , and from t h a t hour t o
t h i s he has sought w ith ard o u r and a s s id u ity to e s t a b l i s h t h e
u n iv e r s a l peace which G h rist bequeathed to H is fo llo w e rs . In
h i s f i r s t E n c y c lic a l L e t t e r , he s e t f o r t h h i s watchword and
motto:. “Pax C h r l s t i In regno C h r is t I , ” which i s th e epitom e
o f C a th o lic I d e a l s . Hever h as h e ceased in h i s e f f o r t s to
promote th e re ig n o f C h r is t and i t s p e a c e , w ith o u t which th e
lo n g in g s o f th e human h e a r t cannot be ad eq u ately s a tia te d * The
Holy F a th e r warned r u l e r s t h a t C h r is t has been excluded from
th e a re n a o f p u b lic a f f a i r s , w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t men c o n sid e r
a u th o r ity to be d e riv e d , not from to d b u t from men, so t h a t i t s
fo u n d atio n s t o t t e r . Of s p e c ia l s ig n i f i c a n c e , th e n , was th e in
s t i t u t i o n by P lu s XI o f a f e a s t to honour th e K ingship o f C h r i s t .
The H i s to r i c a l Background
E s ta b lis h in g C h r is tia n Eeaee: The A p o stle s co n tin u ed th e
te a c h in g o f th e M aster*s d o c trin e o f b r o th e rly la v e . The s ic k
and poor were c a re d f o r in th e homes o f th e e a r ly C h r is tia n s
who sh ared w ith them what they p o sse sse d . The E p i s t l e s r e l a t e
th e te a c h in g s and works o f th e A p o stles and d i s c i p l e s o f C h r is t.
With th e d is p e rs io n o f th e Jews throughout th e v a s t Soman Em pire,
in th e empire f a c i l i t a t e d in te rc o u rs e and a s s i s t e d t h e sp read
o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t fre q u e n t p e rs e c u tio n s lim ite d th e member
sh ip o f th e in f a n t Church, f o r only th o s e w ith a firm c o n v ic tio n
o f C h r is tia n t r u t h s would r i s k t h e i r l i v e s i n su p p o rt o f t h e i r
b e l i e f . The h ig h te n o r o f t h e i r l i v e s , e x h ib itin g e a r n e s tn e s s ,
z e a l , and h ig h m oral c h a r a c te r , brought th e s e C h r is tia n a in to
Im portant e i v l l p o s itio n s , th u s broadening t h e i r f i e l d of
s o c ia l and c i v i l inflm ence. The haughty Homans u n co n scio u sly
im m ortalized e a r ly C h r is tia n c h a r ity in t h e i r re co rd ed comment:
"See how th e s e C h r is tia n s lo v e one another.*1 Wien C o n stan tin e
made C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e S ta te r e l i g i o n , i t sp re a d r a p id ly .
As th e number o f c o n v e rts from paganism in c re a s e d , th e
Church amassed g r e a t r ic h e s . Many pagan tem ples became C h r is tia n
ch u rc h es. But S a in t Jerome lam ents t h a t as w ealth in c re a s e d ,
to o o f te n th e v i r t u e o f th e members d im in ish ed . The management
o f Church d i s c i p l i n e f e l l t o b ish o p s, who acknowledged th e
Bishop o f Some Bead o f th e Church and s u c c e ss o r o f S a in t P e te r .
The e a r ly C h r is tia n emperors r e ta in e d c e r t a i n powers over ec
c l e s i a s t i c a l a f f a i r s u n t i l th e f i f t h c e n tu ry , b u t C h r is tia n
obedience in s p ir e d subm ission and f o s te r e d d i s c i p l i n e under
most tr y in g circu m sta n c e s.
The e f f o r t t o re c o n c ile d e e p -ro o te d pagan p r in c ip l e s w ith
C h r is tia n d o c trin e o f te n le d t o h e re sy ; n e v e r th e le s s th e e a r ly
F a th e rs o f th e Church i n combating th e s e d e v ia tio n s from th e
4
-form al dogma, and l i t u r g y r e ta in e d t o th e p re s e n t day.
J u s t l n l a m For f iv e c e n tu r ie s , th e Papacy was s u b o rd i
n a te d to th e Emperor o f Rome, b ut th e crum bling o f th e Empire
favoured th e growing a u th o r ity o f th e Pope in s o c i a l a s w e ll a s
r e l ig i o u s m a tte rs . The Emperor, J u s t i n i a n th e t r e a t (A.D. 527-
555) fo s te r e d th e b u ild in g o f I n s t i t u t i o n s o f c h a r ity o f every
k in d and thousands o f C h r is tia n men and women g r a tu ito u s ly
lab o u red in th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e ag ed , th e c r ip p le d , th e b lin d ,
th e h e l p l e s s , th e o rp h an s, and th e p o o r.
C h r is tia n ity and S la v e ry : S la v ery was th e c u rse of
Roman s o c ie ty and d id more th a n th e b a rb a ria n s to r u in I t a l y .
As soon a s th e Church was f r e e , she concerned h e r s e l f w ith th e
s la v e s in th e Roman v i l l a s . Many were c o n v erted t o C h r i s t i a n i t y
alo n g w ith t h e i r m a ste rs. A ll c a s te d if f e r e n c e s were suppressed*
S lav es might be p r i e s t s o r b ish o p s o r even become Pope o f Rome.
H erein l i e s " th e t r u e so u rce o f a l l modern dem ocracy." (Shahan,
"The Middle A ges", p . 152) Y et s e r v a n ts and m asters le a rn e d
t h e i r re s p e c tiv e d u tie s a s fo rm u lated by S a in t P a u l. The
te a c h in g and p r a c tic e o f th e Church r e s to r e d la b o u r t o i t s
r i g h t f u l p la c e o f honour in th e minds o f men. The C h r is tia n
emperors made laws f o r th e p r o te c tio n o f s la v e s , l i b e r a t e d
th ro u g h th e I n s tru m e n ta lity o f th e Church. S la v e s became s e r f s
and were a tta c h e d t o th e s o i l . G rad u ally th e p r in c ip l e o f
" e q u a lity b e fo re th e d e ity " was a p p lie d , u n t i l s la v e ry slow ly
C h r ls tla n lz ln g th e Laws* J u s tin ia n a l s o undertook to
a b o lis h gam bling, blasphemy, p e r ju r y , and th e g r e a t e r s o c ia l
crim e s. He r e c a s t th e l a s s o f tome and made them s e rv ic e a b le
f o r a l l tim e . The r i g h t s o f th e moral code s e r e In c o rp o ra te d
In to th e le g a l code so t h a t r e l i g i o n s a s no lo n g e r s e p a r a te from
co n d u ct. The Immortal Dante p r a is e s him a s a " l i v i n g j u s t i c e 11,
who upheld th e sta n d a rd o f o rd e r and e q u ity , and th ereb y
"p laced th e world In so g r e a t peace T hat unto Jan u s was h i s tem ple c lo s e d .11
(Shahan, "The K iddle Ages", p . 104} Everywhere th e poor and th e
low ly and th e humble were c h e rish e d by th e Church in th e name o f
t h a t g r e a t f r i e n d o f a l l "who la b o u r and a re heavy burdened"
—Shose te n d e r y e t p u is s a n t c ry : " I have p i t y cm th e m u ltitu d e "
—s t i l l reso u n d s adown th e a g e s.
