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Exchange Rate Dynamics and the T e r m Structure

of Interest Rates

C O L M K E A R N E Y

The University of New South Wales

Abstract: This paper examines the nature of the relationship which exists between the dynamics of exchange rate adjustments and the term structure of interest rates. I n the absence of anticipated eco­ nomic disturbances, there exists a well-defined negative relationship between movements in the exchange rate and the long-short interest rate differential which does not persist in the presence of anticipated disturbances. It follows that any empirical test of the relationship between the exchange rate and the term structure of interest rates necessitates the utilisation of a measure of the yield curve which is con­ siderably more sophisticated than the differential between interest rates on assets with long and short terms to maturity. A n appropriate yield curve approximation is estimated on monthly Irish data over the period 1979(4)-1986(12) and employed to examine its relationship with the rate of foreign exchange of the Irish punt over the same period.

I I N T R O D U C T I O N

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-v i d e d w h i c h a d m i t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x c h a n g e r a t e u n d e r s h o o t i n g i n r e s p o n s e t o a d o m e s t i c m o n e t a r y c o n t r a c t i o n . B r a n s o n ( 1 9 7 6 a n d 1 9 7 9 ) e m p h a s i s i n g s t o c k / f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d N i e h a n s ( 1 9 8 1 ) f o c u s i n g o n t r a d e b a l a n c e e f f e c t s are r e l e v a n t i n t h i s r e g a r d as is C u r r i e ( 1 9 8 1 ) w h o d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w o v e r ­ s h o o t i n g o f p r e - a n n o u n c e d m o n e t a r y t a r g e t s c a n cause t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e t o a p p r e c i a t e i n r e s p o n s e t o e x p e c t a t i o n s o f c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n b y t h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h e f o r m o f h i g h e r r a t e s o f i n t e r e s t . I n a d d i t i o n , F r e n k e l a n d R o d r i g u e z ( 1 9 8 2 ) s h o w h o w t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e is l i k e l y t o u n d e r s h o o t i n t h e D o r n b u s c h m o d e l w i t h l i m i t e d c a p i t a l m o b i l i t y .

A n u m b e r o f e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e d y n a m i c s o f e x c h a n g e r a t e a d j u s t m e n t i n o r d e r t o e x a m i n e t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l s a l l u d e d t o a b o v e . B i l s o n ( 1 9 7 8 ) p r o v i d e s suggestive e v i d e n c e o n t h e a p p r o p r i ­ ateness o f t h e D o r n b u s c h m o d e l f o r t h e d e u t s c h m a r k / d o l l a r r a t e a n d F r e n k e l ( 1 9 7 9 ) e x t e n d s t h i s m o d e l b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g s e c u l a r r a t e s o f i n f l a t i o n b e f o r e r e p o r t i n g r e s u l t s u s i n g t h e d e u t s c h m a r k / U S d o l l a r r a t e . D r i s k i l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) e x a m i n e s t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e D o r n b u s c h a n d s t o c k / f l o w m o d e l s a g a i n s t U S / Swiss e x c h a n g e r a t e d a t a o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 7 . H e addresses t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e r e is s h o r t - t e r m e x c h a n g e r a t e o v e r s h o o t i n g , w h e t h e r e x c h a n g e r a t e a n d p r i c e l e v e l a d j u s t m e n t is m o n o t o n i c i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e r u n a n d w h e t h e r p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e s e v a r i a b l e s a n d t h e m o n e y s t o c k i n t h e l o n g r u n . H e f i n d s e v i d e n c e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e e x c h a n g e r a t e o v e r s h o o t i n g a c c o m p a n i e d b y n o n m o n o t o n i c a d j u s t m e n t p a t t e r n s .

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p u n t ' s e f f e c t i v e e x c h a n g e r a t e i n d e x a n d t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f I r i s h i n t e r e s t r a t e s u s i n g m o n t h l y d a t a o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 9 ( 5 ) - 1 9 8 6 ( 1 2 ) . S e c t i o n I V s u m ­ m a r i s e s t h e p a p e r a n d d r a w s c o n c l u s i o n s .

I I T H E T H E O R Y

We b e g i n b y c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e m a r k e t as b e i n g c o m p o s e d o f r i s k - n e u t r a l i n f i n i t e l y - e l a s t i c c o v e r e d i n t e r e s t a r b i t r a g e u r s w h o possess f u l l i n f o r m a t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e u n c o v e r e d i n t e r e s t d i f f e r e n t i a l i n f a v o u r o f t h e d o m e s t i c c u r r e n c y is e q u a l t o t h e f o r w a r d d i s c o u n t o n t h e c u r r e n c y . E q u a ­ t i o n ( 1 ) d e s c r i b e s e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h i s m a r k e t as

e = r - r * ( 1 )

w h e r e e = t h e p r i c e o f a u n i t o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y (so t h a t a r i s e i n e d e n o t e s a w e a k d o m e s t i c c u r r e n c y a n d v i c e v e r s a ) ,

r = t h e d o m e s t i c s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e r * = t h e f o r e i g n s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e , a n d ' . ' = t i m e d e r i v a t i v e , e.g. x = ^ L .

