OLARU CRISTINA – MARIA OLARU CRISTINA – MARIA RUSU MARIA – IULIA
RUSU MARIA – IULIA
ANUL II, ENGLEZA – SPANIOLA ANUL II, ENGLEZA – SPANIOLA
Leonard Bloomfield and
Leonard Bloomfield and the A
the Amerian
merian
Str!t!rali"m
Str!t!rali"m
The term structuralism is used in many contexts in different disciplines in the 20th The term structuralism is used in many contexts in different disciplines in the 20th century. Structuralism proposes the idea that many phenomena do not occur in isolation, but century. Structuralism proposes the idea that many phenomena do not occur in isolation, but instead occur in relation to each other, and that all related phenomena are part of a whole with a instead occur in relation to each other, and that all related phenomena are part of a whole with a definite, but not necessarily defined, structure. Structuralists, in any area of knowledge, attempt definite, but not necessarily defined, structure. Structuralists, in any area of knowledge, attempt to perceive that structure and the changes that it may undergo with the goal of furthering the to perceive that structure and the changes that it may undergo with the goal of furthering the development of that system of phenomena or ideas. Collective term for a number of linguistic development of that system of phenomena or ideas. Collective term for a number of linguistic approaches in the first half of the twentieth century , all based on the work of . de Saussure, but approaches in the first half of the twentieth century , all based on the work of . de Saussure, but strongly divergent from one another. !hile "structuralism# in its narrower sense refers to de strongly divergent from one another. !hile "structuralism# in its narrower sense refers to de Saussure#s linguistic theories , in its broader sense it is an umbrella term for approaches in Saussure#s linguistic theories , in its broader sense it is an umbrella term for approaches in anthropology, ethnology, sociology, psychology, and literary criticism, which $ in analogy to anthropology, ethnology, sociology, psychology, and literary criticism, which $ in analogy to linguistic structuralism $ concentrate on synchronic analysis rather than on genetic % historical linguistic structuralism $ concentrate on synchronic analysis rather than on genetic % historical preconditions,
preconditions, in in order order to to expose expose the the universal universal structures structures at at work work under under the the surface surface of of socialsocial relations.
relations.
&eneral term for variously developed branches of structuralism pioneered above all by '. &eneral term for variously developed branches of structuralism pioneered above all by '. Sapir ()**+ )--/ and . 1loomfield ()** )-+-/. 3lthough the various schools cannot be Sapir ()**+ )--/ and . 1loomfield ()** )-+-/. 3lthough the various schools cannot be clearly distinguished from one another, a distinction is made between two general phases4 the so clearly distinguished from one another, a distinction is made between two general phases4 the so called "1loomfield 'ra#, and distributionalism, with 5. 6arris as chief representative.
called "1loomfield 'ra#, and distributionalism, with 5. 6arris as chief representative. eonard 1loomfield ()** $
eonard 1loomfield ()** $ )-+-/ was an 3merican linguist, whose influence dominated)-+-/ was an 3merican linguist, whose influence dominated the development of structural linguistics in 3merica between the )-0s and the )-70s. 6e is the development of structural linguistics in 3merica between the )-0s and the )-70s. 6e is
especially known for his
especially known for his book anguage ()-/, describing book anguage ()-/, describing the state of the state of the art of lithe art of linguistics atnguistics at its time. 1loomfield was the main founder of the inguistic Society
its time. 1loomfield was the main founder of the inguistic Society of 3merof 3merica.ica.
1loomfield8s thought was mainly characteri9ed by its behavioristic principles for the 1loomfield8s thought was mainly characteri9ed by its behavioristic principles for the study of meaning, its insistence on formal procedures for the
study of meaning, its insistence on formal procedures for the analysis of language data, as well asanalysis of language data, as well as a general concern to provide linguistics with rigorous scientific methodology. :ts preeminence a general concern to provide linguistics with rigorous scientific methodology. :ts preeminence decreased in the late )-70s and )-;0s, after the emergence of &enerative &rammar. 1loomfield decreased in the late )-70s and )-;0s, after the emergence of &enerative &rammar. 1loomfield also began the genetic examination of the 3lgon<uian language family with his reconstruction of also began the genetic examination of the 3lgon<uian language family with his reconstruction of =ro
=rototo3lg3lgon<uon<uianian> > his his semseminainal l papepaper r on on the the famfamily ily remremainains s a a corcornernerstostone ne of of 3l3lgon<gon<uiauiann historical linguistics today.
historical linguistics today.