M onastlclam: By th e e a r ly in ro a d s of th e b a r b a ria n s ,
Soman In d u stry was e x tin g u ish e d and commerce p a ra ly z e d . The
f e r t i l e lan d s o f I t a l y and F ran ce were l e f t u n c u ltiv a te d , and
f o r e s t s o b l i t e r a t e d th e v i l l a s and p a la c e s o f Old lease. Then
a ro se a n o th e r mighty fo rc e o f th e C a th o lic Church, th e monks o f
S a in t B e n e d ic t. T h e ir r u le was adm irably s u it e d to th e s o c ia l
req u irem en ts o f th e day. I t p r e s c r ib e d e q u a lly t h e la b o u r of
th e f i e l d and th e la b o u r o f th e b r a in , and s o d u rin g th e s i x t h
and sev en th c e n tu ry , a l l iu ro p e b e n e f ite d by th e t o l l o f th e
B en e d ic tin e monks. T h e ir s e ttle m e n ts were In v a ria b ly made In
6
-b u i l t d itc h e s , -b rid g e d s tre a m s , l a i d n ecessary ro a d s; -by d ra in in g
and I r r i g a t i o n , th ey in c re a se d th e a r e a o f a r a b le la n d ; th ey
b u i l t w a lls , fe n c e s , and granges on every e s t a t e t h a t th ey had
c re a te d o u t o f n o th in g .
From th e s e monks, who counted In t h e i r ra n k s t h e b e s t edu
c a te d and b e s t bora men o f th e tim e , th e b a rb a ria n p e a sa n ts
le a rn e d th e t r a d i t i o n s of o ld Roman a g r i c u l tu r e . The c le a re d
la n d s were le a s e d perm anently a t a nominal r e n t t o th e p e a s a n ts ,
whose c h ild r e n were k ep t busy In th e k itc h e n and b a rn s o f th e
m onastery.
The m o n a ste rie s became c e n te r s o f consumption and d i s t r i
b u tio n . G loth was re q u ire d f o r th e h a b its ; g rap es f o r th e a l t a r ;
s i l v e r and g o ld , iv o ry and wood, e m b ro id e rie s and t a p e s t r i e s were
c o n s ta n tly in demand t o supply th e needs o f new church f u r n i t u r e .
Thus was p la n te d th e seed o f o u r economic system , in which th e r e
should be "an ownership not lim ite d t o a few n o r absorbed by a
communistic S t a t e , but p e rso n a l to th e workers th em selv es. The
a tta in m e n t o f i t should depend upon j u s t i c e , t h r i f t and a b i l i t y ,
a id e d and guarded by C h r is tia n la w s." (H u ssle in , "Dem ocratic
I n d u s tr y " , p . 46) Thus, to o , was p re se rv e d th e le a r n in g o f an
a n c ie n t world f o r a new c i v i l i z a t i o n in which la b o u r was human
iz e d , s a n c t i f i e d , and d ig n if ie d .
About th e m o n a ste rie s , become c e n tr e s o f In d u s tr y , grew up
saved a l l th e s o c ia l a r t s and p r o fe s s io n s which th e y had l a b o r l - .
o u sly g a th e re d from th e wreck o f traeeo-Eom an l i f e o r c re a te d anew
amid th e tu rb u le n c e and la w le ssn e ss of b arb arism . The m onastery
In firm ary I s f a t h e r o f th e modern ap o th eeary sh o p . Bvery monas
te r y became th e home o f th e e d u c a tio n a l v i r t u e s o f economy,
o r d e r, r e g u l a r i t y , d iv is io n o f la b o u r, and f o r e s i g h t , to g e th e r
w ith th e u s e fu l v i r t u e s l i k e p a tie n c e , h u m ility , su b m issio n , and
c h a r i t y . The p r i e s t was f r ie n d o f th e p e o p le , and earn ed t h e i r
g r a t it u d e 11 by an anonymous d ev o tio n d u rin g th e thousand y e a rs
t h a t covered th e infancy o f o u r modern S t a t e s . 1* (Sfaahan, "The
Middle Ages", p . 159)
A u th o rity ; As th e Church n u rsed th e common weal o f th e
dev elo p in g n a tio n s , so a ls o m s she c r e a tin g th e " C h r is tia n Law
o f N a tio n s", th e fo re ru n n e r o f our p re s e n t I n te r n a tio n a l Law.
The common law o f th e gospel and g e n e ra l customs o f C h r is tia n
l i f e and experience c o n s titu te d th e b a s is o f le g a l p ro c e d u re s,
ir a d u a lly th e r e grew up an u n w ritte n code t h a t governed th e
c i v i l i z e d w orld, th e l i f e - g i v i n g c e n tre of which was th e P rin p e
o f P eace, s o l i c i t i n g mankind t o fo llo w Him. The Church c a lle d
men t o obey n o t a human w ill b u t th e d iv in e w i l l o f C h r i s t ,
whose messages were h e ra ld e d th roughout Europe by b ish o p s and
m is s io n a rie s . E u le rs o f every n a tio n q u a ile d b e fo re th e s p i r i t
u a l arrow s o f th e s e h o ly men—th e unholy re lin q u is h e d th e e s
t a t e s th e y had robbed; th e o rp h a n s' r i g h t s were v in d ic a te d , and
8
-and l i f e was d e c la re d s a c re d . Canon Law, which com prises th e
r o le s and r e g u la tio n s e s ta b lis h e d by th e a u th o r ity o f th e Church,
to o k form , and th e C hurch’s s p i r i t o f peace p e n e tr a te d every
sphere o f l i f e . The obedience demanded was h a rd and h u m ilia tin g
but i t c le a n se d and com forted th e s o u l and made men G odlike.
Such an a u th o r ity , which was a b le to w ith sta n d th e s e l f i s h
tu r b u le n t te n d e n c ie s of th e f i r s t C h r is tia n em perors, and th e
whims and v a g a rie s o f th e newly C h r is tia n is e d b a r b a ria n s , I s
cap ab le o f coping w ith any c i v i l a u th o r ity . Thus M edieval
a u th o r ity le a rn e d from th e Church th e n a tu r e , scope, and s p i r i t
of a u th o r ity . “I t le a rn e d how to tem per s e v e r ity w ith m ild n ess;
how t o r e s t r a i n th e ard o u r o f J u s tic e by e q u ity and prudence;
how t o I n s i s t on th e w r itte n evidence and t o p re se rv e th e
re c o rd s ; how t o surround J u s tic e w ith due so le m n ity ." (Shahan,
“The Middle Ages", p . 169}
Men were ta u g h t t o look on p u b lic l i f e from a moral p o in t
o f view , a s a t r u s t to be used w ith co n sc ie n c e . P u b lic l i f e in
th e Middle Ages was dominated by “th e sen se o f p e r s o n a lity and
th e sen se o f r e s p o n s i b il i t y " . The end o f human s o c ie ty th e n
seemed tb be n o t th e s e c u rin g of co m fo rts, and th e in c re a s in g
and h o ard in g o f w o rld ly f o r tu n e , b u t a means t o enable men to
know, lo v e , and s e rv e th e M aster h e re on e a r th and be happy
w ith Him h e r e a f t e r .
In sav in g th e Roman Law from d e s tr u c tio n by th e b a rb a ria n
s p l r i t and th e p r in c ip le s o f s o c ia l a u th o r ity in th e S t a t e .
"The homely re p u b lic a n v i r t u e s o f Old Rome, th e humane and d i s
c rim in a tin g s o u l o f Greek p h ilo so p h y , th e t r a d i t i o n o f a golden
age o f e q u a lity and s im p lic ity , a r e lig io u s re s p e c t f o r d i s t r i b u
t i v e J u s t i c e , a g r e a t s e n s e o f th e u t i l i t y and lo v e lin e s s of
peace and harmony,—a l l th e s e a r e so many v i s i b l e t r a i t s o f th e
toman law t h a t re n d e r i t a p p lic a b le in a l l tim e s t o a l l man
k in d ." (Shahan, “The Middle A ges", p . 190)
Prom th e sem i-savages developed p o l i t e in d u s tr io u s n a tio n s ;
f 1*0111 Ig n o ran t b r u t a l w a rrio rs were formed C h r is tia n K nights and
s o l d i e r s ; from th e enemies o f th e f in e a r t s were fash io n e d c
cunning a r t i f i c e r s and c raftsm en ; out o f th e scum o f humanity
b eaten down by th e Roman sword grew gentlem en l i k e Bayard and
l a d i e s l i k e Blanche of C a s t i l e .