C o n s i d e r n e x t t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s . R i s k - n e u t r a l s p e c u l a t o r s w h o o p e r a t e i n e f f i c i e n t b o n d m a r k e t s w i l l a r b i t r a g e t h e y i e l d o n l o n g b o n d s t o e q u a l t h e e x p e c t e d y i e l d f r o m h o l d i n g a n e q u i v a l e n t a m o u n t o f m o n e y i n s h o r t b o n d s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t

R + R d ( ! / R l = r

d t w h i c h c a n b e r e w r i t t e n as

R = R ( R - r ) ( 2 )

w i t h R d e n o t i n g t h e l o n g - t e r m i n t e r e s t r a t e o n c o n s o l s .

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u n a n t i c i p a t e d m o n e t a r y c o n t r a c t i o n i n a n o p e n e c o n o m y c o n t e x t causes t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e t o a p p r e c i a t e b y a n a m o u n t w h i c h o v e r s h o o t s i t s l o n g - r u n e q u i ­ l i b r i u m l e v e l w h i l e t h e y i e l d t o m a t u r i t y c u r v e b e c o m e s i n v e r t e d . R e l a t e d w o r k b y C o l l i n s ( 1 9 8 4 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s c a n s i g n a l t h e e x p e c t e d t i m i n g o f a d e p r e c i a t i o n u n d e r f i x e d e x c h a n g e r a t e s .

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s e c t i o n is t o c o n s t r u c t a n d a n a l y s e a d y n a m i c m a c r o -e c o n o m i c m o d -e l o f a n o p -e n -e c o n o m y w h i c h is i n h a b i t -e d b y m a r k -e t o p -e r a t o r s w h o f o r m t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s r a t i o n a l l y . A f t e r d e r i v i n g t h e l o n g - r u n e q u i l i b r i u m p r o p e r t i e s , t h e m o d e l is s i m u l a t e d i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n b o t h t h e i m p a c t r e s p o n s e s as w e l l as t h e s u b s e q u e n t a d j u s t m e n t d y n a m i c s o f t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e a n d t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s t o a m o n e t a r y p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e w h i c h has b e e n a n t i c i p a t e d p r i o r t o i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h e p r e d i c t i o n s w h i c h are o b t a i n e d f r o m t h i s m o d e l are r e a d i l y seen t o c o n s t i t u t e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s o f t h o s e w h i c h h a v e e m a n a t e d f r o m t h e p r i o r l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e y f o r m t h e b e n c h m a r k f r o m w h i c h t o j u d g e t h e e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s w h i c h are p r e s e n t e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n .

T h e e q u a t i o n s o f t h e m o d e l are p r e s e n t e d b e l o w .

m - p = k y - Xr ( 3 )

y * = a y + ( 3 ( e - p ) - 7 ( R - h ) + 5 g ( 4 )

y = < K y * - y ) ( 5 ) R = R ( R - r ) ( 2 ) e = r - r * ( 1 ) P = h + 0 ( y - y ) ( 6 )

H =

e(n-

h ) ( 7 )

A i l variables e x c e p t i n t e r e s t rates are i n logs a n d :

m = n o m i n a l m o n e y s t o c k P = p r i c e l e v e l

y = r e a l o u t p u t ( y * = d e s i r e d r e a l o u t p u t ) r = n o m i n a l s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e

R = n o m i n a l l o n g i n t e r e s t r a t e e = r a t e o f e x c h a n g e

h = e x p e c t a t i o n s o f l o n g - r u n i n f l a t i o n g = e x o g e n o u s d i s t u r b a n c e s

= r a t e o f g r o w t h o f t h e m o n e y s t o c k ( = i n )

I n a d d i t i o n ,

d e n o t e s t h e l o n g - r u n e q u i l i b r i u m v a l u e o f a v a r i a b l e , w h i l e d x

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E q u a t i o n ( 3 ) d e s c r i b e s a c o n v e n t i o n a l L M s c h e d u l e i n w h i c h t h e s h o r t -t e r m r a -t e o f i n -t e r e s -t is a s s u m e d -t o e q u i l i b r a -t e -t h e m o n e y m a r k e -t -t o k e e p -t h e e c o n o m y o n t h e s c h e d u l e . E q u a t i o n ( 4 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e I S c u r v e i n w h i c h t h e r e a l e x c h a n g e r a t e ( i . e . c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s ) f e a t u r e s a l o n g w i t h t h e r e a l l o n g - t e r m i n t e r e s t r a t e ( R - h ) . E q u a t i o n ( 5 ) is t h e L u n d b e r g l a g w h i c h a l l o w s t h e e c o n o m y t o a d j u s t t o w a r d s t h e I S c u r v e w h e n e v e r \p < ° ° . E q u a t i o n ( 2 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e l o n g r a t e o f i n t e r e s t as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , a n d i t is l i n e a r i s e d a b o u t t h e l o n g - r u n e q u i l i b r i u m r a t e R . E q u a t i o n ( 1 ) , also as b e f o r e , d e s c r i b e s t h e r a t e o f e x c h a n g e as t h e d o m e s t i c - f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t r a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n b o n d s are p e r f e c t l y s u b s t i t u t a b l e . T h e e x p e c t a t i o n s - a u g m e n t e d P h i l l i p s c u r v e E q u a t i o n ( 6 ) is s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a n e x p e c t a t i o n s - a d j u s t m e n t E q u a t i o n ( 7 ) w h i c h states t h a t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f l o n g - r u n i n f l a t i o n are a d j u s t e d i n l i n e w i t h m o n e t a r y g r o w t h .

