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A quick overview of cell division
The genetic information of plants, animals and other eukaryotic organisms resides in several (or many) individual DNA molecules, or chromosomes. For example, each human cell possesses 46 chromosomes, while each cell of an onion possesses 8 chromosomes. All cells must replicate their DNA when dividing. During DNA replication, the two strands of the DNA double helix separate, and for each original strand a new complementary strand is produced, yielding two identical DNA molecules.
DNA replication yields an identical pair of DNA molecules (called sister chromatids) attached at a region called the centromere. DNA replication in eukaryotes is followed by the process called mitosis which assures that each daughter cell receives one copy of each of the replicated
chromosomes. During the process of mitosis, the chromosomes pass through several stages known as prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The actual division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis and occurs during telophase.
During each of the preceding stages, particular events occur that contribute to the orderly distribution of the replicated chromosomes prior to cytokinesis.
The stages of mitosis
Prophase During prophase, the chromosomes supercoil and the fibers of the spindle apparatus begin to form between centrosomes located at the pole of the cells. The nuclear membrane also disintegrates at this time, freeing the chromosomes into the surrounding cytoplasm.
Prometaphase During prometaphase, some of the fibers attach to the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids and they begin to move toward the center of the cell.
Metaphase At metaphase the chromosomes have come to rest along the center plane of the cell.
Anaphase During anaphase, the centromeres split and the sister chromatids begin to migrate toward the opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase During telophase, the chromosomes at either end of the cell cluster begin to cluster together, which facilitates the formation of a new nuclear membrane. This also is when cytokinesis occurs, leading to two separate cells. One way to identify that telophase has begun is by looking for the formation of the cell plate, the new cell wall forming between the two cells.
The objectives of this lab exercise are for you to:
Better understand the process and stages of mitosis.
Prepare your own specimens of onion root in which you can visualize all of the stages of mitosis.
Apply an analytical technique by which the relative length of each stage of mitosis can be estimated.
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I. Viewing mitosis in onion root tips
Why use onion roots for viewing mitosis?
The roots are easy to grow in large numbers.
The cells at the tip of the roots are actively dividing, and thus many cells will be in stages of mitosis.
The tips can be prepared in a way that allows them to be flattened on microscopes slide (“squashed”) so that the chromosomes of individual cells can be observed.
The chromosomes can be stained to make them more easily observable.
Regions of Onion Root tips (see figure 1)
There are three cellular regions near the tip of an onion root.
1. The root cap contains cells that cover and protect the
underlying growth region as the root pushed through the soil.
2. The region of cell division (or meristem) is where cells are actively dividing but not increasing significantly in size.
3. In the region of cell elongation, cell are increasing in size, but not dividing.
Viewing Chromosomes
Chromosomes generally are not visible as distinct entities in non-dividing cells, since the DNA is uncoiled, but the process of mitosis is facilitated by supercoiling of the chromosomes into a highly compacted form. Supercoiled chromosomes can be visualized in cells, particularly if they are treated with a DNA-specific stain, such as the aceto-orcein stain.
Procedure for preparing root tip squashes
While actively growing onions are present in the lab for you to observe, you will be provided with roots that have been previously harvested and treated with a fixative to stabilize the cells. You will work in groups of two for this lab exercise.
II. Viewing mitosis in onion root tips
Materialsonion with actively growing root tips single-edge razor blade
forceps top or bottom half of petri dish
test tube stirring rod
transfer pipette warm water bath
2 microscope slides 4 plastic cover slips
Microscope aceto-orcein stain
acid fixative solution pencil with eraser
Meristem:
Region of cell division
Protective root cap Region of cell elongation
Figure 1
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Procedure
Part A: Using Acid Fixative to Stop Cell Division
1. Use the razor blade to cut four root tips, each about 2 cm long, off an onion bulb.
2. Place the four root tips in the bottom of a test tube. You may need to use a stirring rod to gently push them to the bottom.
3. Add just enough fixative solution to the test tube to cover the root tips. Use forceps to handle the “fixed” root tips at all times from now on.
4. To help the fixative solution penetrate the cells, place your test tube in a test tube rack in a warm water bath at 60°C.
5. After 6 min, use a hot mitt to take your test tube out of the water bath. Carefully pour the fixative and the root tips into the petri dish.