The g r e a t amalgamation o f n a tio n s s u b s e rv ie n t t o a common
u n d ersta n d in g o f th e p r in c ip l e s o f l i f e , under one d i r e c t in g
head a t Rome, was made p o s s ib le only by th e supreme in flu e n c e
o f r e l i g i o n . And t h i s o rg an ized worship of God l i e s a t th e
b a s is o f a l l European c i v i l i z a t i o n . The C h r is tia n people b e
came "bound to g e th e r by t i e s h o l i e r and deep er th a n r a c e , o r
to n g u e ,o r n a t i o n a l i t y , o r human c u ltu r e could c r e a t e —a sen se
o f mutual r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a p u b lic c o n scien ce, and a p u b lic
w i l l ." (S h a h a n ,T h e K iddle Ages", p . 210)
The g r e a t modern v e r n a c u la rs were th en formed from th e
1 0
-o f th e Church, wh-ose p -o lic y has ev er been t -o re s p e c t th e n a tu r a l
and t r a d i t i o n a l In every people t o whom she c a r r i e s th e g o sp e l.
Many of th e n a tio n a l e p ic s were made and p re se rv e d in th e monas
t e r i e s .
“The i n s t i t u t i o n of c h iv a lr y w ith i t s m y stic i d e a l i s a t i o n
o f woman; th e ev er in c re a s in g a u th o r ity and in flu e n c e o f woman
h e r s e l f ; th e honour of s a i n t l y c h a r a c te r ; th e fu n c tio n o f th e
p ilg rim , th e monk, th e p a p a l envoy, a s d iss e m in a to rs o f g e n e ra l
view s and p r in c ip le s ; th e p u b lic a tio n o f g r e a t p ap a l documents
w ith t h e i r le n g th y argum ents; th e m u ltitu d e o f f r i a r s draw ing
t h e i r o f f ic e and a u th o r ity from a c e n t r a l so u rce and upholding
I t s p r e s t i g e a t every v i l l a g e c r o s s ; th e genuine In flu e n c e o f
th e g r e a t f e s t i v a l s ; re n u n c ia tio n o f h ig h o f f i c e and w orldly
com forts; th e fre q u e n t re fo rm a tio n o f manners—a l l th e s e and
o th e r a g e n c ie s were everywhere and a t once a t work, and h elp ed
t o g iv e th e m edieval l i f e t h a t In te n se charm o f m otion, c o lo r
and v a r i e t y 1* t h a t m e rits th e a d m ira tio n o f men in a l l a g e s .
(Shahan, “The Middle Ages**, p . 819)
feu d alism : While th e Church was e s ta b lis h in g th e s p i r i t
u a l kingdom of C h r is t in th e known w orld, fe u d a lism was g ra d u a lly
developing from th e tra n sfo rm a tio n of th e s la v e in to th e s e r f .
L and-holding was th e fo u n d atio n on which a l l s o c ia l l i f e depended,
s in c e a l l men were in some way a tta c h e d to th e la n d . The w ealthy
land-ow ners c o n tr o lle d g r e a t e s t a t e s on which th e y r e ta in e d a
p a id him re n t not in money, but in s e rv ic e a s he re q u ire d :
m i l i t a r y , in tim e o f war; a g r i c u l t u r a l , in tim e o f p eace. The
m edieval manor was s e lf - s u p p o r tin g , and a w ell-co n d u cted e s ta te
was c h a ra c te riz e d by p e a c e fu l In d u s try . la e h fam ily produced
Independently th e n ecessary c lo th in g , food and s h e l t e r r e q u ire d ,
i s th e s e r f was in r e a l i t y a sm a ll p a r tn e r in th e concern and
sh ared i t s p r o f i t s , he was th u s encouraged t o do h i s b e s t work.
And in th o se days th e nobleman and p e a sa n t met on a common
f o o tin g in th e v i l l a g e church.
Peace G u ild s: At an e a r ly d a te , th e freem en banded t o
g e th e r , form ing an a s s o c ia tio n c a lle d th e Peace G u ild , th e
o b je c t o f which was to m a in ta in p u b lic peace; to p re se rv e th e
l i f e , honour and p ro p e rty o f in d iv id u a ls ; to se c u re J u s tic e when
feu d s a ro s e . R e lig io u s c h a r ity and brotherhood were dom inant
p r in c ip le s in th e g u ild s t a t u t e s . Honesty was guarded in a
s p e c ia l way, and s t e a l i n g was s e v e re ly punished by th e g u ild
c o u r t. The poor and a f f l i c t e d re c e iv e d s p e c ia l c o n s id e ra tio n ,
and p ilg rim s were given a s s is ta n c e in accom plishing th e f u l f i l
ment o f p io u s vows. Everywhere th e same fo rc e s were a t work and
a l l g u ild s promoted th e C h r is tia n id e a l of b ro th e rh o o d , r e l i g i o n ,
m utual h e lp fu ln e s s and s o c ia l f e llo w s h ip among e q u a ls . Thus,
when n ot engaged in work f o r t h e i r o v e r lo rd , th e craftsm en were
f r e e to p r a c t i s e t h e i r v a rio u s t r a d e s . G re a te r freedom gradu
a l l y developed, u n t i l a man was p e rm itte d to s u b s t i t u t e th e pay
1 2
-serfdom i t s e l f passed o ut o f e x is te n c e .
Merchant Q u llds: In th e e a r l i e s t lab o u r g u ild , c a lle d th e
m erchant g u ild , each craftsm an was lik e w is e a m erchant. He manu
f a c tu re d h i s wares and p e rs o n a lly s o ld them in h i s own sh o p , in
th e m arket, o r a t th e f a i r . He purchased th e raw m a te r ia l o f h i s
t r a d e , and th u s a system o f tr a d e developed. The merchant g u ild
was a p r o te c tio n a g a in s t th e fe u d a l lo r d , and s p e c ia l c h a r t e r s
s h ie ld e d th e guildsm en from u n lic e n se d co m p e titio n o f non-members
and f o r e ig n e r s . U nlike tr a d in g m onopolies o f our day , which
c o n c e n tra te t r a d e in th e hands o f a few , th e s e g u ild s sought to
u n ite a l l e l i g i b l e m erchants and craftsm en o f th e town. In f a c t ,
th e town developed and p ro sp ered alo n g w ith th e g u ild .
A nother o b je c t o f th e g u ild m s t o s e t a f a i r p r ic e on
goods t h a t would s a t i s f y consumer and tradesm an a l i k e . Heavy
f in e s were imposed f o r c h e a tin g , and f o r p o o r work; m oreover,
no in d iv id u a l o r group could monopolize any p ro d u c t, f e n l u s
c o n s is te d not in accum ulating f o rtu n e b u t in p ro d u cin g th e
most p e r f e c t a r t i c l e f o r th e consumer. The s o c ia l j u s t i c e o f
th e Middle Ages looked upon u n f a i r co m p e titio n a s d e s p ic a b le ,
every man b e in g given a f a i r chance in h i s own rank o f s o c ie ty .
