• No results found

Parental Wellness: A Case Study Exploring How Individuals Experience Parenthood and Develop Well-being Practices in their Sociopolitical Contexts.

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2020

Share "Parental Wellness: A Case Study Exploring How Individuals Experience Parenthood and Develop Well-being Practices in their Sociopolitical Contexts."

Copied!
200
0
0

Loading.... (view fulltext now)

Full text

(1)

ABSTRACT

BECKWITH, ALEXANDRA NICOLE. Parental Wellness: A Case Study Exploring How Individuals Experience Parenthood and Develop Well-being Practices in their Sociopolitical Contexts. (Under the direction of Dr. Marc A. Grimmett and Dr. Siu-Man Raymond Ting.)

The purpose of this study was to explore the parenthood experiences of counseling clients, the ways in which they promote their wellness, and how counseling impacts their wellness. An interpretive case study design was used to investigate these phenomena within the bounded case of a community counseling center. The counseling center is operated by the counselor education program of the local university and uses a wellness approach to counseling. Wellness is a guiding principle of the counseling profession and refers to “maximizing human potential through positive lifestyle choices” (Myers, 1991, p. 183; Myers & Sweeney, 2008; Roscoe, 2009). Counseling’s evidence-based model for wellness, the Indivisible Self (IS-Wel) presents wellness as a sum of five parts of oneself: social self, essential self, physical self, creative self, and coping self (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). This model has been tested on many groups, but mostly on youth, college students, and graduate student populations (Rachele, Cuddihy, Washington, & McPhail, 2013; Spurgeon & Myers, 2008, Villalba & Myers, 2008). Although the IS-Wel is a useful model for implementing wellness counseling, it largely excludes the contexts in which individuals live and social injustice that erodes wellness across

(2)

needs change during parenthood. Psychopolitical validity (PPV), the theoretical framework that informed the design, implementation, and analysis of the study, assumes that well-being and oppression contain psychological and political aspects. Wellness requires the satisfaction of conditions at personal, relational, and collective levels (Prilleltensky et al., 2008). This assertion was confirmed by the study’s finding. Findings for the first research question— How do parent clients at the community counseling center experience parenthood in their sociopolitical

contexts?— included the following themes: inherent benefits of parenting, inherent stress of parenting, and complicating forces that render parenting more stressful. Findings for the second research question— How do parent clients at the community counseling center experience wellness in their sociopolitical contexts?— included the following themes: helpful elements that mitigate the stress of parenting and enhance wellness, making meaning of wellness, and wellness practices. Findings for the third research question— How is the wellness of parent clients at a community counseling center affected by counseling services?— included one theme shared among all four participants: the ways in which counseling affects wellness. Limitations related to the current study and recommendations for policy-makers, researchers, counselors and counselor educators were shared. Recommendations for policy-makers included the need to implement more family-friendly policies, such as the provision of affordable, high quality child care to enhance parental and family wellness. Recommendations for future research included the need to further examine the relationship between child, parental, and family wellness with particular regard to diverse families, such as LGBT families, families of different faiths, and families of color and the need to explore the structural components of wellness. Implications for counselors and counselor educators included the necessity of exploring socio-political contexts when

(3)
(4)

Parental Wellness: A Case Study Exploring How Individuals Experience Parenthood and Develop Well-being Practices in their Sociopolitical Contexts

by

Alexandra Nicole Beckwith

A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Counseling and Counselor Education

Raleigh, North Carolina 2018

APPROVED BY:

Dr. Siu-Man Raymond Ting Dr. Marc A. Grimmett

Chair of Advisory Committee Co-Chair of Advisory Committee

(5)

DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to my loving family, including my amazing husband, Peter Wentz, who always believed that I could do this. He has given me the love and encouragement that I needed to engage in this study and complete it; he has also helped me to have fun and not take life (or myself) too seriously. I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Tom Beckwith and Nancy Van Hook, whose love is unconditional and strong. They have taught me to follow my dreams since I was a little girl and how to love myself and others. They have also taught me so much about what kind of parent I want to be and about how much fun being a parent can be.

I also dedicate this dissertation to the countless families, parents, and children that I have had the privilege to know as a counselor over the years. I have learned from parents who have so much love for their children that they manage to create oases of care and support in the midst of societal or family chaos. I have learned from parents who are survivors and wake up each day with the intention of being a better, more compassionate parent to their children than they had when they were growing up. I have also learned from parents who have immense patience and selflessness, as they navigate how best to help their child with autism spectrum disorder,

depression, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The parents I have known throughout my career as a counselor have inspired this study and have demonstrated how deep love can be.

Lastly, I dedicate this dissertation to the interconnection of all human beings, striving for love, acceptance, and well-being. In both my counseling work and my scholarly work, I

(6)

BIOGRAPHY

Alexandra Beckwith, who goes by Alyx, received a bachelor’s degree in international studies with a minor in anthropology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She received a master’s degree in human rights studies and a master’s degree in psychological counseling both from Columbia University. A Licensed Professional Counselor Supervisor in North Carolina, Alyx was previously a Licensed Mental Health Counselor in New York.

Alyx has worked as a clinical counselor in a variety of settings, including in clients’ homes, a children’s day treatment program, community centers, and private practice. During her doctoral program, Alyx worked as a coordinator at the Community Counseling, Education, and Research Center (CCERC), which served as a foundational component of her degree and of her career as a counselor and counselor educator. During that time, Alyx became licensed as a supervisor and attained significant supervision experience at CCERC. She also learned how to integrate social justice principles and multiculturally competent counseling into the operations of a center and how to develop the skills and knowledge of master’s students in counseling. Alyx is currently working as a counselor and supervisor at a private practice that she co-founded called Downtown Raleigh Counseling, PLLC. She continues to work part-time at a pediatric clinic, Growing Child Pediatrics, serving children, adolescents, and their families.

(7)

the U. S., Alyx entered a master’s in counseling program. Ten years later, she has built a counseling career and is completing her doctorate in counselor education with the hopes of developing new, hopeful counselors with their own stories to tell.

Alyx lives in Raleigh, NC with her husband and great love, Peter. She enjoys reading and writing, hiking and walking the beautiful trails of this great state, time with family and dear friends, music and dancing, and being involved in activism to create a more well, balanced, and respectful world for all beings. She hopes to continue to hone her counseling skills and to grow into the role of counselor educator in ways that inspire and benefit others.

(8)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my family and loved ones: my husband of two and half years Peter Wentz who makes my life happier and more fulfilled; my parents Tom Beckwith and Nancy Van Hook who have offered support, love, and wisdom throughout my entire life and along this graduate school journey; my brother and sister-in-law Zane Beckwith and Katie McLean who have led the way and inspired me to seek a PhD; and my elegant grandmother Mary Ann Beckwith who has instilled in me a great love of learning and curiosity about the world. I also wish to thank my dear in-laws Debbie and Peter Wentz, as I could not have chosen a more loving, fun, and kind family than the Wentz family. I must also thank two incredible women who are no longer with us, but who each had a profound impact on my life and on my way of seeing the world: my maternal grandmother Martha Van Hook and my maternal aunt Judy Van Hook. To say that they helped shape the woman I have become and inspired me as I was writing this dissertation would be an understatement.