eonard had six main publications during his lifetime, and they too have had their own eonard had six main publications during his lifetime, and they too have had their own little mark in the history of linguists. 6is first main book came in )-)+,
little mark in the history of linguists. 6is first main book came in )-)+, when he was an 3ssistantwhen he was an 3ssistant =rofessor at the ?niversity of :llinois. :t was called :ntroduction to the study of anguage> this =rofessor at the ?niversity of :llinois. :t was called :ntroduction to the study of anguage> this dealt with the overall aspect of language and was @ust the beginning of eonard8s profound dealt with the overall aspect of language and was @ust the beginning of eonard8s profound career. 3fter this eonard went into the grammatical aspect of the =hilippine language, he wrote career. 3fter this eonard went into the grammatical aspect of the =hilippine language, he wrote and published his next main book Tagalog Texts with &rammatical 3nalysis ()-)/. The next and published his next main book Tagalog Texts with &rammatical 3nalysis ()-)/. The next book was c
book was called Aenomini Texts ()-2*/, one of alled Aenomini Texts ()-2*/, one of 1loomfield8s least favorable publications. 1loomfield8s least favorable publications. :n the:n the middle of his writing career came anguage ()-/, which was the book he is renowned for. middle of his writing career came anguage ()-/, which was the book he is renowned for. rom here eonard went deeper into grammar, and wrote The Stressed Bowels of 3merican rom here eonard went deeper into grammar, and wrote The Stressed Bowels of 3merican 'nglish ()-7/. The last main book of eonard 1loomfield8s career was when he went back into 'nglish ()-7/. The last main book of eonard 1loomfield8s career was when he went back into the scientific research of language. :t dealt with the overall aspect of language and science, and the scientific research of language. :t dealt with the overall aspect of language and science, and didn8t get as much publicity as anguage. This book was called inguistic 3spects of Science didn8t get as much publicity as anguage. This book was called inguistic 3spects of Science ()--/. 3t the end of eonard8s writing career, he tried to write about
()--/. 3t the end of eonard8s writing career, he tried to write about other languages (utch andother languages (utch and Dussian/ but couldn8t really get the true feeling out
Dussian/ but couldn8t really get the true feeling out of this, like he did with his other booof this, like he did with his other books. :n theks. :n the end, eonard 1loomfield is not only considered one of the best inguists of his time, he is end, eonard 1loomfield is not only considered one of the best inguists of his time, he is considered one of the best of
considered one of the best of all time.all time. 3m
3merericican an StStruructctururalalisism m babasesed d on on ststruructcturural al lilingunguisistitics cs dedevevelolopeped d by by SauSaussssurure.e. 1lo
1loomfomfielield d is is knoknown wn for for appapplyilying ng the the priprincinciples ples of of behabehavioviorisrist t psypsycholchology ogy to to linlinguiguiststicsics,, defining Ethe meaning of a linguistic form as the situatio in which the speaker utters it, and the defining Ethe meaning of a linguistic form as the situatio in which the speaker utters it, and the response it calls forth in the hearer.E (Fller, )--/. Sapir#s work has always held an attraction for response it calls forth in the hearer.E (Fller, )--/. Sapir#s work has always held an attraction for the more anthropologically inclined 3merican linguists. 1ut it was 1loomfield who prepared the the more anthropologically inclined 3merican linguists. 1ut it was 1loomfield who prepared the
way for the later phase of what is now thought of as the most distinctive manifestation of way for the later phase of what is now thought of as the most distinctive manifestation of 3merican Estructuralism.E !hen he published his first book in )-)+, 1loomfield was strongly 3merican Estructuralism.E !hen he published his first book in )-)+, 1loomfield was strongly infl
influenced by !undtuenced by !undt8s psycholo8s psychology of gy of languaglanguage. e. :n )-, however, he publish:n )-, however, he published a ed a drastdrasticallyically revised and expanded version with the new title
revised and expanded version with the new title Language Language> this book dominated the field for the> this book dominated the field for the next 0 years. :n it 1loomfield explicitly adopted a behavioristic approach to the study of next 0 years. :n it 1loomfield explicitly adopted a behavioristic approach to the study of language, eschewing in the name of scientific ob@ectivity all reference to mental or conceptual language, eschewing in the name of scientific ob@ectivity all reference to mental or conceptual categories. Ff particular conse<uence was his adoption of the behavioristic theory of semantics categories. Ff particular conse<uence was his adoption of the behavioristic theory of semantics according to which meaning is simply the relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response. according to which meaning is simply the relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response. 1ecaus
1ecause science was e science was stilstill a l a long way from being long way from being able to give able to give a comprehensia comprehensive account of ve account of mostmost stimuli, no significant or interesting results could be expected from the study of meaning for stimuli, no significant or interesting results could be expected from the study of meaning for some considerable time, and it was
some considerable time, and it was preferable, as far as possible, to avoid preferable, as far as possible, to avoid basing the grammaticalbasing the grammatical analysis of a language on se
analysis of a language on semantic considerations.mantic considerations. inguistics was in a period of confusion in the
inguistics was in a period of confusion in the early )-0s when 1loomfield battled Sapir early )-0s when 1loomfield battled Sapir for discipline supremacy. 1loomfield was a colleague of Sapir at Gale ?niversity, and they held for discipline supremacy. 1loomfield was a colleague of Sapir at Gale ?niversity, and they held opposi
opposite te theortheoretical positionetical positions, s, as as 1loom1loomfield re@ected field re@ected the the possipossibilitbility y that that linguilinguistics analy9estics analy9e meaning, while Sapir thought that semantics is an
meaning, while Sapir thought that semantics is an essential part of the study of language.essential part of the study of language.