B esides a f f e c t i n g tra d e and commerce, th e g u ild s e x e rc ise d
s e v e ra l im portant c i v i c f u n c tio n s . The s u p e rv is io n o f s a n ita r y
c o n d itio n s , th e c a re o f l e p e r s , defence o f th e town, a s s is ta n c e
in tim e of f lo o d , shipw reck, f i r e , ro b b e ry , and tem porary p e c u n i
m erchant g u ild o f a town. The g u ild tre a s u r y alw ays r e ta in e d
s u f f i c i e n t money t o p rovide f o r o ld a g e , im poverished b r e th re n ,
and a l l c a s e s o f emergency. The fundam ental id e a l o f th e g u ild
was t o h e lp one a n o th e r whenever and however a s s is ta n c e might
be re q u ire d . In th e minds of th e s e sim ple gulldsm en, r e l ig i o n
was not m erely th e h u m anltarianlsm o f th e C h r is tia n S o c i a l i s t .
I t Im plied com pliance w ith f a i t h , dogma, and e x te r n a l w orship,
a s w ell a s te n d e r s o li c i t u d e f o r th e tem poral needs o f th e
n eighbour. "The sc ie n c e o f p h ila n th ro p y was n ev er a g a in t o
re a c h th e development i t a t t a i n e d in th e K iddle Ages, b u t i t
was in s p ire d by r e l i g i o n and t h e r e f o r e became c h a r ity because
done in th e name o f C h r is t." (H u ssle in , "Dem ocratic In d u s try " ,
p . 141) Many a s o c ia l e v i l was s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a v e rte d by
C h r is tia n lo v e . E n tru ste d w ith a l l t h a t concerned t h e s o c ia l
improvement o f th e town, t h e merchant g u ild l e g i s l a t e d w ith
th e aim o f p la c in g s o c ia l I n t e r e s t s above e l a s s o r in d iv id u a l
i n t e r e s t s . T h is , in d e e d , i s th e supreme id e a l t o be a t t a i n e d in
a l l s o c ia l o rg a n iz a tio n and l e g i s l a t i o n .
A r ts and C r a f ts : No modem s o c ia l movement a ro u se s th e
I n t e r e s t o f men more th a n t h a t o f th e a r t s and c r a f t s . I t te n d s
t o l i f t th e working man up above th e mere machine he might be
come th ro u g h monotonous o ccu p atio n a t h i s t r a d e . I t r e q u i r e s a
workman " to u se h i s i n t e l l e c t in th e d e s ig n in g , h i s t a s t e in th e
arrangem ent, and h i s a r t i s a n s k i l l f o r th e ex e c u tio n o f b e a u tif u l
1 4
-p . 124) The movement w ill do more to so lv e th e -problem of
s o c ia l u n rest, th an s o c ia l a g i t a t i o n which to o o fte n r a i s e s hopes
t h a t a re d e s tin e d t o be u n re a liz e d to th e g r e a te r d isap p o in tm en t
o f th e la b o u rin g nan . But a s o lu tio n could be found in g iv in g
men such an I n t e r e s t In t h e i r l i f e work, t h a t t h e i r c h ie f
p le a s u re would be found In t h e i r o c c u p a tio n , t o which th e y would
d a lly r e tu r n anxious t o accom plish what f a tig u e and tim e fo rc e d
them t o lea v e u n fin is h e d on th e p rev io u s day.
The men who worked on th e C a th e d ra ls of th e t h i r t e e n t h
c e n tu ry co u ld d i r e c t th e a r t i s a n s o f to -d a y to th e h a p p in e ss
th ey se e k . Every man who worked around a c a th e d ra l had th e oppor
t u n i t y of g iv in g e x p ressio n t o th e b e s t t h a t was in him. "Every
p o rtio n o f th e C a th e d ra l was to be made a s b e a u tif u l a s th e mind
o f man could co n ceiv e, h i s t a s t e could p la n and h i s hands could
a c h ie v e ." ( l a l s h , "The T h ir te e n th , The G re a te s t of C e n tu rie s " ,
p . 125) Thus th e c a r p e n te r ex p ressed h im se lf in th e woodwork,
and th e b lack sm ith dem onstrated h i s s k i l l in th e h in g e s and la tc h
f o r th e door. Each man was In r e a l i t y a d e s ig n e r and an ex ec u to r
o f th e work a ssig n ed t o him. The sen se o f co m p etitio n must have
s t i r r e d th o se men t o th e d ep th s o f t h e i r s o u ld , y e t th e y were
not In sp ire d by a h e a r t l e s s r i v a l r y t h a t c ru sh e s when I t su c c e e d s,
b ut th e y were Inflam ed w ith a d e s ir e to do th e b e s t p o s s ib le w ith
o ut b e l i t t l i n g th e e f f o r t s o f o th ers,. Those men tu rn e d w ith c o n f i
dence t o to d f o r Whose g lo ry th ey lab o u red ; and th ey found a Joy
town and fellow -townsm en. To forw ard a r t and a r c h i t e c t u r e ,
te c h n ic a l sc h o o ls developed around th e c a th e d r a ls .
E d u catio n : In th e Middle Ages, th e p e a san t was g iv en l i t t l e
o r no b o o k -le a rn in g . Medieval e d u c a tio n was in th e hands of th e
e c c l e s i a s t i c s , and th e sc h o o ls were o r ig i n a l l y founded f o r th o se
who Intended to devote t h e i r l i v e s to th e Church i n t e r e s t s . By
th e end o f th e tw e lf th c e n tu ry , p r o fe s s o r s formed a g u ild to
which was given th e name " u n iv e r s ity " . t r e a t c e n tr e s o f le a r n in g
f lo u r is h e d everyw here, and were g e n e ra lly connected w ith c a th e d r a ls ,
m o n a ste rie s and g u ild s . Both s tu d e n ts and m a ste rs were s u b je c t to
g u ild a u th o r ity . These e a r ly C ath o lic U n iv e r s itie s were in th e
s t r i c t e s t se n se p o p u la r and d em ocratic i n s t i t u t i o n s . In a l l edu
c a tio n a l m a tte r s , th e r e was u n iv e r s a l confidence in th e judgment
and j u s t i c e o f th e Papacy from th e n in th cen tu ry t o th e tim e o f
th e c o u n te r-re fo rm a tio n in th e s ix te e n th .
To a s s i s t th e poor in o b ta in in g th e b e n e f its of le a r n in g ,
th e Church ( i n th e T hird L ateran C ouncil A.B. 1179) p re s c rib e d
t h a t a b e n e fic e be assig n ed in every c a th e d ra l church t o a sc h o o l
m a ste r, who would te a c h th e poor c l e r i c s and s c h o la rs f r e e of
ch arg e. ‘Thus began th e System o f f r e e p u b lic s c h o o ls . 11 The de
mocracy o f le a rn in g a s o f in d u s try was th e n a tu r a l r e s u l t o f th e
gen u in ely dem ocratic s p i r i t of th e C a th o lic Church which h a s nev er
changed s in c e th e U a llle a n fish erm an was made th e lo c k on which
C h ris t c o n s tru c te d i t . ” (H u ssle in , ’'D em ocratic I n d u s tr y " , p . 245)
- 16
-o f te a c h in g everyb-ody t -o read and w r i te , b u t I t was a tr a in i n g
o f th e f a c u l t i e s so t h a t th e In d iv id u a l n ig h t e x p re ss what was
b e s t in him. l e t th e age produced a D ante, th e most u n iv e r s a l
o f p o e ts , whose "D lvina ConuaedlaH i s more th a n a m ag n ifice n t
poem, o r th e opening o f a n a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e , i t I s one o f th o s e
r a r e and solemn monuments o f th e m in d 's power which measure and
a t t e s t to what i t can a t t a i n .
L i t e r a t u r e ; L a tin was u n iv e r s a lly known and L a tin hymns
e x e rte d an u p l i f t i n g and c u l t u r a l in flu e n c e on th e masses. These
hymns a r e among th e g r e a te s t poems e v er w r itte n . They were th e
e x p re ssio n of th e r e l ig i o u s s e n tim e n ts t h a t a r i s e In th e s o u l
under v a ry in g circu m stan ces—Joy, sorrow , fe rv o u r and e c s ta s y .