I would also like to thank my wonderful dissertation chairs, Dr. Raymond Ting and Dr. Marc A. Grimmett. Dr. Ting has been my advisor since I began the program as a part-time student in the fall of 2013. He has guided me through the PhD experience with compassion and knowledge. He led me and fellow students on a fascinating study abroad trip to Beijing, China in 2015 and has led me through the dissertation process these past two years expertly. Thank you, Dr. Ting for your leadership and help throughout my doctoral journey.

(9)

Grimmett has taught me so much academically and about how to live as a more responsible member of the human community. The opportunity he gave me to work at CCERC will forever be one of the best experiences of my career. I cannot thank you enough, Dr. Grimmett, for everything.

Dr. Stanley Baker has been an extremely helpful member of my committee. He helps me to improve my writing and to strive for clear and meaningful written expression. His support throughout the process of writing a conceptual article that led to my dissertation topic was so useful and beneficial. I will hear his writing recommendations in my head each time I sit down to write. I am fortunate to have been able to take three courses with Dr. Baker and I thank him for his commitment to educating counselors and counselor educators.

Dr. Lupton-Smith has been an incredible committee member, mentor at CCERC, big sister in life, and role model. I have learned so much from her on how to be a successful woman in this profession and how to do so, while balancing a strong commitment to family. She is such a caring and loving person whose compassion is present for each and every student she

encounters. She inspires me by proving that it is possible to “have it all” and showing that a successful woman can still be kind and loving too.

(10)

learned so much from each of you! To all of the clients and families CCERC serves, thank you for trusting us to be a part of your healing experience and for teaching us so much.

I would also like to thank Trudy Murray, LMHC who taught me most everything I know about counseling and served as my internship supervisor during my master’s degree at Upper Manhattan Mental Health Center. Trudy energizes me and inspires me to provide the best counseling I can and to fight like fire for my clients and their communities in my activism work. Thank you, Trudy, for encouraging me in my doctoral journey; I would not be where I am without your guidance and direction.

Lastly, I would like to thank my fantastic friends who are too numerous to name here. My counselor education community, including the inspirational, compassionate Dr. Latonya

(11)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES………..………ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……… ………1

Wellness ………2

Parental Wellness ………..5

Research Design and Purpose of Study ………6

Theoretical Framework: Psychopolitical Validity ……….6

Significance of Study ………. ………...7

Research Questions ………..……….7

Chapter Summary ………..……….8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW …………. ……….9

Wellness ………9

Indivisible Self Model……… ………..10

Creative self……….. ………...10

Coping self ………..11

Social self... ………..12

Essential self ………. ……….13

Physical self ………13

Parenting and Wellness ………..16

Poor parental mental health ……….17

Parenting stress……….. ………..18

Contemporary issues affecting parenting stress ………...19

Additional stressors affecting parents in marginalized communities...………. ……….20

Stressors for parents of color... ………21

Stressors for single parents ………..22

Stressors for gay and lesbian parents ………...23

Parental Well-being ………23

Counseling for Parents’ Wellness………….. ………..24

Seeking counseling for wellness ………..24

The experience of wellness counseling among parents ………...25

Rationale for Study ………..………...25

Chapter Summary….. .……….……….26

CHAPTER 3: METHOD.. ………. ………...27

Purpose of Study……… ………27

Qualitative Research Design……….. ………...27

Rationale for the Use of Case Study ………28

Interpretive case study ………29

Research questions …………..………...30

Researcher Positionality and Interpretive Framework ……….30

Researcher positionality and subjectivity ………30

(12)

Theoretical framework: Psychopolitical validity ……….33

Data Collection ………. ……….35

The case: The wellness of parents at a community counseling center... ………..………...35

Sampling criteria ………37

Participants………... ………38

Procedures.. ………..40

Informed consent process ………41

Forms of data collected ………42

Interview structure and protocol ………..42

Collecting documents ………...45

Discussing visual documents ………...46

Data analysis ………47

Validation strategies.. ………..……….49

Chapter Summary. ………51

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS.. ………..……….52

Participant Profiles ………52

Participant 1 : Lawrence.. ………. ………...52

Participant 2 : Nora.. ………52

Participant 3 : Olivia. ………. ……….53

Participant 4 : Kaylie ………..53

Findings………... …………53

Research question 1. ………... 56

Inherent benefits of being a parent ………...56

Finding meaning in being a parent ………...57

Finding joy in parenthood ………58

Witnessing your child’s success ………..59

Unconditional love ………...59

Experiencing interconnection ………..59

Inherent stress of parenting ………..60

The pressures of balancing work and parenthood ………60

Relentlessness of parenting ………..62

Negative emotions... ………64

The stress of caring so much ………66

Complicating forces that render parenting more stressful …………...66

Social stressors……… ……….66

Family stressors………. ………..71

Traditional gender roles ………...76

Financial concerns ………...76

The stress of being in a faith community ……….77

Managing physical pain ………...79

Research question 2. ………80

Helpful elements that mitigate the stress of parenting and enhance wellness.. ………80

(13)

Spiritual beliefs ……. ………...83

Endeavoring to give children an intentional childhood… ………..86

Strength of the church community ………...87

Knowledge learned from work ………88

Awareness of the need for decreased pressure ………89

Racial cultural identity ……….90

Making meaning of wellness ………...90

Wellness practices. ………...91

Taking small amounts of time for self ……….91

Pursuing creative interests ………...………93

Spending time with loved ones ………94

Communicating……. ………...96

Mindfulness ………98

Finding peace and relaxation ………...98

Research question 3………. ………99

The ways in which counseling affects wellness ………..99

Providing a space ………99

Enhancing self-awareness ……….102

Resolving trauma ………..103

Reducing emotionality to improve parenting ………...104

Responses to WHOQOL-Bref... …. ………...104

Chapter Summary... ………. ………...107

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION... ………..……….108

Research Question 1.. ………..108

Inherent benefits of being a parent ……….108

Finding meaning in being a parent ……….109

Finding joy in parenthood……… ………..110

Inherent stress of parenting... ………..………...110

The pressures of balancing work and parenthood ………..111

Relentlessness of parenting ………113

Negative emotions... …………. ……….114

Complicating forces that render parenting more stressful ……….114

Social stressors... ………114

Family stressors... ………. ……….116

Traditional gender roles……… ……….118

Financial concerns... …………. ……….119

The stress of being in a faith community ………...121

Managing physical pain... ………121

Research Question 2... ………..………...122

Helpful elements that mitigate the stress of parenting and enhance wellness… ………..122

Support... ………122

Spiritual beliefs... ………..……….123

(14)