B y d e f i n i n g 1 ( l i q u i d i t y ) = m - p , C ( c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s ) = e - p a n d x = h - u , w e c a n w r i t e t h e f u l l s y s t e m o f E q u a t i o n s ( l ) - ( 7 ) i n s t a t e space f o r m .

X -% 0 0 0 0 " X ~0 0 0 o "

i - 1 0 -(j> 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

y

=

i>i 0 - A ( a - l ) y + 0 0

c - l - x -1 k X- 1- 0 0 0 c <P - 1 0 - 1

R 0 R X "1 - R k X- 1 0

A

R R

_

0 0 0 0

( 8 )

T h e l o n g - r u n e q u i l i b r i u m p r o p e r t i e s o f t h i s f i f t h o r d e r l i n e a r s y s t e m are o b t a i n e d b y s e t t i n g x = i = y = C = R = 0 a n d are m o s t l y s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y .

P 1 A y

h = M

k y - X ( r * + fi)

y

( 9 )

( 1 0 )

( 1 1 )

C

A R

0

a * ,7 * 8 — y + — r - —

r* + ,

( 1 2 )

( 1 3 )

E q u a t i o n ( 9 ) s t a t e s t h a t w h e n t h e e c o n o m y is i n e q u i l i b r i u m , e x p e c t a t i o n s o f l o n g - r u n i n f l a t i o n are e q u a l t o a c t u a l i n f l a t i o n w h i c h is g i v e n b y t h e r a t e

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-t i o n ( 1 2 ) d e s c r i b e s e q u i l i b r i u m c o m p e -t i -t i v e n e s s as d e p e n d i n g p o s i -t i v e l y o n o u t p u t a n d t h e f o r e i g n s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e a n d n e g a t i v e l y o n o t h e r e x o g e n o u s d i s t u r b a n c e s . E q u a t i o n ( 1 3 ) asserts t h a t t h e y i e l d c u r v e is f l a t i n e q u i l i b r i u m r e f l e c t i n g t h e a b s e n c e o f l i q u i d i t y p r e m i a a n d e q u a l s t h e s u m o f t h e f o r e i g n r a t e p l u s t h e r a t e o f d o m e s t i c m o n e t a r y e x p a n s i o n . F i n a l l y , a l t h o u g h m o n e y is n e u t r a l i n t h i s m o d e l , i t is n o t s u p e r - n e u t r a l i n so f a r as e q u i l i b r i u m l i q u i d i t y v a r i e s w i t h t h e r a t e o f m o n e t a r y g r o w t h .

A d y n a m i c l i n e a r m o d e l w i t h N j b a c k w a r d - l o o k i n g a n d N 2 f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g

v a r i a b l e s has a u n i q u e s a d d l e p a t h c o n v e r g i n g t o t h e l o n g - r u n e q u i l i b r i u m p r o ­ v i d e d t h e r e are N j s t a b l e r o o t s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e N j p r e - d e t e r m i n e d v a r i ­ ables) a n d N 2 u n s t a b l e r o o t s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e N2 free o r j u m p v a r i a b l e s ) .

I n t h e m o d e l o u t l i n e d a b o v e C a n d R are f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g v a r i a b l e s b e c a u s e t h e y are p r i c e s w h i c h c l e a r e f f i c i e n t f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t s . T h e y m a k e d i s c r e t e j u m p s i n r e s p o n s e t o " n e w s " ( a l l u n a n t i c i p a t e d c u r r e n t o r f u t u r e c h a n g e s i n

e x o g e n o u s v a r i a b l e s a n d p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s ) . T h e o t h e r s t a t e v a r i a b l e s x , l a n d y are p r e - d e t e r m i n e d a t a n y p o i n t i n t i m e a n d are u p d a t e d b y t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d y n a m i c e q u a t i o n s .

I t is n o t o u r i n t e n t i o n t o d e r i v e a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s f r o m s o l v i n g t h e m o d e l .1

W e are m o r e c o n c e r n e d t o e x a m i n e i t s s i m u l a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s i n o r d e r t o cast l i g h t u p o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e d y n a m i c s o f e x c h a n g e r a t e a d j u s t m e n t s a n d t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s w h e n f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t p a r t i c i p a n t s a n t i c i p a t e p o l i c y c h a n g e s o r o t h e r e x o g e n o u s d i s t u r b a n c e s .2 F i g u r e 1 d e p i c t s t h e e f f e c t s o f a 1 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n t h e r a t e

o f m o n e t a r y g r o w t h o n t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e a n d t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s w h e n t h e p o l i c y has b e e n a n n o u n c e d 10 p e r i o d s p r i o r t o i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .3