The D ies I r a e i s reg ard ed by modern L a tin s c h o la rs t o be a trium ph
o f L a tin l i t e r a t u r e . The famous S ta b a t M ater o f Jacapone da Todi
h as been c o n sid e re d by some c r i t i c s a s q u ite a s b e a u t i f u l a s th e
D ies I r a e in p o e tic e x p re ss io n , though below i t a s p o e try because
o f th e l e s s e r su b lim ity o f i t s s u b je c t. Even d is tin g u is h e d p ro
f e s s o r s o f philosophy and th eo lo g y o c c a s io n a lly in d u lg ed them selves
in th e p r iv ile g e of w ritin g L a tin hymns and, what i s more s u r
p r is i n g , succeeded in making p o e try o f a v ery h ig h o r d e r. Among
th e s e a r e S t. Bonaventure, th e F ra n c isc a n , and S t . Thomas of
Aquin, th e Dominican. S t . B onaventure*s hymns on th e P a ssio n and
G ross o f C h ris t re p re s e n t what h a s been most b e a u t i f u ll y sung on
th e s e s u b je c ts in a l l th e a g e s. S t . Thomas' p o e tic work c e n te r s
so devoted t h a t th e com position o f th e o f f ic e f o r I t s f e a s t was
co n fid ed t o him by th e Pope. Doctor James J . Walsh pays t r i b u t e
to th e genius o f S t . Thomas o f Aquin In th e fo llo w in g words:
* I t h a s Indeed been c o n sid e re d alm ost m irac u lo u s, t h a t
t h i s pro fo u n d est of th in k e r s sh o u ld have been a b le t o a t t a i n
w ith in th e bounds o f rhyme and rhythm , th e a c c u ra te e x p re ssio n
o f some of th e most i n t r i c a t e th e o lo g ic a l th o u g h ts t h a t have e v er
been ex p ressed , and y e t should have accom plished h i s purpose w ith
a c l a r i t y o f language, a s im p lic ity and d ir e c tn e s s o f w ords, a
p o e tic sympathy o f f e e l i n g , and an u t t e r d e v o tio n , t h a t make h i s
hymns g r e a t l i t e r a t u r e in th e b e s t se n se o f th e w ord.”
Music: The music o f th e c e n tu ry i s a s g r e a t a trium ph a s
any o th e r f e a tu r e o f i t s accom plishm ent. The g e n e ra tio n t h a t
produced c a th e d r a ls gave t o th e w orld t h a t most s u it a b l e m usical
form f o r c o n g re g a tio n a l s in g in g , th e G regorian c h a n t, which
reached th e acme o f i t s development in th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry .
And t h e C a th o lic Church, a f t e r having t r i e d modem m usic, i s r e
tu rn in g to t h i s m edieval m usical mode f o r d e v o tio n a l e x p re ssio n .
The Church music gave b i r t h t o th e p o p u lar music o f th e tim e w ith
i t s " g le e songs* and " fo lk m usic*, and in s p ir e d tro u b a d o u r p o e ts
who chanted th e leg en d s t o p e a s a n ts d ep riv ed o f books.
P rose: The v a s t w ealth o f p ro se l i t e r a t u r e in c lu d e s th e
p h ilo so p h ic and th e o lo g ic p ro se o f S a in t Thomas A quinas, V incent
o f B eauvais, th e e n c y c lo p e d is t, and John Duns S co tu s; th e numerous
1 8
-and l i t e r a r y -and s c i e n t i f i c works o f a l l d e s c r ip tio n . The energy
and c u ltu r e o f th e p e rio d o u s t have been e x c e p tio n a l, s in c e t h i s
g r e a t s to r e o f l i t e r a r y p ro d u c tio n s was l e f t t o f u tu r e g e n e ra tio n s
one hundred and f i f t y y e a rs b e fo re p r in tin g was in v e n te d .
Mystery P la y s : Nor d id th e Church f o rg e t t o p ro v id e a
so u rce of amusement, a form o f drama, t h a t M s been p o p u la r in
a l l a g e s. The m ystery p la y s were s y s te m a tic a lly o rg an ized to
c e le b r a te r e l ig i o u s f e s t i v a l s in an a p p ro p ria te manner. As no
p r i n t i n g p r e s s e x is te d , and books could n o t e a s ily be o b ta in e d
by th e m asses, th e s e p la y s pro v id ed an en jo y ab le means o f edu
c a tin g th e p e o p le . About th e b i b l i c a l n a r r a t i v e s was woven a
th re a d o f humour t h a t enhanced th e i n t e r e s t . A ll th e town people
were engaged in th e n ec e ssa ry p re p a ra tio n f o r th e p ro d u c tio n o f
th e plays* This provided a d iv e rs io n from th e r o u tin e o f t h e i r
r e g u la r l i v e s . The e le v a te d th o u g h ts in s p ir e d must have p rev en ted
much debasing d is s ip a tio n among th e p o o re r c la s s e s .
The Bookmen: Medieval books had to be made by hand, th e
parchment u se d , b in d in g , c u ttin g o f s h e e t s , copying o f s c r i p t ,
were a l l hand work. I t was p a r t o f th e l i f e in every m onastery
t o make books, and f o r s e v e ra l h o u rs d a lly th e monks lab o u red in
th e s c rip to riu m , where m an u sc rip ts were c a r e f u lly c o p ied , l a t e r ,
s c r ib e s were found w herever e d u ca tio n was c a r r ie d on. The number
o f books was n o t l a r g e , but th e y were works o f a r t in every
p a r t i c u l a r . C lo se ly a l l i e d to th e work o f th e s c r i b e m s t h a t o f
e e n tu ry a re amongst th e most b e a u tif u l examples o f m edieval a r t
i n e x is te n c e . Men a p p re c ia te d th e books f o r t h e i r v a lu e and
b e a u ty .
L ib r a r ie s : The L ib r a r ie s were connected w ith a m onastery
o r u n i v e r s i t y . Reading and stu d y was an im portant p a r t o f a monk’s
l i f e , i’he books were k ep t in g r e a t cupboards in t h e c l o i s t e r , b u t
a s th e number in c re a s e d , s p e c ia l rooms were s e t a p a r t where th ey
were s to r e d . A fte r th e fo u rte e n th c e n tu ry , th e u n i v e r s i t i e s used
s e p a ra te b u ild in g s a s l i b r a r i e s .
Kings and p rin c e s began c o l l e c t i n g books and th u s was l a i d
th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e g re a t l i b r a r i e s o f Europe. The p r o f e s s o r s
a t Sorbonne bequeathed t o th e l i b r a r y w hatever books th ey c o l
l e c t e d , so in tim e i t became th e b e s t l i b r a r y in Europe. Manu
s c r i p t s were borrowed from o th e r l i b r a r i e s and were co p ied by t h e
s c r i b e s , o r d u p lic a te c o p ie s were made and exchanged t o a v o id th e
r i s k e n ta ile d in th e Journey from p la c e to p la c e . I n 1212, th e
d io cesan c o u n c il o f F a r ls a d v ise d r e l ig i o u s to len d books, and t h e
p r a c tic e in c re a se d and promoted t h e sp read o f le a r n in g , from th e
e a r l i e s t tim e s , books on m sdleine were c o lle c te d a t th e H otel
b le u , th e g re a t h o s p ita l o f P a r i s . I t p o ssessed t h e f i r s t h o s p i
t a l l i b r a r y .