Strength of the church community ……….125

Knowledge learned from work ………..126

Awareness of the need for decreased pressure ………..127

Racial cultural identity...…. ………...128

Making meaning of wellness………. ………129

Wellness practices… ………..130

Taking small amounts of time for self ………...130

Pursuing creative interests ……….131

Spending time with loved ones ………..132

Communicating………. ……….133

Mindfulness……….………...134

Finding peace and relaxation ……….135

Research Question 3……… ………136

The ways in which counseling affects wellness ………136

Providing a space... ………136

Enhancing self-awareness ………..136

Resolving trauma... ………137

Reducing emotionality to improve parenting ………138

Limitations ………..……… ……… 140

Implications of the Findings.. ………..………...141

Implications for policy-makers………… ………..141

Implications for researchers..……….. ………...143

Implications for counselors…………. ………...144

Implications for counselor educators ……….146

Conclusion… ………... 146

REFERENCES ………. ………….147

APPENDICES ………..………….171

APPENDIX A: Consent Form………... ………172

APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol.. …………. ……… 176

APPENDIX C: Recruitment Email ………... ………178

(15)

LIST OF TABLES

(16)

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Wellness is a guiding principle of the counseling profession (Myers, 1991; Myers & Sweeney, 2008; Roscoe, 2009). The profession originated with the guidance movement and focuses on helping individuals grow into their best selves (Myers, 1991). Primary prevention (Lewis & Lewis, 1981), developmental instruction (Widick, Knefelkamp, & Parker, 1975), and wellness (Myers & Sweeney, 2008; Roscoe, 2009) are terms that have been used over the years to describe the proactive focus of counseling. In 2015, the Association for Multicultural

Counseling and Development (AMCD) released the Multicultural Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC, Ratts, Singh, Nassar-McMillan, Butler, & McCullough, 2015), which are a revision of the original multicultural counseling competencies (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). The new MSJCC emphasize wellness as central to competent counseling.

The focus on wellness in counseling also coincides with a broader push across the health services fields to promote healthy living amid rising costs of care due to risky behaviors such as smoking and fast food consumption (Tanigoshi, Kontos, & Remley, 2011). Wellness centers around the idea of a higher level of health beyond the absence of illness (Keyes, 2006; McDonald, 2011; Myers, 1991; Roscoe, 2009). Myers, Sweeney, and Witmer (2000) define wellness as, “a way of life oriented toward optimal health and well-being, in which body, mind, and spirit are integrated by the individual to live life more fully within the human and natural community” (p. 252). The current trend in wellness allows counselors to return to the

foundations of the profession (Myers & Sweeney, 2008).

(17)

their community, the degree of inequality present in society, and the health of the environment (Arcidiacono & Di Martino, 2016). Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky (2003) write of the harmful effects of “poverty, marginalization, exclusion, exploitation, and injustice” on personal,

relational, and collective well-being (p. 276). Any focus of wellness must include social justice promotion and an analysis of the broader context in which an individual lives in order to be successful, (Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2003; Prilletensky, 2012).

Counseling has largely focused on personal wellness needs (e.g., self-care, physical health, spirituality, self-regulation, and emotional awareness) (Witmer & Sweeney, 1992; Myers & Sweeney, 2004; 2008) and the primary wellness model in the field has been tested on mostly students and youth (Rachele et al., 2013; Spurgeon & Myers, 2008, Villalba & Myers, 2008). In an effort to extend counseling literature beyond the realm of individual needs towards an

examination of relational and community needs and to assess non-students, I explored the wellness of individuals who are receiving wellness counseling at a community counseling center and are parents to children living at home. Using a social justice lens and a psychopolitical validity framework, I describe the parenting and wellness experiences of parent clients and the role counseling plays in their wellness.

Wellness

(18)

Sweeney, 1992, p. 140). The various life tasks and life forces intersect to create high-quality wellness, or alternatively, to produce ill health in individuals over the life span. Although the model discusses family and community, the focus is on the individual’s needs.

The Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle developed by Myers, Witmer, and Sweeney (1996) was created to measure the Wheel of Wellness model and was empirically tested via exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (Hattie, Myers, & Sweeney, 2004). Results of these factor analyses led the researchers to reexamine the components of wellness and develop a new model, the Indivisible Self (IS-Wel, Myers & Sweeney, 2004). The IS-Wel presents wellness as the higher-order factor consisting of five second-order factors: social self, essential self, physical self, creative self, and coping self (Myers & Sweeney, 2004; 2008). Additionally, there are 17 third-order factors, which include leisure, stress management, self-worth, realistic beliefs, friendship, love, spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity, self-care, exercise, nutrition, thinking, emotions, control, work, and positive humor (Myers & Sweeney, 2008).

(19)

A more complete contextualization of wellness can be found in the community psychology literature. Using a psychopolitical validity framework, which acknowledges the oppressive, structural injustices many members of society face, Prilleltensky and Fox (2007) emphasize that wellness “depends on the just allocation of resources, opportunities, and burdens at the personal, relational, and collective levels” (p. 794). An individual cannot achieve wellness on their own and must advocate for resources and opportunities from society. The concept of personal wellness includes individual characteristics such as self-control, self-esteem, meaning and spirituality, all of which are comparable to the coping self, creative self, and essential self-components of the IS-Wel (Myers & Sweeney, 2004; 2008). Relational wellness includes social support, respect for diversity, solidarity, and democratic participation (Prilleltensky, 2008; Prilleltensky & Fox, 2007); these components are absent from the IS-Wel.

Relational wellness is conceptually aligned with several tenets of relational-cultural theory (RCT; Jordan, 2000), an influential theory within counseling (Comstock et al., 2008; Duffey & Somody, 2011). Among the core tenets of RCT are the following: “People grow through and towards relationship throughout the lifespan; movement toward mutuality rather than separation characterizes mature functioning… ; [and] mutual empathy and mutual

empowerment are at the core of growth-fostering relationships” (Comstock et al., 2008, p. 280). Relational wellness is about a shared relationship and an ability to give and receive support. As such, it is more complex than the IS-Wel’s social self, which mostly focuses on how much support an individual has (Myers & Sweeney, 2004; 2008).

(20)

understand the relationship between political and psychological factors that enhance or diminish wellness and justice” (Prilleltensky & Fox, 2007, p. 799). Social justice advocacy is necessary in order to seek equal opportunities and liberation from oppression. Prilleltensky (2012) argues that based on the presence or absence of social justice, communities, groups, and families can

flourish or languish, just as individuals can.

With regard to the flourishing of families, parenthood is a stage of life that is markedly different from that of earlier stages of life. According to Fedele et al. (1988), from the birth of the first child throughout the course of parenthood, “there are major shifts in the lives of adults, the equilibria of marriages, and the contexts of families” (p. 85). Cowan et al. (1985) contend that transitioning to parenthood causes stress for the adults involved and can lead to negative changes in family life.