A s s o o n as m a r k e t p a r t i c i p a n t s o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i m p e n d i n g p o l i c y c h a n g e , t h e l o n g r a t e o f i n t e r e s t d e c l i n e s i n a m a n n e r w h i c h r e f l e c t s m a r k e t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f l o w e r f u t u r e s h o r t r a t e s . T h i s is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n i m m e d i a t e loss o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s w h i c h is c a u s e d b y n o m i n a l e x c h a n g e r a t e a p p r e c i a t i o n w h i c h is n o t m a t c h e d b y t h e m o r e s l o w l y - m o v i n g p r i c e l e v e l . I t is c l e a r f r o m E q u a t i o n ( 4 ) t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e o f d o m e s t i c i n c o m e is a m b i g u o u s . I f l o n g - r u n i n f l a t i o n a r y e x p e c t a t i o n s are n o t i m m e d i a t e l y r e v i s e d d o w n w a r d s t o t h e n e w e q u i l i b r i u m i n f l a t i o n r a t e ( i . e . , i f e < °° i n E q u a t i o n ( 7 ) ) , t h e l o w e r l o n g i n t e r e s t r a t e w i l l raise d o m e s t i c o u t p u t b y r e d u c i n g t h e c o s t o f c a p i t a l . T h i s e f f e c t w i l l b e o f f s e t , h o w e v e r , b y t h e l o w e r l e v e l o f i n t e r

-1. Buiter and Miller (1981) and Tumovsky and Miller (1984) discuss analytical solutions to smaller models of this vintage. The determinant of the state matrix in our model is / A / = C 0 \ | / | 3 R X 1 < 0 .

2. The following parameter values are chosen for the reported simulations:

X = 2 , k = 7 = i// = e = 6 = 1, a = 0 = .5, 0 = .2 and r* = u = .1.

Kearney (1985a) provides justification for this choice, and notes that the results are not very sensitive to changes in these values. The objective in this context is illustrative rather than rigour.

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i i 1 1 1 1 1 1

1-0 5 11-0 IS 21-0 25 JO 35 « 1-0 45

TIME

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n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e d e m a n d f o r n e t e x p o r t s . T h e l a t t e r e f f e c t d o m i n a t e s i n o u r m o d e l g i v e n t h e c h o i c e o f p a r a m e t e r s (see F o o t n o t e 2 ) , so d o m e s t i c o u t p u t i n i t i a l l y d e c l i n e s . T h i s m o d e r a t e s t h e d e m a n d f o r m o n e y b a l a n c e s a n d f o r c e s t h e s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e u p t o c l e a r t h e m o n e y m a r k e t . T h e y i e l d t o m a t u r i t y c u r v e has t h u s b e c o m e i n v e r t e d .

W h e n t h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s e v e n t u a l l y i m p l e m e n t t h e m o n e t a r y c o n ­ t r a c t i o n , i t c o m e s as n o s u r p r i s e t o t h e f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t s . T h e l o n g r a t e o f i n t e r e s t a n d t h e l e v e l o f c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s c o n t i n u e t o e v o l v e a l o n g t h e i r a d j u s t m e n t p a t h s as t h e s h o r t r a t e rises m o r e s t e e p l y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e t i g h t e n e d m o n e y m a r k e t c o n d i t i o n s . A s t i m e p r o c e e d s , t h e d o m e s t i c r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n b e g i n s t o d e c l i n e d u e t o l o w e r aggregate d e m a n d a n d r e d u c e d e x p e c t a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e c o n o m y ' s l o n g - r u n l e v e l o f i n f l a t i o n . T h e e f f e c t o f t h i s is t o h a l t t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e r e a l m o n e y s u p p l y so t h a t t h e u p w a r d s t r e n d i n t h e s h o r t r a t e o f i n t e r e s t is r e v e r s e d . T h i s p r o c e s s gives r i s e t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h e a d j u s t m e n t d y n a m i c s w h i c h is c l e a r l y v i s i b l e f r o m i n s p e c t i o n o f F i g u r e 1 .

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e f r o m t h e F i g u r e t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a m a r g i n a l / average r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l o n g a n d s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e s w h i c h is i m p l i e d b y t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e . O f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e c u r r e n t c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , is t h e n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f a s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e l o n g - s h o r t i n t e r e s t d i f f e r e n t i a l a n d t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c u r r e n c y ' s f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e v a l u e . W h e n l o n g r a t e s are a b o v e s h o r t s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e b e c o m e s s t r o n g e r as c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s d e c l i n e s a n d t h i s o c c u r s w h i l e t h e l o n g - s h o r t i n t e r e s t d i f f e r e n t i a l rises t o a m a x i m u m a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y d e c l i n e s . W e c o n c l u d e , t h e r e f o r e , b y o b s e r v i n g a n i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s a n a l y s i s f o r t h e d e s i g n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l tests r e p o r t e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n t i c i p a t e d f u t u r e d i s t u r b a n c e s , a s t r o n g f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e r a t e w i l l b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n i n v e r s e l y - s l o p e d y i e l d c u r v e . W h e n e c o n o m i c a g e n t s a n t i c i p a t e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f f u t u r e d i s t u r b a n c e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p b e t w e e n these v a r i a b l e s b e c o m e s c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e c o m p l e x . T h i s r e q u i r e s o u r o b t a i n i n g a m e a s u r e o f t h e y i e l d c u r v e w h i c h is m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h a n t h e s i m p l e l o n g - s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l .