6. Place two clean microscope slides side by side on a clean paper towel. Very gently pick up the root tips with forceps and place two on each slide.
7. Use the razor blade to cut off the upper part of each root so that only about 3–4 mm of the tip end is left. Using your forceps, pick up the upper part of the root tip that you have cut off and place it on the paper towel for disposal.
Part B: Staining the Cell Nuclei and Chromosomes
1. Add a drop of aceto-orcein stain to cover each root tip. Wait 2 min to let the stain soak into the root tip cells.
2. With the flat side of your forceps, squish each root tip flat, taking care to press straight down.
Repeat this step with the other slide.
3. Let the stain soak into the flattened root tips for another 2 min.
4. Cover the flattened root tips with cover slips (2 per slide). Press gently down on the outside of the cover slip with the eraser of your pencil to squish the root tip completely flat (so that you will have one layer of cells). Be careful not to break the cover slip.
Part C: Making Observations of Dividing Cells
1. Look at your slide through the microscope.Locate and focus on the root tip cells under low power (40X) and medium power (100X), then switch to high power (400X) to see the cells and nuclei more closely. Scan both sections of the slide to make your observations.
2. Find cells that show each of the following cell cycle events as shown in figure 2.
3. While observing a cell in interphase under high power, make a detailed sketch of it in the Cell Cycle Qualitative Data Sheet. In addition, indicate the size of your cell drawings by including a micron scale bar.
4. Repeat step 3 for prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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Part D: Estimating the Relative Length of Each Stage of Mitosis
For this procedure, we will use permanently mounted slides of onion roots. These slides are prepared by slicing the roots into thin sections, mounting them on microscope slides, staining, and then mounting under cover slip.
Mitosis and the cell cycle
While making your observations, consider the relative number of cells actually involved in mitosis.
Some of these cells are still involved in the cell cycle, which encompasses all of the processes involved in cell replication. Cells that are actively dividing but not yet in mitosis are said to be in interphase, during which time the DNA is copied and the cell is
otherwise preparing for replication. Some root cells have ceased dividing and are only increasing in size, whereas others have reached their final, mature size and function, and are said to be in the Go stage.
Procedure for determining the length of the
stages of the cell cycle
Locate the meristem region of the root tip.
1. Starting under the 10x objective, find the region of active cell division.
2. Switch to the 40x objective and begin observations at the lower end of this region.
Recording data
Take turns with your partner as observer and recorder. The observer should call out the stage of the cell cycle of each cell to be tallied by the recorder in the results table of the Cell Cycle
Quantitative Data Sheet. Roles should be switched for the second slide. Since prophase and prometaphase are difficult to distinguish, classify these cells as prophase. Only count as prophase cells that contain distinctly visible chromosomes. Do not count cells that you are unsure of.
1. Systematically scan the root tip moving upward and downward through a column of meristem cells as shown in the diagram to the right.
2. Tally each cell in a stage of the cell cycle that you observe, being careful not to record the same cell twice. Tally the stages of 40 cells.
3. Each group member should tally cells from a different meristem for a total of 160 cells.
4. In case slides are not available, use the photos of meristem cells on the next page.
5 Calculations
1. Pool your data with that of the class, and then record the class totals in the Mitosis Quantitative Data Sheet.
2. Calculate the percentage of cells in each stage.
3. The relative time span of each stage is equivalent to the percentage of cells found in that stage.
MERISTEM PHOTOS
Cell Cycle
Qualitative Data Sheet
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Make detailed sketches of cells you observe under the microscope in each of the following stages of the cell cycle:
Early Prophase Interphase
Late Prophase Metaphase
Anaphase Telophase
Period ______ Date ___________ Seat ______
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Relative length of stages of the cell cycle
1. Tally the results of your cell counts for each meristem sample.
2. Obtain totals from three other groups and add them to your group’s total.
Stages of
Mitosis Group
1 Group
2 Group
3 Your
Group Totals Interphase
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Totals
3. Calculate the percentage of cells in each stage.
Stages of
Mitosis Percentage
Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total %
4. Make a pie graph of your data. The circle to the right has 40 divisions.
Each division is equivalent to 2.5%.
Stage of
Mitosis Meristem
A Meristem
B Meristem
C Meristem
D Totals
Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Totals
Period ______ Date ___________ Seat ______
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