Parental Wellness

There is little information available in the literature about the wellness needs of individuals who are parents. The literature on parenting mostly focuses on parenting styles (Baumrind, 1971; 1991; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 2001) and parenting skills (Hurley et al., 2014; O’Dell et al., 1982; Sanders, 1999). The research that centers on parents’

(21)

Additionally, little is known about the role that counseling plays in parents’ efforts to address wellness needs. Much of the literature on clients’ experiences of counseling does not address parents specifically (Constantine, 2002; Paulson, Truscott, & Stuart, 1999). There is scant research available on clients’ experiences with wellness counseling, in general.

Research Design and Purpose of Study

In this study, an interpretive case study approach was used to examine the phenomena of parental wellness and of counseling’s role in parental wellness. The purpose of this study was to explore how individuals experience wellness during parenthood and the role of counseling in achieving wellness. Merriam (1998) categorizes interpretive case study as one in which

conceptual categories are developed with rich data “to illustrate, support, or challenge theoretical assumptions held prior to the data gathering” (Merriam, 1998, p. 38). This type of qualitative study is inductive and focuses on understanding a theoretical question or problem as its primary goal.

My aim was to have 5-8 participants in an effort to develop a thick description of the phenomena and to account for multiple experiences. Due to a smaller than expected number of individuals who met the criteria and agreed to participate, there were only 4 participants in the study. The setting was a counselor education-run community counseling center in a city in the southeastern U. S. The center provides mental health and career counseling to community clients who have self-selected to receive counseling and are not required to meet diagnostic criteria to participate in counseling. The center uses a wellness approach grounded in multiculturalism and social justice (Grimmett, Beckwith, Lupton-Smith, Agronin, & Englert, 2017).

(22)

framework that scholars and practitioners utilize to understand oppression in society and work toward overcoming it (Prilleltensky, 2003; 2008). A major assumption of PPV is that well-being and oppression contain psychological and political aspects. In order to fulfill all three levels of personal, relational, and collective wellness needs, individuals need psychopolitical literacy (Prilleltensky & Fox, 2007). It is the task of researchers and practitioners in mental health to enhance individuals’ and communities’ psychopolitical literacy. Achieving parental wellness and family wellness requires meeting a combination of personal, relational, and collective wellness needs. This study examined how parents attending a community counseling center are meeting or not meeting their wellness needs in 2018.

Significance of the study. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are over 64 million individuals raising and residing with children under 18 years of age in the U. S. (U. S. Census, 2016). With the current trend toward wellness in counseling, as well as across

disciplines, understanding what comprises wellness for individuals who are parents is vital to meeting the needs of this population. This study provides useful information about how parents make sense of parenthood, strive for wellness, and experience wellness counseling.

Counselors working with families may find the data useful, as they work to address threats to wellness and proactively enhance individual and family well-being. For counselor educators, this study furthers the discussion about the role of wellness paradigms within counseling and expands the knowledge of how wellness needs change across the lifespan. This study also integrates social justice concerns into wellness counseling to more effectively target oppression and discrimination.

(23)

1) How do parent clients at the community counseling center experience parenthood in their sociopolitical contexts?

2) How do parent clients at the community counseling center experience wellness in their sociopolitical contexts?

3) How is the wellness of parent clients at a community counseling center affected by counseling services?

Chapter Summary

(24)

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Pan (2008), a literature review serves to evaluate and combine “various diverse and sometimes conflicting ideas and findings in the literature… to create a new, original work that provides an organized overview of the state of knowledge on a topic” (p. 1). In this chapter, a synthesis of the literature on wellness, parenting, and wellness counseling with parents is offered. Gaps in the literature, are also highlighted.

Wellness

Wellness is a foundational principle of the counseling profession (Myers, 1991; Myers & Sweeney, 2008; Roscoe, 2009). In 2014, the American Counseling Association (ACA) endorsed wellness as a major component of what the profession of counseling entails (Kaplan, Tarvydas, & Gladding, 2014). This focus on wellness, prevention, and development is often used to

describe the distinction between counseling and other helping professions (McAuliffe & Eriksen, 1999; Mellin, Hunt, & Nichols, 2011). The implication is that practitioners of social work and clinical psychology utilize a medical model centered on diagnosing pathology, while counseling uses a more holistic framework that focuses on guiding clients toward optimal health. In a qualitative study examining professional identity, Mellin et al. (2011) found that over 30% of counselor respondents stated that counseling differed from psychology or social work in the way that counseling focuses on wellness and personal empowerment.

(25)

treatment of pathology, which are the standard procedures of the medical model, ignore this zest and the full spectrum of health individuals experience (McDonald, 2011). Harari, Waehler, and Rogers (2005) argue that wellness is a more dynamic process than the passive experiencing of health. According to Myers and Sweeney (2008), exploring the full spectrum of health is how counselors are most useful: “Professional counselors seek to encourage wellness, a positive state of well-being, through developmental, preventive, and wellness-enhancing interventions” (p. 482).

Indivisible Self Model of Wellness

In the Indivisible Self (IS-Wel, Myers & Sweeney, 2004; 2008), wellness is not simply an end state, but rather a process toward achieving optimal life goals. In this way, wellness is an act of striving toward a higher level of well-being. Resulting from factor analyses to test the factor structure of wellness (Hattie, Myers, & Sweeney, 2004), the IS-Wel centers wellness as the higher-order factor and consists of five second-order factors and seventeen sub-factors. Each of the sub-factors represents an aspect of wellness an individual could choose to enhance (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). The five major factors are: creative self, coping self, social self, essential self, and physical self.

(26)

Bezner, and Steinhardt (1997), contain the construct of intellectual wellness as a major component. In the IS-Wel, intellectual wellness is not named or classified as one of the five major factors. However, the meaning of intellectual wellness is best reflected in the definition of thinking within the creative self.

The sub-factor of emotions includes self-awareness of one’s emotions, both positive and negative, and the ability to express and process them (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). Similar to thinking, earlier models of wellness include the construct of emotional wellness (Adams et al., 1997; Hettler, 1980), which is similar to the sub-factor emotions. The IS-Wel is unique in the way in which it identifies how thinking and emotions are used to achieve wellness, i.e. by facilitating the development of individuals’ creative selves.

Control is defined as the ability to set goals for oneself, believe that one can usually achieve them, and advocate for one’s needs (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). The construct of control is central to this overall model in that wellness itself is a striving toward goals and a belief that with hard work and guidance one can achieve those goals. Work, the fourth construct, within the creative self, is defined as satisfaction with what one does for work, financial security, and the ability to manage job stressors (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). In other wellness models, the construct of work occupies its own major factor of wellness, occupational wellness (Hettler, 1980; Prilleltensky et al., 2015). In the IS-Wel, work is proposed to be integral to one’s creative expression. The final construct of the creative self is positive humor, or the ability to be playful, to find humor in one’s mistakes, and to not take oneself too seriously.