I l l E M P I R I C A L E V I D E N C E

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e q u a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a m u l t i - i n t e r e s t r a t e a s p e c t t o t h e e q u a t i o n

w i t h o u t c o n f r o n t i n g p r o b l e m s o f m u l t i c o l l i n e a r i t y . T h i s a p p r o a c h also a l l o w s

i n s p e c t i o n o f h o w c h a n g e s i n t h e i n t e r c e p t , s l o p e a n d c u r v a t u r e o f t h e y i e l d

c u r v e i n f l u e n c e t h e d e m a n d f o r m o n e y .

A g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e

b e e n e m p l o y e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o d a t e is as f o l l o w s :

I n R mt = al + a2l n Mt + a3l n + a4l n M ; | + v m ( 1 4 )

w h e r e I n s t a n d s f o r n a t u r a l l o g s a n d

R mt = n o m i n a l i n t e r e s t r a t e o n a n a s s e t4 o f m a t u r i t y M a t t i m e t

CKj = p a r a m e t e r s ( i = 1 . . . 4 )

v m = i n d e p e n d e n t l y d i s t r i b u t e d r a n d o m v a r i a b l e w i t h z e r o m e a n

a n d a v a r i a n c e w h i c h is c o n s t a n t f o r a l l v a l u e s o f t h e m a t u r i t y

v a r i a b l e .

A n u m b e r o f v a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s l o g g e d c u b i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n h a v e b e e n u s e d i n

o r d e r t o i n t r o d u c e t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s i n t o m o n e y d e m a n d

e q u a t i o n s . B i l s o n a n d H a l e ( 1 9 8 0 ) set a4 = 0 i n p r o p o s i n g a l o g g e d q u a d r a t i c

a p p r o x i m a t i o n . A l l e n a n d H a f e r ( 1 9 8 3 ) p r o p o s e d a n u n l o g g e d v e r s i o n o f

E q u a t i o n ( 1 4 ) i n o r d e r t o c a p t u r e h u m p s i n t h e y i e l d c u r v e . K e a r n e y ( 1 9 8 5 b )

e x a m i n e d a v a r i e t y o f t e r m s t r u c t u r e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f t h e I r i s h y i e l d c u r v e

b e f o r e c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e l o g g e d q u a d r a t i c v e r s i o n c o u l d n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y

i m p r o v e d u p o n f o r q u a r t e r l y d a t a o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 1 ( 1 ) - 1 9 8 1 ( 4 ) .

T h e e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s p a p e r are d e r i v e d f r o m e n d - m o n t h l y

I r i s h d a t a o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 9 ( A p r i l ) - 1 9 8 6 ( D e c e m b e r ) .5 T h e y i e l d c u r v e

a p p r o x i m a t i o n e q u a t i o n s w e r e f i t t e d t o a series o f seven i n t e r e s t r a t e s , t h e s e

b e i n g t h e C e n t r a l B a n k o v e r n i g h t r a t e , t h e 3 m o n t h E x c h e q u e r B i l l r a t e , a n d

t h e r a t e s o n 1 , 3 , 5 , 8 a n d 1 5 - y e a r g o v e r n m e n t b o n d s . A s w i t h t h e f o r m e r

s t u d y , t h e l o g g e d q u a d r a t i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n s c o u l d n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e d

u p o n a n d T a b l e 1 p r o v i d e s a s a m p l e o f t h e r e s u l t s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e s e

y i e l d c u r v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s are e n c o u r a g i n g i n so f a r as t h e i n t e r c e p t t e r m is

a l w a y s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t w h i l e b o t h t h e s l o p e a n d c u r v a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s are

a l s o s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 5 p e r c e n t l e v e l i n m o s t cases. I t is c l e a r f r o m

t h e s e r e s u l t s t h a t t h e I r i s h y i e l d c u r v e has e x p e r i e n c e d s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n

i t s s l o p e a n d c u r v a t u r e o v e r t h e p e r i o d b e i n g a n a l y s e d . F i g u r e 2 r e i n f o r c e s t h i s

o b s e r v a t i o n b y p l o t t i n g t h e t i m e series o f t h e f u l l set o f y i e l d c u r v e a p p r o x i ­

m a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l o g c h a n g e i n t h e I r i s h p u n t ' s D e u t s c h

-m a r k a n d e f f e c t i v e e x c h a n g e r a t e s . I t is c l e a r f r o -m i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e F i g u r e

t h a t t h e d a t a w h i c h are u s e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s h a v e b e e n r e n d e r e d s t a t i o n a r y .

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T a b l e 1: Sample Cross Sectional Estimates of the Irish Yield Curve: 1979(12)-1986(12)

Time I N T S L O C U R V R2 S E E y

1 9 7 9 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 8 3 9 ( 1 3 9 . 0 0 )

- . 0 4 4

( 3 . 0 2 )

. 0 0 6

( 2 . 7 8 )

.77 . 0 0 9 2.78

1 9 8 0 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 6 1 7 ( 4 5 . 9 1 )

- . 0 6 8

( 1 . 6 8 )

.017

( 2 . 7 2 )

. 9 2 . 0 2 6 2.62

1 9 8 1 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 8 1 3

( 1 2 0 . 9 8 )

. 0 4 7

( 2 . 8 5 )

- . 0 0 6

( 2 . 2 0 )

. 8 6 .011 2 . 9 0

1 9 8 2 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 7 6 1 ( 1 5 3 . 2 7 )

- . 0 7 8 ( 6 . 0 8 )

. 0 1 2 ( 5 . 8 6 )