1loomfield had originally been allied with Sapir and a supporter of Saussure8s ideas. 1ut 1loomfield had originally been allied with Sapir and a supporter of Saussure8s ideas. 1ut before G
before Gale (at Fhio State/, he was influenced by logical ale (at Fhio State/, he was influenced by logical positivism and the related movement of positivism and the related movement of behaviorism. 1loomfield8s book
behaviorism. 1loomfield8s book anguage ()-/ anguage ()-/ dominated the field dominated the field for the next for the next 0 years. :n 0 years. :n itit he explicitly adopted a behavioristic approach to the study of language, eschewing, in the name he explicitly adopted a behavioristic approach to the study of language, eschewing, in the name of scientific ob@ectivity, all reference to mental or conceptual categories.6is ideas became
of scientific ob@ectivity, all reference to mental or conceptual categories.6is ideas became strictlystrictly empirical. Such a view discouraged not only an in<uiry into the universal properties of language, empirical. Such a view discouraged not only an in<uiry into the universal properties of language, but
but the the study study of of meaning meaning as as well, well, given given the the notorious notorious difficulty difficulty of of making making explicit explicit the the preciseprecise meaning of an utterance.
meaning of an utterance.
6e adopted the behaviorist theory of semantics according to which meaning is simply the 6e adopted the behaviorist theory of semantics according to which meaning is simply the relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response. 1ehaviorism was an 3merican school of relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response. 1ehaviorism was an 3merican school of psychology
psychology founded founded by by Hohn Hohn 1. 1. !a!atson, tson, who who insisted insisted that that all all behavior behavior is is a a physiologicalphysiological response to environmental stimuli. 1ehaviorism re<uired 1loomfield to reformulate the place of response to environmental stimuli. 1ehaviorism re<uired 1loomfield to reformulate the place of semantics within linguistics, since that conception of language does not allow for any kind of semantics within linguistics, since that conception of language does not allow for any kind of concept or mental image, but o
The advantage of speech for the human organism was that one person could receive the The advantage of speech for the human organism was that one person could receive the stimulus, but another person carry out the response. Therefore the division of labor and all stimulus, but another person carry out the response. Therefore the division of labor and all advanced civili9ation results from speech.
advanced civili9ation results from speech.
1loomfield8s conception of science and of the scientific method shaped his approach to 1loomfield8s conception of science and of the scientific method shaped his approach to linguistic matters. 6e thought that physics and biology obtained scientific control over the linguistic matters. 6e thought that physics and biology obtained scientific control over the phenomena that they study because they abandoned teleological pseudoexplanations.
phenomena that they study because they abandoned teleological pseudoexplanations.
ualistic conceptions of humans assume a mental parallel to the body, a nonphysical ualistic conceptions of humans assume a mental parallel to the body, a nonphysical entity such as a mind
entity such as a mind or a will. The monist conception, coor a will. The monist conception, compatible with physics and biology, wasmpatible with physics and biology, was taking steps in several disciplines dedicated to the study of language, including psychology. taking steps in several disciplines dedicated to the study of language, including psychology. 1loomfield thought that the Bienna Circle and the behaviorists took an advanced position, 1loomfield thought that the Bienna Circle and the behaviorists took an advanced position, co
consnsidideriering ng fafalslse e ththe e <u<uesestition on of of ththe e rerelalatition on bebetwtweeeen n mamatttter er and and mimindnd4 4 :n :n scscieientntifificic formulations, mentalistic terms should refer to linguistic events, not to a supposed mentalistic formulations, mentalistic terms should refer to linguistic events, not to a supposed mentalistic entity.
entity.