Coping self. The coping self, or “the combination of elements that regulate one’s

(27)

2008, p. 485). The construct of leisure is defined by the presence and satisfaction of enjoyable activities in one’s life. Leisure activities were included in the construct of work in an earlier version of the IS-Wel, the Wheel of Wellness model (Myers et al., 2000). Leisure and work were separated into two constructs following research that showed leisure to be a separate division of Adler’s notion of a work life task (Myers & Sweeney, 2004). The sub-factor leisure is under the coping self; work is a component of the creative self in the IS-Wel (Myers & Sweeney, 2008).

The construct of stress management includes the use of coping skills, the ability to accept change, and the capacity to see it is an area for growth (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). Viewing oneself as an individual and accepting one’s flaws and imperfections defines the construct of worth: Myers and Sweeney (2004) state that increasing efficacy works to enhance self-worth. This construct is related to the fourth construct of realistic beliefs, which includes the ability to fight against perfectionism and to accept that one cannot be loved by everyone (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). The coping self, like the creative self, is defined as a combination of these constructs, which interrelate and affect each other.

(28)

Essential self. The essential self includes the ways in which an individual makes

meaning of life, other people, and oneself; it is comprised of spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity, and self-care. Spirituality is explained to be distinct from religiosity and relates to finding purpose beyond oneself and engaging in hopeful and meaningful behaviors in life (Myers and Sweeney, 2004; 2008). Previous wellness models (Hettler, 1980; Adams et al., 1997)

recognize spiritual wellness as a defining component of wellness. The IS-Wel proposes

spirituality to be one part of making sense of life and conceptualizes it as a construct within the essential self.

Gender identity and cultural identity are both described as “filters through which life experiences are seen and as influences upon how others are experienced in response to

ourselves” (Myers & Sweeney, 2004, p. 237). These constructs include feelings about self and about whether identity can be transcended if desired. Self-care centers on behaviors reflecting the ability one has to practice healthy, safe habits (Myers & Sweeney, 2008).

Physical self. Hattie, Myers, and Sweeney (2004) describe wellness as the integration of “mind, body, and spirit” (p. 363). The physical self of the IS-Wel refers to the body and the physical activities that contribute to healthy development. Exercise includes working out and stretching. Nutrition is defined as having a balanced diet and maintaining a healthy weight (Myers & Sweeney, 2008).

In the IS-Wel, wellness is multidimensional, developmental, holistic, and

(29)

Little is known, however, about the IS-Wel’s generalizability to non-student populations or to many diverse communities. Rachele, Cuddihy, Washington, and McPhail (2013) found the 5F-Wel to be a reliable test of wellness in a sample of male adolescents. The model was found to be useful among a sample of elementary school-aged children who completed an elementary version of the 5F-Wel (Villalba & Myers, 2008). Additional studies using the IS-Wel include an examination of wellness in graduate counseling students (Roach & Young, 2007), male African-American college students (Spurgeon & Myers, 2008), Korean-African-American youth (Chang & Myers, 2003), and Israeli children (Tatar & Myers, 2010).

The IS-Wel has been tested with some non-student groups, including low-income rural women (Gill, Minton, & Myers, 2010), lesbian middle-aged women (Degges-White & Myers, 2007), and a sample of transculturals, or individuals who grew up in a country(s) other than that in which they hold citizenship (McDonald, 2011). No published data has been collected

specifically using the IS-Wel with adults who are parents. Similarly, a review of published literature finds no research using the IS-Wel with predominantly Hispanic samples, Native Americans, or Arab Americans. More research with diverse groups would increase the evidence of generalizability for the model.

In addition to a lack of generalizable data, there are assumptions in the IS-Wel that constitute a particular world view and do not fully integrate diverse cultural backgrounds. For instance, spirituality, a part of the essential self, is defined as: “personal beliefs and behaviors that are practiced as part of the recognition that a person is more than the material aspects of mind and body” (Myers & Sweeney, 2008, p. 485). Such a notion may be alienating to

(30)

Also within the essential self, the sub-factor of cultural identity is described in part by “transcendence of one’s cultural identity” (2008, p. 485). This description ignores the oppression of white supremacy, ethnocentrism, and the inter-generational trauma of violent racism. For many groups, a strong racial-cultural identity is an indicator of resilience (Miller & MacIntosh, 1999) and need not be transcended.

Lastly, self-worth in the coping self includes “valuing oneself as a unique individual” (Myers & Sweeney, 2008, p. 485) without acknowledging that such a value is not universally touted among collectivist or communitarian societies. Markus and Kitayama (1991) contend that cross-culturally, individuals have significantly varied construals of self and of relationships between self and others. The IS-Wel does not sufficiently account for these different self construals.

Likewise, the IS-Wel pays little attention to social justice issues aside from the mention of social and political structures, including education, government, media, etc. that empower or disempower individuals within the institutional context. Institutionalized racism, sexism, war, and lack of access to social services are not explicitly considered in the model, nor are other traumatic events that may negatively impact wellness. In the IS-Wel, like many wellness models, there is an implied onus on the individual to improve wellness; the converse is that if one is not well, it is their fault (Prilleltensky, 2008). Social justice concepts of liberation, empowerment, and human rights could be integrated into the model to strengthen the IS-Wel.

(31)

that as such, wellness is political as well as psychological. Issues of social justice and fairness play significant roles in ensuring wellness (Prilleltensky, 2003; 2008; 2012). Prilleltensky et al. (2015) developed the Interpersonal, Community, Occupational, Physical, Psychological, Economic (I COPPE) Scale to measure multidimensional wellness and account for issues of power and fairness. N. Myers et al. (2016) used bi-factor analyses to assess the scale in a Hispanic sample. More data is needed on how useful this scale is with different groups. Parenting and Wellness

Wellness is developmental and evolves as individuals interact with families, communities, and culture (Myers, 1990). According to Myers et al. (2000), “different components of wellness are more or less salient at different points in the life span” (p. 252). Wellness has been examined among various age groups, including children (Chang & Myers, 2003; Tatar & Myers, 2010; Villalba & Myers, 2008), adolescents (Rachele et al., 2013), undergraduate students (Spurgeon & Myers, 2008), graduate students (Roach & Young, 2007), low-income rural women (Gill, Minton, & Myers, 2010), and lesbian middle-aged women (Degges-White & Myers, 2007). How and to what extent wellness is experienced during parenthood has been less examined.

Regarding the changes that adults may experience upon becoming parents, Bornstein (2002) contends that parenthood:

(32)

and large stresses and disappointments… the onrush of new stages of parenthood is relentless. (p. xii)

Exploring how parents cope with the stresses and disappointments of parenthood is necessary for understanding the health and wellness of the family. The developmental niche framework (Harkness & Super, 1994) identifies three components of health in a family: (1) the physical environment and social settings of an individual child’s life, (2) the “culturally regulated customs of child care and child rearing,” and (3) the psychology of the child's parents or

caretakers (p. 217). With regard to the psychology of parents, much has been written about parental mental illness and its effects on children (Blanch, Nicholson, & Purcell, 1994; Olfson, Marcus, Druss, Pincus, & Weissman, 2003; Smith, 2004). The topic of mental wellbeing among parents has been less explored.