. 9 3 . 0 0 8 2 . 6 6

1 9 8 3 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 4 6 2 ( 5 5 . 1 4 )

. 0 0 7 ( 0 . 2 3 )

. 0 0 6 ( 1 . 2 6 )

.95 . 0 2 0 2.58

1 9 8 4 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 7 4 2

( 1 1 9 . 8 3 )

- . 0 3 5

( 2 . 1 3 )

- . 0 0 5

( 2 . 1 2 )

. 6 0 . 0 1 0 2 . 7 0

1 9 8 5 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 3 9 6 ( 4 9 . 6 5 )

. 0 2 3

( 0 . 8 2 )

- . 0 0 2 ( 0 . 4 8 )

. 5 4 . 0 1 8 2 . 4 5

1 9 8 6 ( 1 2 ) 2 . 6 2 2 ( 5 9 2 . 8 7 )

- . 0 1 0 ( 3 . 2 4 )

- . 0 0 1

( 0 . 3 8 )

. 99 . 0 0 2 2.58

Notes to the Table: T h e estimates are o f E q u a t i o n ( 1 4 ) o n cross s ec t ion al d a t a at the speci­ fied t i m e . I N T , S L O a n d C U R V denote the i n t e r c e p t , slope a n d c u r v a t u r e of the y i e l d curve a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , i.e., the p a r a m e t e r s Qtj, a n d a3 f r o m E q u a t i o n ( 1 4 ) . R2, S E E

a n d y denote the c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients, e q u a t i o n s t a n d a r d errors a n d d e p e n d e n t vari­ able m e a n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

T a b l e 2 p r o v i d e s t h e s u m m a r y s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e d a t a w h i c h are m o s t l y a p p a r e n t

f r o m t h e F i g u r e . C o n c e r n i n g t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e s , t h e s a m p l e m e a n s o f t h e

p u n t ' s t r a d e w e i g h t e d i n d e x a n d i t s b i l a t e r a l D M r a t e are i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i v e

a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y n e g a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m z e r o , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s is c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h t h e F i g u r e w h i c h s h o w s t h a t f o r t h e D M / p u n t r a t e , m o s t o f t h e d a t a

p o i n t s are n e g a t i v e w h i l e t h e l a r g e s t d o w n w a r d f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h i s r a t e o u t ­

w e i g h t h e l a r g e s t u p w a r d f l u c t u a t i o n s . T h e r e v e r s e c o n d i t i o n a p p l i e s t o t h e

o t h e r t i m e series d a t a w h i c h are e m p l o y e d i n t h e t e s t s b e l o w . F r i e d m a n a n d

V a n d e r s t e e l ( 1 9 8 2 ) h a v e i n t e r e s t i n g l y r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r p r o p e r t i e s f o r d a i l y

o b s e r v a t i o n s o f U S d o l l a r e x c h a n g e r a t e s o v e r t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d s u g g e s t e d t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e d a t a m a y r e s u l t f r o m t h e i r b e i n g d r a w n

[image:10.471.79.437.77.342.2]
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T a b l e 2 : Summary Statistics of the Time Series Data

Exchange Rates Yield Curve

A L X F A L X G I N T S L O C U R V

S a m p l e M e a n - . 0 0 2 - . 0 0 4 4 . 0 0 3 .041 . 0 0 4

T-statistic for Z e r o M e a n - 1 . 1 9 0 - 3 . 6 6 7 4 . 1 1 9 . 9 9 3 4 . 0 4 9

(.24) (.00) (.00) (.32) (.00)

V a r i a n c e . 0 0 0 2 .001 6 . 9 1 9 . 1 5 9 . 0 0 0 1

S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n ( S D ) . 0 1 3 . 0 1 0 9 . 3 2 3 . 3 9 8 . 0 1 0

M i n i m u m V a l u e - . 0 4 7 - . 0 7 5 2 . 1 6 2 - . 2 1 0 - . 0 5 5

( 1 9 8 3 : 4 ) ( 1 9 8 6 : 8 ) ( 1 9 8 6 : 8 ) ( 1 9 8 6 : 5 ) ( 1 9 7 9 : 5 )

M a x i m u m V a l u e . 0 4 0 .007 3 . 1 6 3 8 2 . 7 1 0 . 0 3 0

( 1 9 8 1 : 9 ) ( 1 9 8 0 : 7 ) ( 1 9 7 9 : 6 ) ( 1 9 7 9 : 5 ) ( 1 9 8 0 : 1 1 )

Notes to the Table: A L X F a n d A L X G denote the log differences o f the I r i s h p u n t ' s trade w e i g h t e d i n d e x a n d D M rate, respectively. I N T , S L O a n d C U R V are as defined i n T a b l e 1.

T h e figures i n parentheses are either marginal significance levels or, i n the case of the last t w o r o w s , denote the dates c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the e x t r e m e d a t a p o i n t s .