C ity H o s p ita ls : Bf h i l e th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry was engaged
In s o lv in g th e problems o f t h e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n and o f te c h n ic a l
ed u catio n f o r th e m asses, and was occupied w ith th e q u e s tio n s o f
2 d
-and more d i r e c t l y s o c ia l -and h u m an itarian works were not neg
l e c t e d .'1 (Walsh, “The T h ir te e n th , The t r e a t e s t o f C e n tu rie s " ,
p . 337)
C h r is tia n c h a r ity le d people to open t h e i r h o rn s to c a re
f o r th e s ic k s tr a n g e r w ith a sen se o f human duty more b in d in g
th a n In th e modem w orld, and w ith a s o li c i t u d e n ot u n d ersto o d
In our c o ld e r age. But a s numbers of s ic k and In ju re d In c rea sed
t h e i r c a re became a problem o f deep im po rtan ce, and a movement
began which h a s proved t o be o f f a r- re a c h in g p r a c t i c a l benevo
le n c e . Pope Innocent I I I (1204) e s ta b lis h e d th e m other c i t y
h o s p it a l a t Rome* Bishops o f many c e n tr e s In th e C h r is tia n is e d
c o u n tr ie s were in s p ir e d by t h e in flu e n c e and enthusiasm o f t h e
pope, who had humbled em perors and deposed k in g s , and y e t could
tu r n an eye o f sympathy tow ards th e poor and s i c k , and se e k th e
h e l p l e s s and n e g le c te d on th e s t r e e t s , and save fo rsa k e n c h ild r e n
from d e a th in th e w a te rs.
i t th e same tim e , L e p ro s e rie s were e re c te d where le p e r s
might re c e iv e ad eq u ate and s a n ita r y a t t e n t i o n , and be is o l a t e d
t o p re v e n t th e sp read o f th e d is e a s e . i s a r e s u l t o f t h i s s e g re
g a tio n , le p ro sy d isa p p e are d w ith in th e n ext th r e e c e n tu r ie s ,
le s s o n s in s a n it a t i o n and p ro p h y la x is , given t o th e world in th e
t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry , a r e only now b e a rin g f r u i t , because d u rin g
th e in te rv e n in g c e n tu r ie s la c k o f knowledge l e d t o ignorance o f
t h e i r Importance and advantage.
o f r e l ig i o u s c o n g re g a tio n s, which would be devoted t o th e c a re
o f th e s ic k and th e ransoming of c a p tiv e s tak e n by th e S aracen s.
The s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g s p i r i t o f th e s e r e l ig i o u s was e q u a lle d by
t h e i r z e a l in a ro u sin g an i n t e r e s t in poor c a p tiv e s . I t was in
t h i s p e rio d t h a t th e r e l ig i o u s h a b i t s worn by women o r ig in a te d .
The co v erin g o f th e head was In tro d u ced to p rev e n t sp re a d o f
d is e a s e . And s tr a n g e ly enough th e custom h a s been adopted f o r
n u rse s and d o c to rs in th e o p e ra tin g rooms o f our modern h o s p i t a l s .
S o c ia l L ife P r io r t o th e Reform ation
From a stu d y o f th e r e c o rd s , w i l l s , and h o m ilie s o f th e
p e rio d , v a lu a b le in fo rm atio n re g a rd in g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s may be
g lean ed . A l i v e l y f a i t h In flu en c e d every d e t a i l o f l i f e and
bound to g e th e r th e s o c ia l and s u p e rn a tu ra l I n t e r e s t s o f men.
B i l l s , in d ic a tin g t h a t th e home and e s t a t e p assed from g en er
a tio n s from f a t h e r to so n , b e a r w itn e ss to th e s tr e n g th o f th e
fam ily s p i r i t , so weakened in p re s e n t s o c ie ty . C h a rita b le i n s t i
t u t i o n s and th e church were endowed by th e w ealth y , because s o c ia l
a c t i v i t i e s g a th e re d about th e s e I n s t i t u t i o n s . R e lig io u s o rd e rs
ca red f o r th e s i c k , p o o r, and a f f l i c t e d ; conducted in n s f o r
t r a v e l e r s ; and perform ed th e s e r v ic e s now d e le g a te d to l e d Cross
W orkers. ^'hey were b ut t r u s t e e s o f th e accum ulated w ealth o f
o th e r s , and as in d iv id u a ls th e y enjoyed no lu x u ry .
T ra v e l and communication were o f te n e s s e n t i a l t o th e s p i r i t
2 2
-t o c o n s -tru c -t and r e p a i r roads and b r id g e s , and -t o b u ild h o s p i-t a l s
and ch u rch es, th e church c o n sid e red c o n tr ib u tio n s f o r t h i s p u r
pose to be a form o f alms b e n e f itin g th e s o u l o f th e donor. S a in t
Thomas A quinas, who h a s expounded th e te a c h in g o f th e Church r e
g a rd in g s o c ia l l i f e , proved t h a t ’’A lm sgiving i s a p r e c e p t," s in c e
th e p re c e p t o f b r o th e rly lo v e im p lie s ’’w e ll-d o in g ’’ t o th e helg h b o r
when he i s in need. And S a in t P au l sa y s: "Bear ye one a n o th e r ’s
b u rd e n s.” (S a l. V I, 2)
" In P i e r s Plowman” (1 3 9 8 ), W illiam Langland v iv id ly p ic tu re d
th e s o c ia l c o n d itio n s o f th e ag e. While he re c o g n ise d th e e v i l s ,
he never l o s t f a i t h in Sod n o r r e s p e c t f o r r e l i g i o n . The Black
Death t h a t d e v a s ta te d Europe, r e s u l t e d in u n iv e r s a l s u f f e r in g and
p o v e rty . Although th e "Plowman" c r i t i c i z e s o f f i c i a l s , le g a l and
e c c l e s i a s t i c , who abused o f t h e i r r i g h t s o f p o s it i o n , y e t he i n
s i s t s on th e s o c ia l d u t i e s , and r e g a rd s t h a t r e l i g i o n v a in which
I s not m an ifested in good w orks. Like Erasmus and S a in t Thom s
More, Langland had v is io n s o f l o f t i e r t h i n g s , and b ew ailed th e
abuses he beheld around him. As K. S . S palding remarks in h i s book,
"C h ap ters in S o c ia l H is to ry ” , p . 226: "Such a s to r y co u ld have
been w r itte n only f o r a people whose r e l i g i o n was in tim a te ly bound
up w ith t h e i r c i v i c , s o c i a l , and workaday l i v e s . "
Monopolies and Usury: U n fo rtu n a te ly , a s th e g u ild s were
b ein g p e r fe c te d , t h e r e g ra d u a lly a ro se a c l a s s o f m erchants who un
sc ru p u lo u sly s e iz e d a monopoly on c e r t a i n goods o f exchange, which
s p l r l t o f greed and © raving f o r w ealth developed, and th e ex
trem es o f w ealth and po v erty became s e p a ra te d by a l a s t i n g
b a r r i e r . The poor were d e sp ise d and downtrodden w hile th e r ic h
gained In power and a rro g a n c e . Trade and commerce came t o be
co n sid e red a s d is g r a c e f u l and d ish o n e s t b u sin e s s owing to abuses
In tro d u ced by w ealthy t r a d e r s . M oreover, th e I n te r n a tio n a l
tr a d e r e s u l t i n g from th e C rusades, Involved exchanging and lo a n in g
o f money. Money-changers soon e s ta b lis h e d th e s o c ia l d is o r d e r o f
u s u ry . ''Woe to th e day when th e r e i n s f e l l In to hands o f w e a lth ,
and gold began to b e g e t e v e r more and more gold.19 w rote
Wimpheling. A b i t t e r f e e lin g f o r th e u su rio u s Jews s e iz e d th e
h ig h and th e low, and th ey were banished from many c i t i e s , th e
innocent s u f f e r in g w ith th e g u i l t y . The Popes o f th e age In t u r n
sought to r e s t r a i n th e rag e o f C h ristism r u l e r s a g a in s t th e Jew ish
p o p u lace. To re p la c e th e u s u rio u s system w ith a J u s t method of
le n d in g and borrow ing money, banks were e s ta b lis h e d , and th e Church
favoured and encouraged th e movement.