Poor parental mental health. Research has focused on the effects of poor mental health in parents, most often mothers. Baydar et al. (2003) found evidence of poor parenting behaviors among mothers with certain psychological risk factors, including depression, substance abuse, and a history of abuse as a child. Mentally ill mothers in another study reported experiencing self-blame and guilt with regard to their children and believed that the daily stress of parenting was exacerbated by their mental illness (Nicholson, Sweeney, & Geller, 1998).

Both maternal and paternal depressive symptoms have been linked to difficult

(33)

problems (Amrock & Weitzman, 2014). Similarly, Ringoot et al. (2015) found that parental depression is associated with increased behavioral and emotional problems of young children.

Newland (2015) contends that “parents who are suffering from poor mental health impact the entire family system, including co-parents and children” (p. 4). One of the ways in which this negative impact on the family system may occur is through the insecure attachments of the parents. Insecurely attached adults tend to find it difficult to rely on others or to be relied upon; both of these problems can cause stress and pain within the family (Newland, 2015). In addition to parents suffering from mental health disorders, subclinical issues, including distress, fatigue, somatic symptoms, and other problems of living often go unaddressed and can impact parenting skills and outcomes in a family (Newland, 2015).

Parenting stress. In addition to focusing on poor parental mental health, theoretical and empirical contributions to the parenting literature also center on measuring the stress experienced during parenthood and its impact on child outcomes. Studies exploring the stress of parenting children on the autism spectrum (Davis & Carter, 2008), raising children in low-income families (Whiteside-Mansell et al., 2007), and parenting while managing a substance abuse disorder (Nair, Schuler, Black, & Kettinger, 2003) utilize the Parenting Stress Index (PSI, Loyd & Abiden, 1985) to quantify stress levels. The PSI was developed to “measure the relative magnitude of stress in the parent-child system” (p. 169). The impetus for exploring parents’ stress in this scale is primarily to assess and intervene on behalf of the children (Loyd & Abidin, 1985).

(34)

including loss of control over life and financial concerns. The major data point explored by the scale regards whether or not a parent finds “the role of being a parent a pleasant and rewarding experience” (Berry & Jones, 1995).

Despite its development for use with non-clinical populations, the PSS has been used most often to measure stress in parents of children with significant mental or physical health concerns, including pediatric bipolar disorder (West et al., 2009); autism spectrum disorder (Vidyasagar & Koshy, 2010); involvement with the juvenile justice system (Les Caldwell, Horne, Davidson, & Quinn, 2007); and infants in the neo-natal intensive care unit (Carter,

Mulder, & Darlow, 2007). The PSS has been used less often to explore the everyday stresses that parents experience. In addition to examining everyday stressors, research that operationalizes the major data point that the scale explores, whether being a parent is rewarding and if so, how it is rewarding would be useful in understanding parenting experiences and family health.

In addition to the weaknesses of the PSI and the PSS discussed here, neither scale

accounts for the social context in which an individual parents their children. Cabrera et al. (2000) discuss the major social trends affecting parenting in the 21st century: (a) women’s increasing participation in the labor force, (b) the widening gap between fathers who are involved with and live with their families and fathers who are not involved in their children’s lives, and (c) the changing demographics and increasing racial-cultural diversity of families living in the U.S. There are additional contemporary issues that affect parents and enhance stress levels.

Contemporary issues affecting parenting stress. In a description of the developmental needs of infants of the twenty-first century, Bronfenbrenner (2002) states that:

(35)

or more older people with whom he or she develops a strong, mutual, and irrational emotional attachment, and who are committed to her well-being and development, preferably for life” (p. 45).

Such a significant requirement puts a large onus on parents or guardians to secure healthy attachments with their children and to feel reciprocal, mutual emotions toward them. Bronfenbrenner (2002) acknowledges how challenging this requirement can be for parents: “reciprocally contingent interaction is hard work… it takes strong motivation and all your attention” (p. 46).

Parents balancing work commitments, financial difficulties, or an assortment of additional quotidian stressors may find such motivation and attention difficult to summon. Meeting family needs while fulfilling the requirements of one’s job is listed as a major primary source of stress for parents (Bronfenbrenner, 2002). Among other contemporary stressors that today’s parents must confront is technoparenting, or the act of monitoring children’s technology and social media use (Yardi & Bruckman, 2011). Terrorism and the threat of violence are other stressors parents currently face and ones which may affect how they parent. Fischer et al. (2010) find that parents who were reminded of terrorist attacks demonstrated more authoritarian

parenting attitudes and behaviors following the cue. Wilson, Lengua, Meltzoff, and Smith (2010) explain that a parent’s level of warmth and affection for their child can reduce the presence or severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms the child experiences even after indirect exposure to a terrorist event.

(36)

highlight that many differences in parenting among Americans are “linked less to philosophies and values and more to economic circumstances and changing family structure” (p. 2).

According to these authors’ recent Pew Research Center study, 47% of parents in the U.S. with family incomes less than $30,000 per year worry about their children getting shot; this statistic is double the percentage of parents with higher incomes who have such a worry (Parker et al., 2015). Likewise, 40% of lower-income parents worry about their children getting in legal troubles at some point in their lives compared to only 21% of higher-income parents who worry about their children having legal problems.

Stressors for parents of color. According to Harrell (2000), everyday stressors for people of color “must also include consideration of experiences that are related to the unique person-environment transactions involving race…. [and] are embedded within interpersonal, collective, cultural-symbolic, and sociopolitical contexts” (p. 44). McAdoo (2002) describes the challenges that African American parents often confront in addition to everyday parenting stressors: (a) inadequate financial resources for raising a family, (b) inferior educational institutions, (c) a high proportion of African American single parents, (d) many grandparent-run households, and (e) the responsibility of having to racially socialize their children. A 2003 study, found that many

African American parents as well as Dominican parents feel compelled to prepare their children for the bias that they may face by providing messages about discrimination and oppression (Hughes, 2003). This racial socialization conversation is not a one-time conversation; the messaging shifts as children get older and the threats of discrimination change (Hughes, 2003).

(37)

factors and has been associated with negative parenting outcomes (Chung & Steinberg, 2006). In an examination of the effect of protective factors, including spiritual well-being, amid

neighborhood disorder, Lamis et al. (2014) found that being a parent in these disordered settings is so stressful that it “may overwhelm individuals’ capacity to overcome parenting stress” (p. 778). Likewise, Gillies (2008) critiques contemporary social discourses that blame parents for poor outcomes among children who grow up in disadvantaged communities and attempt to educate parents around how to parent. Focusing on parenting skills education is not enough, Gillies argues, as “parenting practices and values are grounded in social and economic realities” (p. 1079).