T h e e q u a t i o n w h i c h is e s t i m a t e d o n t h i s d a t a set is

A L Xt = 0 j I N Tt+ | 32S L Ot+ 03C U R Vt + vt ( 1 5 )

w h e r e A L X d e n o t e s t h e l o g d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e p u n t ' s f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e r a t e a n d

t h e o t h e r s y m b o l s r e t a i n t h e m e a n i n g s w h i c h h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m

p r e v i o u s l y . T h e r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3 u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e p u n t ' s

t r a d e w e i g h t e d i n d e x a n d t h e b i l a t e r a l D M / p u n t e x c h a n g e r a t e . B o t h e q u a t i o n s

i n c l u d e d u m m y v a r i a b l e s ( D l a n d D 2 ) t o c a p t u r e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e m a j o r re­

a l i g n m e n t s o f t h e I r i s h p u n t w i t h i n t h e E M S w h i c h o c c u r r e d o n M a r c h 2 1 s t

1 9 8 3 a n d A u g u s t 2 n d 1 9 8 6 . T h e f o r m e r r e a l i g n m e n t w h i c h i n v o l v e d a 3.5 p e r

c e n t d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p u n t w a s t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e s i n c e t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h e

E M S . T h e l a t t e r r e a l i g n m e n t i n v o l v e d a m o r e e x t e n s i v e d e v a l u a t i o n o f 8 p e r ­

c e n t a g e p o i n t s .

T h e e q u a t i o n s w e r e i n i t i a l l y e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e o r d i n a r y l e a s t s q u a r e s

( O L S ) e s t i m a t i n g p r o c e d u r e , b u t t h e r e s u l t s w h i c h w e r e o b t a i n e d i n d i c a t e d t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f a u t o c o r r e l a t e d r e s i d u a l s i n E q u a t i o n ( 1 6 ) , w h i l e t h e D W s t a t i s t i c

f o r E q u a t i o n ( 1 7 ) w a s w i t h i n t h e b a n d o f u n c e r t a i n t y . B o t h e q u a t i o n s w e r e

a c c o r d i n g l y r e - e s t i m a t e d b y a u t o r e g r e s s i v e least s q u a r e s ( A R I ) a n d i t is t h e s e

l a t t e r r e s u l t s w h i c h are p r e s e n t e d i n t h e T a b l e . I t is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e A R I

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T a b l e 3 : Autoregressive Least Squares Estimates of the Relationship Between the Irish

Yield Curve and the Punt's Foreign Exchange Rate

Equation Dependent

Number Variable I N T S L O C U R V D l D 2

( 1 6 ) A L X F .001 - . 1 1 1 - . 9 2 9 - . 0 4 3 - . 0 3 7

( 0 . 9 8 ) ( 2 . H ) ( 2 . 2 9 ) ( 4 . 1 0 ) ( 3 . 5 6 )

( 1 7 ) A L X G - . 0 0 1 - . 0 0 2 . 1 2 0 - . 0 2 3 - . 0 7 0

( 3 . 3 4 ) ( 0 . 0 7 ) ( 0 . 6 0 ) ( 3 . 6 3 ) ( 1 2 . 0 7 )

Equation Diagnostics Equation

Number R2 S E E D W R H O Q F

( 1 6 ) .31 .011 2 . 0 4 . 2 7 5 3 4 . 1 5 2 . 6 3 2

( 2 . 6 1 ) ( 0 . 1 6 ) ( 0 . 0 8 )

( 1 7 ) . 6 6 . 0 0 6 1.95 . 1 8 2 3 4 . 8 6 1.158

( 1 . 5 6 ) ( 0 . 1 4 ) ( 0 . 3 2 )

Notes to the Table:

(1) A l l equations are e s t i m a t e d o n m o n t h l y d a t a over the p e r i o d 1 9 7 9 ( A p r i l ) - 1 9 8 6 ( D e c e m b e r ) .

(2) V a r i a b l e s are d e f i n e d i n T a b l e 2 . I n a d d i t i o n , D l a n d D 2 are d u m m y variables for

1 9 8 3 ( M a r c h ) a n d 1 9 8 6 ( A u g u s t ) , respectively.

(3) R2, S E E , D W a n d R H O denote the a d j u s t e d c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient, the regression s t a n d a r d errors, the D u r b i n - W a t s o n statistic a n d the a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient ( w i t h its associated t-statistic i n par e nthe se s). Q i s the B o x - P i e r c e statistic ( w i t h its m a r g i n a l significance level i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) . F is the F - s t a t i s t i c for testing the e x c l u s i o n restric­ tions that the t e r m s t r u c t u r e coefficients (on the i n t e r c e p t , slope a n d c u r v a t u r e ) are

all z e r o — the figure i n parentheses beneath it is the associated m a r g i n a l significance level.

w h i c h is g i v e n i n t h e T a b l e as R H O a l o n g w i t h i t s a s s o c i a t e d t - s t a t i s t i c . I n

a d d i t i o n , t h e B o x - P i e r c e s t a t i s t i c s i n d i c a t e t h e a b s e n c e o f h i g h e r o r d e r a u t o ­

c o r r e l a t i o n i n t h e s e e q u a t i o n s .