The Mendicant F r i a r s : The te a c h in g o f th e Church re g a rd in g
money q u e s tio n s would have been I n e f f e c tiv e w ith o u t th e power o f
example. As th e monks o f S a in t B enedict ta u g h t t h e wandering
n a tio n s o f Europe th e C h r is tia n id e a l o f la b o u r, so when th e
C h r is tia n n a tio n s became wedded t o w ealth and lu x u ry , i t was S a in t
F ra n c is o f A s s is i (1181-1226) who won th e h e a r t s o f th e people
from th e greed and p le a s u re of th e w orld. H is s p i r i t i s e n t i r e l y
2 4
-modern l i f e . He b elie v e d t h a t h ap p in ess c o n s is ts In com plete
freedom from u n s a ti s f i e d d e s i r e s . To him duty was s e l f - d e n i a l ,
n o t s e lf - s e e k in g under any p r e t e x t . H is supreme id e a l was
li v i n g th e g o sp e l. The C h r is tia n p eo p les o f th e t h i r t e e n t h
c e n tu ry , in d eed , b e lie v e d th e g o sp e l; but th e m a jo rity f a i l e d
t o u n d erstan d and t o p r a c t i s e i t , and th e chasm between t h e o r e t i c a l
and p r a c t i c a l f a i t h became w ider and w ider in a l l ra n k s o f s o c ie ty .
S a in t F r a n c is , who fo rg o t h im se lf to th in k o f o t h e r s , i s a s f a r a s
p o s s ib le from th e in d iv id u a lism p re v a le n t to -d a y . Matthew Arnold
s a id o f h is work: ”He tra n sfo rm ed monachism by u p ro o tin g th e
s ta tio n a r y monk, d e liv e r in g him from th e bondage o f p r o p e rty ,
and sending him a s a m endicant f r i a r , t o be a s tr a n g e r in th e
most crowded h a u n ts of men, t o co n so le them and t o do them good.
P overty and s u f f e r in g a r e th e c o n d itio n o f th e m u ltitu d e , th e
Immense m a jo rity o f mankind; and i t was tow ards t h i s p eo p le t h a t
h i s s o u l y e a rn e d .” (Walsh, ”The T h ir te e n th , The S r e a te s t of
C e n tu rie s” , p . 256) He s tr ip p e d h im se lf l i t e r a l l y o f e v e ry th in g
and liv e d a l i f e of po v erty in im ita tio n of C h r i s t . Me urged
h i s fo llo w e rs t o preach by t h e i r example, and th u s le a d men back
t o th e s im p lic ity and th e p u r ity o f th e i d e a l s s e t f o r t h in th e
g o s p e l. P ro fe s s o r Sm. James o f H arvard w rote: ”The p re v a le n t
f e a r o f po v erty among th e ed u cated c l a s s e s i s th e w orst m oral
d is e a s e from which our c i v i l i z a t i o n s u f f e r s . ” ( F e ld e r, ”I d e a l s
o f S t . F ra n c is ” , p . v l i ) Men o f I d e a ls a r e u s u a lly men o f working
and Bonaventure s a i l e d S a in t F ra n c is " F a th e r11, and D ante, V o lta ,
G alvani and Ampere were members o f h i s T h ird Order founded f o r
s e c u la r s . R e lig io u s women fo llo w in g h i s example belong t o t h e
o rd e r he founded w ith S a in t C la ir e a s th e fo u n d re ss.
About th e same tim e in t h e w e st, S a in t Dominic founded an
o rd e r o f mendicant f r i a r s , who a ls o championed s t r i c t p o v e rty ,
b u t among th e Dominicans le a rn in g was t o re p la c e th e s im p lic ity
which S a in t F ra n c is d e s ir e d f o r h i s so n s. The m o n a ste rie s o f
th e s e two g r e a t o rd e rs a t t r a c t e d g e n tle s p i r i t s , and have In a l l
ages been homes of le a r n in g and o f p i e t y , where u n s e lf is h men
le a r n to th in k l e s s o f th em selv es and more o f t h e i r la b o u r.
The more th a n human I n t e l l e c t u a l acumen of Thom s o f Aquin
won f o r him th e t i t l e o f " A n g e lic a l D octor", and h i s suprem ely
u n s e lf is h c h a r a c te r m erited from t h e Church t h e t i t l e o f " S a in t" .
Pope Leo X III I n s i s te d t h a t t h i s g r e a t Dominican be th e s ta n d a rd
o f te a c h in g In philosophy and th e o lo g y , a s he c o n sid e re d him to
have l a i d th e fo u n d atio n s to n e o f C h r is tia n A p o lo g e tic s. H is
c o -o rd in a tio n o f s e c u la r and r e l i g i o u s knowledge s a t i s f i e s th e
human mind b e t t e r th a n any o th e r system o f p h ilo so p h ic th o u g h t.
The g e n e ra tio n s o f th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry fa c e d s o c ia l
problem s more s e rio u s th an o u r s , f o r th e common p eo p le had no
r i g h t s a t I t s b e g in n in g , y e t sec u re d them w ith such s a t i s f a c t i o n
a s to la y th e fo u n d atio n o f th e modern l i b e r t y . In h i s tre a tm e n t
2 6
-« l t h th@ I n d iv id u a l, S a in t Thomas a tta in e d th e trium ph o f h i s
work In E th ic s . Pope Leo s a id : 11 Domestic and c i v i l s o c ie ty ,
even, which, as a l l s e a , I s exposed t o g r e a t danger from th e
p lag u e o f p e rv e rs e o p in io n s , would c e r t a i n l y enjoy a f a r more
p e a c e fu l and a s e c u re r e x is te n c e I f more wholesome d o c tr in e were
ta u g h t in th e academ ies and sc h o o ls —one more in conform ity w ith
t h e te a c h in g o f th e Church, such a s i s c o n ta in e d in th e works of
S a in t Thomas A quinas.
"F or th e te a c h in g s of S a in t Thomas on th e t r u e meaning o f
l i b e r t y —which a t t h i s tim e i s running in to l i c e n s e - o n th e d iv in e
o r ig i n o f a l l a u th o r ity , on laws and t h e i r f o r c e , on t h e p a te r n a l
and J u s t r u le of p r in c e s , on obedience t o th e h ig h e r pow ers, on
m utual c h a r ity one tow ards a n o th e r—on a l l o f th e s e and k in d re d
s u b je c ts , have v ery g re a t and in v in c ib le fo rc e to o v e rtu rn th o s e
p r in c ip le s o f th e new o rd e r which was w ell known t o be dangerous
t o th e p ea c e fu l o rd e r of th in g s and t o p u b lic s a f e t y . ” (Walsh,
“The T h ir te e n th , The G re a te s t o f C e n tu rie s ” , p . 279)
D e stru c tio n o f th e Peace of C h r is t
And Medieval U nity
I . The R enaissance
A fte r th e C rusades, an e x tra o rd in a ry en thusiasm f o r a n tiq u ity
s e t In . I t was accompanied by b o u n d less freedom o f o p in io n , and a
I n tro d u c tio n o f th e breakdown in C h r is tia n M orals: The
R enaissance f i r s t appeared in th e A rt a t F lo re n c e , where beauty
o f form was p r e f e r r e d to pure C h r is tia n i n s p i r a t i o n . T h is le d
t o a r e tu r n to n a tu re in q u e st o f b e a u ty , which in I t s e l f was
not condemned by th e Church. The p a ssio n f o r l i t e r a t u r e ,
quickened and v i v i f i e d by th e recovery o f b u rle d c l a s s i c B a rb ie s,
in to x ic a te d th e g e n e ra tio n , and o fte n le d to lic e n s e s o f an ob
je c tio n a b le n a tu r e . The in v e n tio n o f th e p r in t i n g p r e s s o ffe re d
a means t o d isse m in a te th e new ly-found knowledge. L i t e r a tu r e
never a t t a i n e d such a degree o f o b s c e n ity . The most hideous
v le e s o f a n tiq u ity were g l o r i f i e d , and con seq u en tly most infamous
v ic e s reig n ed w ithout concealm ent. In th e days of i t s triu m p h ,
th e R enaissance s a c r i f i c e d duty and looked up t o b e au ty . Some
o f th e h ig h e st d i g n i t a r i e s o f th e Church l o s t a l l se n se o f
C h r is tia n I d e a ls , and many became s ta in e d by pagan v ic e s .