A related stressor for many parents of color is that the parenting literature has typically either ignored their views on parenting or considered their views to be dysfunctional or deficient (Coll & Pachter, 2002). Parents of color must therefore navigate and balance the messages they receive from within their culture with the messages from the dominant culture. Coll and Pachter (2002) contend that “regarding parenting acculturation, parents determine, to some extent, the aspects of parenting (e.g. disciplinary practices and educational expectations) they uphold and those they relinquish in favor of the dominant culture parental values, attitudes, and practices” (p. 8).

(38)

parenthood finds that single parent homes are most often women-headed households; children who live with a single mother “are more likely to do so if their fathers exhibit problem

behaviors” (Goldscheider, Scott, Lilja, & Bronte-Tinkew, 2015, p. 1624). Such a statistic would indicate that many single mothers have likely encountered additional significant stressors related to their relationship with their children’s fathers.

Stressors for gay and lesbian parents. Another marginalized group of parents, gay and lesbian parents, may encounter unique stress in their families. Goldberg and Smith (2011) report that among lesbian and gay parents who adopted, having high internalized homophobia and living in a state with few legal supports for gay adoption was correlated with large increases in symptoms of depression and anxiety. Having support in the workplace, family support, and a strong relationship quality was associated with lower symptoms of depression and anxiety (Goldberg & Smith, 2011). By contrast, a 2014 study examining the adjustment of gay, lesbian, and heterosexual parents who adopted children from foster care found few differences between gay/lesbian parents and heterosexual parents with regard to stress and clinical symptoms

(Lavner, Waterman, & Peplau, 2014). However, the Lavner et al. (2014) study, sampled parents in California where many legal rights exist for gays and lesbians.

(39)

supports the role of purpose in life, and theory and some empirical evidence also suggest an important role for need satisfaction, positive emotions, and the availability of multiple social roles” (p. 32). In other words, parents who experience greater meaning in life, have their basic needs met, enjoy more positive emotions than negative ones, and find increased social

interaction after having children will find greater happiness in their lives (Nelson et al., 2014). Scant research is available regarding how parents experience greater meaning in life, get their basic needs met, experience positive emotions, or interact with their social network during parenthood. The wellness scholarship within the counseling literature provides a useful

theoretical framework for exploring how parents achieve these life tasks. Because qualitative research seeks answers to “how” research questions, qualitative research design could effectively explore how parents experience wellness.

Counseling for Parents’ Wellness

(40)

(Grimmett et al., 2017, p. 162). These reasons disproportionately impact the decision-making of people of color and individuals from lower socio-economic backgrounds (Grimmett et al., 2017).

Most of the empirical research on help-seeking behaviors has used college or younger-aged students as participants. There is a dearth of information about why non-student adults seek counseling help. What leads parents to seek counseling for themselves, as opposed to counseling for their children, has also been largely ignored. A qualitative exploration of parents’ wellness, including what made them decide to seek counseling would begin to fill this gap.

The experience of wellness counseling among parents. A literature search for data on the results or experiences of parent clients receiving wellness counseling reveals no studies. No data were found on the effects of using the IS-Wel with parents in counseling. In fact, there is limited research on clients’ experiences with counseling in general.

Paulson, Truscott, and Stuart (1999) explored adult counseling clients’ experiences of what was helpful to them in counseling. The researchers found four major themes: (a) the expression of emotions, (b) enhancing knowledge, (c) affordability of the counselor, and (d) achieving what the client desired (Paulson et al,, 1999). Constantine (2002) examined what predicts clients’ levels of satisfaction with counseling and found that among clients of color, the extent to which they rated their counselors as being multiculturally competent explained a

significant variance in their satisfaction with counseling. The study was quantitative; descriptions of the clients’ satisfaction or impression of counselors’ multicultural competence were not

(41)

Rationale for Study

The ways in which wellness needs shift during parenthood have not been thoroughly explored. Parental psychopathology and parenting stress have each received significant empirical and theoretical investigation, but less is known about parental well-being and how to achieve it. Even less is known about how parents experience wellness counseling.

In the current study, the IS-Wel was as a conceptual framework to explore how

individual parents make sense of their wellness and their experiences of parenthood in order to contribute to both the parenting literature and the wellness literature. How parents experience counseling and how it impacts their wellness was also examined in an effort to expand the wellness counseling literature. Additionally, in this study, I sought go beyond the IS-Wel to consider parents’ wellness in relation to various contextual variables, such as the presence of oppression or marginalization in their lives, as well as community factors. Exploring these contextual variables provides understanding of how people of color and members of

disadvantaged communities conceptualize wellness. Such data could contribute to community counseling and illustrate the preventive, developmental, and wellness-oriented nature of the field professional counseling.

Chapter Summary

(42)

CHAPTER 3: METHOD

In this chapter, qualitative case study design and the rationale for using such a design for the current study are described. Additionally, my subjectivity statement as the primary researcher is offered, as well as, an explanation of the interpretive framework for the study. Information about the study’s research questions, sampling, data collection, and data analysis procedures is also provided.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study was to explore the wellness of individuals who are parents, the ways in which they experience parenthood, and the role of counseling in achieving wellness. My objective was to describe and interpret the parenthood experiences of participants and the ways in which they seek to promote their wellness. Qualitative research was the method chosen to explore this subject, because it is empowering, inductive, and allows for a social justice perspective.

Qualitative Research Design

According to Creswell (2013), “we conduct qualitative research when we want to empower individuals to share their stories, hear their voices, and minimize the power

relationships that often exist between a researcher and the participants in a study” (p. 48). A rich, thick description with words and context is offered in qualitative studies, rather than numerical data. Qualitative researchers attempt to interpret the lived experiences individuals have with a phenomenon with as minimal disruption as possible.

(43)

people experiencing the phenomenon make sense of that phenomenon (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 1998). However, because the researcher is used as the instrument for collecting and analyzing data, the interpretation drawn from the data is filtered through the researcher’s own perceptions and opinions (Merriam, 1998). Actions must be taken by the researcher to acknowledge their lenses and to ensure validity and trustworthiness of the data. These actions will be discussed later in the chapter.

An important philosophical lens that distinguishes qualitative research from more positivist, quantitative forms of research is expressed by Denzin and Lincoln (2011):

[T]here is a shifting center to the project: the avowed humanistic and social justice commitment to study the social world from the perspective of the interacting individual. From this principle flow the liberal and radical politics of action. (p. xiii)

Such a principle is key to the work of the current study. The subject, the wellness of individuals who are parents and the role counseling plays in their wellness, arose from my social justice concerns for families.

In this study, wellness was conceptualized within a framework of psychopolitical validity, which places wellness within the context of oppression and liberation (Prilleltensky, 2003). The framework is based on the premise that individual well-being relies as much on political structures as on an individual’s level of psychological health. This framework will be described further later in the chapter.

Rationale for the Use of Case Study

(44)

(Baxter & Jack, 2008). In qualitative case studies, “the interest is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation” (Merriam, 1998, p. 19). Because my research objective was to explore parent clients’ experiences within their sociopolitical contexts, case study was an optimal choice.