O f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e c u r r e n t c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , is t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e y i e l d c u r v e h a v e b e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s t r e n g t h

o f t h e p u n t ' s f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e r a t e . T a b l e 3 i n d i c a t e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u c h a

r e l a t i o n s h i p i n so f a r as t h e F - t e s t f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o n

t h e s l o p e , i n t e r c e p t a n d c u r v a t u r e o f t h e y i e l d c u r v e are a l l z e r o is r e j e c t e d i n

b o t h E q u a t i o n s ( 1 6 ) a n d ( 1 7 ) . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t w h i l e n o t a l l o f t h e

y i e l d c u r v e c o e f f i c i e n t s are s i g n i f i c a n t e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e s i n b o t h e q u a t i o n s ,

t h o s e w h i c h are s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 5 p e r c e n t l e v e l are a l l n e g a t i v e l y s i g n e d . T h e

(14)

I r i s h y i e l d c u r v e is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a w e a k v a l u e o f t h e D M / p u n t r a t e . T h i s o b v i o u s l y r e f l e c t s t h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s ' p o l i c y o f u s i n g h i g h i n t e r e s t r a t e s r a t h e r t h a n l o w m o n e t a r y g r o w t h i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e v a l u e o f t h e c u r r e n c y i n l i n e w i t h t h e E M S b a n d s .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e y i e l d c u r v e i n t e r c e p t , i t s s l o p e a n d c u r ­ v a t u r e are m o r e i m p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e p u n t ' s t r a d e w e i g h t e d i n d e x . I n E q u a t i o n ( 1 6 ) , b o t h t h e s l o p e a n d c u r v a t u r e o f t h e y i e l d c u r v e are n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f o r t u n e s o f t h e p u n t ' s t r a d e w e i g h t e d i n d e x . O v e r a l l , t h e r e s u l t s are g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s a n d t h e r a t e o f e x c h a n g e . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t o p e r a t o r s w h o a n t i c i p a t e f u t u r e p o l i c y a n d o t h e r e c o n o m i c d i s t u r b a n c e s w i l l n o t g e n e r a l l y cause s t r o n g c u r r e n c i e s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n v e r t e d y i e l d t o m a t u r i t y c u r v e s . R a t h e r , t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r s h o w s t h a t o v e r t h e t i m e p e r i o d b e i n g a n a l y s e d , increases i n t h e l e v e l a n d t h e s l o p e o f t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f I r i s h i n t e r e s t r a t e s h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e r i o d s o f w e a k n e s s i n t h e p u n t ' s f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e v a l u e .

I V S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S

T h i s p a p e r has e x a m i n e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e d y n a m i c s o f e x c h a n g e r a t e a d j u s t m e n t s a n d t h e t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t r a t e s . T h e r e c e n t t h e o r e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t s t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a w e l l - d e f i n e d n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c u r r e n c y ' s f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e v a l u e a n d i t s l o n g - s h o r t i n t e r e s t r a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l w h i c h p e r s i s t s as l o n g as f u t u r e e c o n o m i c d i s t u r b a n c e s are n o t a n t i c i p a t e d . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l o f S e c t i o n I I i l l u s t r a t e d h o w t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n b e c o m e r e v e r s i b l e w h e n r a t i o n a l m a r k e t o p e r a t o r s a n t i c i p a t e f u t u r e d i s t u r b a n c e s . T h i s f i n d i n g n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e use o f a t e r m s t r u c t u r e m e a s u r e i n t h e e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s w h i c h is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e s o p h i s t i ­ c a t e d t h a n t h e l o n g - s h o r t i n t e r e s t d i f f e r e n t i a l . T h e a p p r o p r i a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n a l l o w e d u s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i n c r e a s e s i n t h e o v e r a l l y i e l d c u r v e as w e l l as i n i t s s l o p e h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w e a k f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e v a l u e s o f t h e I r i s h p u n t ' s D M r a t e a n d f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e i n d e x . T h i s f i n d i n g is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l o f S e c t i o n I I i n w h i c h f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t o p e r a t o r s a n t i ­ c i p a t e f u t u r e e c o n o m i c d i s t u r b a n c e s w h i l e i t is n o t s u p p o r t i v e o f e a r l i e r r e s u l t s w h i c h i m p l y t h a t t h e s e m a r k e t o p e r a t o r s are m y o p i c . I t is also c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e use o f h i g h i n t e r e s t r a t e s b y t h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s i n o r d e r t o m a n a g e t h e p u n t ' s f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e r a t e .

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o f I n t e r e s t R a t e s " , Journal of Political Economy, V o l . 8 7 , p p . 1 0 0 - 1 2 9 .

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i n I r e l a n d , 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 8 1 " , The Economic and Social Review, V o l . 16, p p . 1 5 7 - 1 6 6 . M I L L E R , M . , 1 9 8 0 . " W h a t D o e s F o r w a r d - L o o k i n g B e h a v i o u r i n the G i l t s M a r k e t I m p l y

for (a) the P r i c e o f C o n s o l s a n d (b) M o n e t a r y a n d F i s c a l P o l i c y ? " , m i m e o g r a p h e d , U n i v e r s i t y o f W a r w i c k . ,

N I E H A N S , J . , 1 9 8 1 . " T h e A p p r e c i a t i o n of S t e r l i n g : C a u s e s , E f f e c t s , P o l i c i e s " , S S R C

M o n e y S t u d y G r o u p p a p e r , F e b r u a r y .

T U R N O V S K Y , S . J . , a n d M . M I L L E R , 1 9 8 4 . " G o v e r n m e n t E x p e n d i t u r e a n d the T e r m

Figure

Table 1: Sample Cross Sectional Estimates of the Irish Yield Curve: 1979(12)-1986(12)

References

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