Humanism: "To r a i s e th e humanity w ith in o n e s e lf t o th e
h ig h e s t degree o f i n t e n s i t y , t o know a l l , t o ex p erien ce a l l , —such
i s th e m oral law o f humanism; a law t h a t I s i n m arvellous concord
w ith th e a s p ir a tio n s and la c k o f s c ru p le s to which th e p o l i t i c a l
and s o c i a l c o n d itio n s gave r i s e i n t h e I t a l y o f th e f i f t e e n t h
c e n tu r y .11 (A. B a u d r l l l a r t , 11 The C a th o lic Church” , p . 16) Y l l l a r l
-as-a c t i v i t y accompanied by m oral decay.'* In F ran ce, Babel& is aw
a i t e d a l l t h a t g l o r i f i e s human p e r s o n a lity w ith i t s p r id e , and
i t s d e s ir e f o r th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f every i n s t i n c t by p le a s u re in
a l l I t s form s.
A ttach on F a ith : R e v e la tio n proved t o be an o b s ta c le t o
th e r e ig n of re a so n , hence began th e a t t a c h on th e te a c h in g s of
C h r i s t i a n i t y , idileh some h u m anists t r e a t e d w ith d is d a in . R id i
c u le was heaped on t h a t essence o f C ath o licism : th e p r in c ip l e
of a u th o r ity and th e m o rtify in g o f t h e s e n s e s . S c h o la stic is m
was mocked and th e fo u n d a tio n s o f C a th o lic th eo lo g y w ere a tta c k e d .
The monks were n e c e s s a r ily d e sp ise d s in c e they re p re s e n te d th e
C h r is tia n id e a l of re n u n c ia tio n . In h i s com parison o f th e human
i s t s w ith th e monks whom th e y r i d i c u l e d , A. B r a n d r l l l a r t sa y s:
(p. 21) "The hum anists pushed in d iv id u a lism even t o th e d e n ia l
o f a l l dependence and a l l bonds; th e monks, by t h e i r vow of
obedience and co n sta n cy , fought and overcame independence. The
hum anists e x a lte d p rid e and w it; th e monks opposed them w ith
h u m ility and v o lu n ta ry abasem ent. The h u m anists g l o r i f i e d r ic h e s ;
th e monks took a vow o f p o v e rty . The hum anists J u s t i f i e d s e n su a l
p le a s u re ; th e monks m o rtif ie d t h e i r f l e s h w ith penance and
c h a s t i t y . " As th e f a i t h o f th e people f o r th e tim e b ein g had be
come weakened, in iq u ity became ram pant in I t a l y .
E c c l e s i a s t i c a l S upport o f Hum anists: l e t a hum anist was
might even ascend th e p u lp it and d e liv e r a f u n e ra l o r a tio n o r a
m arriage sermon. This exaggerated fav o u r ended in th e dow nfall
o f th e h u m an ists. Soon th ey became greedy f o r g o ld , and p uffed
up w ith p r id e . Youths were -exposed to scandalous e x c e s se s , and
t o I n f i d e l i t y th ey soon added im m orality. U nconsciously th e
Church d i g n i t a r i e s sup p o rted th e h u m an istic movement by e n t e r
t a in in g a t t h e i r voluptuous c o u rts th o se people o f semi-pagan
le a n in g s , who c a s t sco rn on a l l t h a t remained d e a r t o th e p e o p le .
The Paganism o f Humanism; Soon th e n a tio n a l c u ltu r e was
th re a te n e d . The f r e e and spontaneous use o f I n t e l l e c t , supposedly
b u t f r e s h ly awakened, le d to an ap p eal to th e pagan a n c ie n ts , f o r
th e s o lu tio n o f th e g r e a t problems which C h r is tia n ity had so lv ed
f o r p reced in g g e n e ra tio n s . The Renaissance i s opposed to th e
s p i r i t of C h r is tia n ity in i t s r e tu r n to th e s p i r i t o f pagan an
t i q u i t y . T his i t i s t h a t p la c e s th e I t a l i a n R enaissance a t th e
a n tip o d e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . The C h r is tia n concept o f l i f e i s based
on th e id e a o f a f a l l e n n a tu re t h a t i s c o rru p t and reduced to
fe e b le n e s s ; on th e id e a o f s in and th e n e c e s s ity o f d iv in e h e lp
to av o id s i n , w hile th e a n c ie n t pagan concept o f l i f e i s based
on th e d e i f ic a t io n o f n a tu re i t s e l f , p h y s ic a l and human. C h r i s t i
a n ity p la c e s th e s u p e rn a tu ra l o rd e r above th e n a t u r a l , and humanism
ta k e s no account o f th e s u p e rn a tu ra l o rd e r. Bor pagans, fo llo w in g
n a tu re i s th e means to th e f i n a l good, s in c e f o r them th e r e i s
n o th in g above n a tu re and re a so n . Too many hum anists in flu e n c e d
3 0
-n a tu r e , i t s power a-nd e f fic a c y a s a mea-ns t o a l l e-nds.
Humanism o u ts id e I t a l y : Germany, England and P rance were
o rg an ise d S t a t e s w ith le g itim a te governing powers and a u th o r ity
worthy o f r e s p e c t . f h e masses were n e ith e r dem oralized n o r un
c h r i s t i a n iz e d a s in I t a l y , 'th e re fo re th e R enaissance movement
in th e s e c o u n tr ie s d id n ot te n d t o paganism h u t le d t o C h r is tia n
refo rm s. In Germany, reform ing z e a l s c a tte r e d l i b r a r i e s and
em ptied u n i v e r s i t i e s , u n t i l i t s fu ry was s p e n t. The s p i r i t o f
P u rita n ism in England had no a f f i n i t y w ith c l a s s i c c u l t u r e . At
i t s to u c h , th e world o f a r t , d ram atic p o e try , p a in tin g , and human
ism in l i f e and o u ts id e o f sch oolbooks, f e l l in to d u s t. In P ra n c e ,
R a b e la is (1490-1553) t r e a t e d th e C h r is tia n r e l i g i o n a s a creed
outw orn, and f e l l back upon a k in d o f l i b e r a l P lato n ism ; he would
le a v e men to t h e i r i n s t i n c t s and th e Joy o f l i f e . Montaigne
(1533-1592) w rote e ssa y s tin g e d w ith s c e p tic is m and disen ch an tm en t.
These two w r ite r s opened in France th e a n t l - e h r l s t i a n war which
h a s l a s t e d , w ith growing v io le n c e down t o o u r tim e .
R e s u lts : Thus freedom o f th o u g h t in s e c u la r m a tte rs le d to
independence in r e l i g i o n . C r itic is m o f th e c le rg y in c re a s e d , and
h eresy to o k r o o t and f lo u r is h e d . I n h i s bock, "R enaissance and
R eform ation", Edward M. lulm e sa y s: (p . 70) "The in s is te n c e upon
in d iv id u a lity was th e g r e a te s t of th e many f a c t o r s t h a t gave r i s e
to th e R enaissance. I t causes men t o q u e stio n th e a u th o r ity o f
e x te r n a l c o n tr o l, and in s p ir e d them t o develop t h e i r l a t e n t