According to Merriam (1998), case studies are particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic. Regarding the particularistic nature, “this specificity of focus makes [case study] an especially good design for practical problems—for questions, situations, or puzzling occurrences arising from everyday practice” (Merriam, 1998, p. 29). The descriptive aspect of this type of research refers to the rich, thick description of the phenomenon case study provides. Case study is heuristic in that the research can provide enhanced understanding and insight as well as a “rethinking of the phenomenon being studied” (p. 30).

Merriam (1998) contends that case studies can investigate a person, an object, a phenomenon, a community, an event, or a group. Whatever is selected for investigation is considered to be the case, or bounded unit. Case studies are further categorized by function (e.g., descriptive, interpretive, or evaluative) (Merriam, 1998).

(45)

explain the findings from previous research. Interpretive case study (also known as instrumental case study) was used in this study to enhance and extend the theoretical literature around

parenting and counseling, as well as around wellness theory.

Research questions. Merriam (1998) explains that qualitative studies are guided by research questions, rather than hypotheses used in quantitative research. Research questions “reflect the researcher’s thinking on the most significant factors to study” (p. 60). There are three primary research questions that guided the current study:

1) How do parent clients at the community counseling center experience parenthood in their sociopolitical contexts?

2) How do parent clients at the community counseling center experience wellness in their sociopolitical contexts?

3) How is the wellness of parent clients at a community counseling center affected by counseling services?

Researcher Positionality and Interpretive Framework

Denzin and Lincoln (2011) describe the first phase of the research process as one in which the researcher explores self as “a multicultural subject” and seeks to understand views of self and others, politics, and ethics (p. 12). Tracy (2010) has referred to this process as sincerity and describes it as one of the eight criteria for quality qualitative studies. The other seven criteria include: (a) an important or useful topic, (b) rich rigor, (c) credibility, (d) resonance, (e) a

significant contribution to the literature, (f) ethical standards, and (g) meaningful coherence. Researcher Positionality and Subjectivity

(46)

and foibles as well as about how these played a role in the methods, joys, and mistakes of the research” (Tracy, 2010, p. 841). In an effort to achieve self-reflexivity, I journaled my thoughts, biases, and feelings about this research at the beginning of the study and continued this process throughout the study, including during data collection and analysis. Such reflection includes my errors throughout the research process (Tracy, 2010). I endeavored to be transparent and honest about field issues and problems that arose as well as how I handled them.

Peshkin (1988) contends that “subjectivity is inevitable” and “researchers should

systematically seek out their subjectivity… to be aware of how their subjectivity may be shaping their inquiry and its outcomes” (p. 17). Peshkin (1988) also recommends that researchers begin their search for subjectivity at the beginning and throughout their research study. As part of my self-reflexivity, I addressed my privilege and power as a White, educated, heterosexual, able-bodied, middle-class woman in the United States. I explored my values of parenting and of wellness and my socialization in a white-supremacist (Sue, 2003), patriarchal (hooks, 2000), individualistic (Comstock et al., 2008) society. I sought to interrogate my values, blind spots, and implicit biases throughout the study. My subjectivity statement is an attempt to capture the initial self-reflexivity process.

(47)

For the past eight years, I have provided counseling to children, teenagers, and families in various different settings. I have worked with a wide variety of families, including: White,

African American, Latino, Asian, and Biracial families; single-parent, two-parent, foster, adoptive, and grandparent-headed families; as well as gay and lesbian families. My work has taught me that children can thrive in all different configurations of families and at the same time, family dysfunction and pain can also affect all different types of families. I have learned that parents are often quite overwhelmed with the duties of raising children and struggle at times to balance hectic and demanding lives. Part of my objectives for engaging in this case study research was to better understand how wellness may be achieved amidst all of the stressors confronting parents and whether counseling can help parents achieve some higher level of well-being in spite of the stress they encounter.

With regard to my personal history, I grew up in a loving two-parent home and remain close to my parents as an adult. My parents provided and still provide me with a great deal of support, nurturing, and unconditional love and I believe that what they have given has been instrumental in shaping my life. I am eternally grateful to them and consider myself fortunate and privileged to have received the parenting that I have. I also recognize that their style of parenting was influenced by their individual personalities, the quality of their marital

relationship, the cultural milieus that they came of age in, as well as their levels of income and education.

(48)

wondering how wellness needs change when one becomes a parent and how to manage these changes.

Lastly, I have a profound interest in engaging in research that fulfills a social justice purpose. I believe that it is not possible to address individual problems, concerns, or wellness issues without understanding the context in which that individual lives and the structural obstacles that confront them. Although I am aware of many of the impacts of racism, white supremacy, misogyny, and other social ills, I have a great deal of privilege that I bring to this study. I am a White, middle class woman who has graduate-level education and a professional license. I have health insurance, can access quality medical care, and feel safe in my

neighborhood. In short, I am able to find ways to meet my wellness goals. I must not make assumptions or take these factors for granted when conducting this study, as I know that being able to meet one’s wellness needs is not the norm for many people in the larger community in which this study was conducted. Because of my interest in pursuing a research project with a social justice mission and perspective, I strived toward achieving psychopolitical validity throughout the study.

Theoretical Framework: Psychopolitical Validity

PPV is a framework for understanding the impact of oppression on well-being and attempting to overcome it (Prilleltensky, 2003; 2008). Power dynamics affect the human

experience in multiple areas of life, including how an individual experiences self-esteem, relates to their family, and accesses health care. Both well-being and oppression contain psychological and political aspects. Nation (2008) elucidates this premise further:

Figure

Table 1. Demographic Information by Participant
Table 2. Evidence of Content Validity for the Interview Protocol Questions.
Table 2 (continued).
Table 4. Participant Themes Displayed by Research Question.
+3

References

Related documents

There are also special risk considerations associated with international, global, emerging-market, small-company, high-yield debt, single-industry, single-country and regional

pathway ‘Hanging in’ said gains from the technologies were allocated towards both food and income.. Figure 5.6: Characteristics of the use of water harvesting technologies

However, according to Dummett, “this knowledge is in no way manifested in our linguistic abilities, which leads to the conclusion that we do not have knowledge of the truth

HHs using tubewells now (#) : number of HHs currently using tubewells equipped with hand pump for drinking purpose [Information related to water access, service coverage, water

Q3) Valle and her little sister like to have leche con colacao. What is colacao? It is a sugary chocolate drink that tastes like chocolate milk. Q4) Why do Valle’s mum and dad

You must have one of the following operating systems installed on your computer: • Microsoft Windows XP • Microsoft Windows Vista • Windows 7 Minimum Hardware Requirements •

The proposed tracker has been tested against many challenging conditions and found to be robust against clutter, illumination change, scale change, fast object movement, motion

nanoparticles in a compact array (with average nanoparticle size around 5 nm).The nanostructures have a mean length between 1.2 and 3.7  m, and diameters between 27 and 37 nm