Aental
Aentalistiistic c statestatements sub@ectements sub@ected d to to lingulinguistiistic c analyanalysis will sis will be be revealrevealed ed to to be be statstatementsements about language. The linguist must observe and register carefully the facts of speech and the about language. The linguist must observe and register carefully the facts of speech and the sit
situatuationions s in in whiwhich ch thethey y happhappen, en, witwithout resorhout resortinting g to to thathat t whiwhich ch cancannot not be be obsobserverved. ed. or or li
linguinguististics cs to to be be an an autautonomonomous ous sciscientientific fic disdiscipcipliline, ne, the the obsobservervatiations ons musmust t be be frefree e frofromm pre@udices and independent from philosophical, psychological, and commonsense assumptions. pre@udices and independent from philosophical, psychological, and commonsense assumptions.
1l
1loomoomfifieleld d mamade de imimporportatant nt emempipirirical cal cocontntriribubutitionons s to to ththreree e mama@o@or r susubfbfieieldlds s of of ingui
inguisticsstics4 4 :ndo':ndo'uropean uropean comparcomparativeativehistohistorical rical lingulinguistiistics cs (incl(including uding work work on on SanskrSanskrit it asas well as &ermanic/> the study of the Aalayo=olynesian languages, principally Tagalog> and well as &ermanic/> the study of the Aalayo=olynesian languages, principally Tagalog> and descriptive and comparative 3lgon<uian linguistics (a monumental
descriptive and comparative 3lgon<uian linguistics (a monumental study/.study/.
1loomfield had immense influence$the socalled 1loomfieldian era" lasted for more than 1loomfield had immense influence$the socalled 1loomfieldian era" lasted for more than 20
20 yeayears. rs. ururing ing thithis s timtime, e, linlinguisguists ts focfocuseused d mosmostly tly on on wriwritinting g desdescricriptiptive ve gragrammammars rs of of unwritten languages. 1loomfield and his followers were interested in the forms of linguistic unwritten languages. 1loomfield and his followers were interested in the forms of linguistic ite
items ms and and in in thetheir ir disdistrtribuibutiotional nal arrarrangangemeement. nt. AeaAeaninning, g, accoaccordirding ng to to 1lo1loomfomfielield, d, was was notnot observable using rigid methods of analysis, and it was therefore the weak point in language observable using rigid methods of analysis, and it was therefore the weak point in language study.
The 8post1loomfieldians8 dominated 3meri
The 8post1loomfieldians8 dominated 3merican linguistics in the )-+0s and can linguistics in the )-+0s and )-70s. Fne)-70s. Fne of their most prom
of their most prominent members was Chomskyinent members was Chomsky8s teacher 5ellig 6arris. 8s teacher 5ellig 6arris. or 3or 3mericanmerican
structuralists, the ultimate goal of linguistics was the perfection of the discovery procedures$a set structuralists, the ultimate goal of linguistics was the perfection of the discovery procedures$a set of principles which would give them a
of principles which would give them a foolsproof way to discover the linguistic units of anfoolsproof way to discover the linguistic units of an unwritten language. Their goal was explicitly to 8discover8 a
unwritten language. Their goal was explicitly to 8discover8 a grammar by performing a set ofgrammar by performing a set of operations on a corpus of data. 'ach successive operation was to be one step farther removed operations on a corpus of data. 'ach successive operation was to be one step farther removed from the corpus.
from the corpus.
1loomfield8s followers pushed even further the attempt to develop
1loomfield8s followers pushed even further the attempt to develop methods ofmethods of linguistic analysis that were not based on meaning. Fne of the most characteristic features of linguistic analysis that were not based on meaning. Fne of the most characteristic features of Epost1loomfieldianE 3m
Epost1loomfieldianE 3merican structuralism, then, was its aerican structuralism, then, was its almost complete neglect oflmost complete neglect of semantics. 1loomfield8s approach to linguistics was characteri9ed by its emphasis on the semantics. 1loomfield8s approach to linguistics was characteri9ed by its emphasis on the scientific basis of linguistics, adherence to behaviorism especially in his later work, and scientific basis of linguistics, adherence to behaviorism especially in his later work, and
emphasis on formal procedures for the analysis of linguistic data. The influence of 1loomfieldian emphasis on formal procedures for the analysis of linguistic data. The influence of 1loomfieldian structural linguistics declined in the late )-70s and )-;0s
structural linguistics declined in the late )-70s and )-;0s as the theory of &enerative &rammaras the theory of &enerative &rammar developed by Ioam Chomsky came to predominate.
