Oral Guide for Mariners
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(2) MARINERS GUIDE TO ORAL EXAMINATION CHAPTER 1: PASSAGE PLANNING. 06 – 10. 1.. How will you plan a passage? Give all relevant publications/ documents etc., which are to be used in such planning 2. Which regulation relates to Safety of Navigation and Avoidance of Dangerous Situations? 3. Who checks and approves the passage planning? 4. Describe a typical checklist for passage planning. 5. How is ECDIS used in planning a passage? 6. What care must be taken when we use a combination of paper and electronic charts? 7. What are the salient differences in the planning of a passage in Open Oceans and Coastal or Restricted waters? 8. How is the monitoring of passage plan conducted? 9. Does the passage planning include pilotage waters? If so describe briefly pre-arrival, pilot on board and the outward-bound pilotage plan. 10. In a passage planning what are the elements used in the routing scheme? 11. What do you understand by Ship Reporting System and how is it used to plan a passage? 12. What role does a Vessel Traffic Service play in planning a passage?. CHAPTER 2: WATCH KEEPING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.. CHAPTER 3: BRIDGE EQUIPMENT 1. 2. 3. 4.. 11 – 16. What are the duties of an Officer on Watch (OOW) on the bridge? What do understand by maintaining a lookout? What do you understand by a sole lookout? How does the OOW comply with the provisions of the COLREGS? What special precautions are to be taken by the OOW? What records must be maintained on the bridge by the OOW? What kinds of checks are required to be carried out on the navigational equipment on board? How does the OOW hand over watch? When does the OOW call the Master? What constitutes a bridge team and what are the assigned duties of a bridge team? How are new personnel familiarised with the watchkeeping? Which are the danger messages the OOW is obliged under SOLAS to broadcast to ships and near coast stations? While navigating in pilotage waters with a pilot on board describe the duties of the OOW. What basic principles the ship for communication by radio must follow? What precautions are required while anchoring and at anchor watch? What special precautions must be taken while navigating in coastal waters?. 17 – 18. What are the general precautions the OOW should take in the operation and maintenance of bridge equipment? What do you understand by good Radar Practice? What aspects of the radar need to be checked while using the same for position fixing and monitoring ship's progress? What is parallel indexing when monitoring the ship's progress in a passage planning?. CHAPTER 4: STEERING GEAR ETC., 1. 2. 3. 4.. 19 – 23. How is a steering gear tested? What is the difference between a track-keeping and course-keeping autopilot? How does an off-course alarm work in an autopilot? What precautions are required to be taken while using a transmitting magnetic compass (TMC) or a gyro compass for navigating a ship? 5. What types of speed measurement instruments are used on the ship? 6. What precautions are required to be taken while using an echo sounder? 7. What are the electronic position-fixing systems used on the ship and what care should be taken while using the same? 8. What is Integrated Bridge Systems (IBS)? 9. What is ECDIS and how is it used for navigation on ships? 10. What is the difference between the electronic chart format of Vector and Raster charts?. 2 of 101.
(3) CHAPTER 5: P&I CLUB 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.. 24 – 26. What are P and I clubs? What are the covers provided by the P and I club? What is “call money” and how is decided by the P and I Club? Who are P & I club correspondents and what are their functions? How are claims of P & I clubs paid? How does a ship owner register his claim? What are the P & I covers for pollution? Which liabilities are normally not covered by the P & I clubs?. CHAPTER 6: MARINE INSURANCE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.. CHAPTER 7: ISM CODE 1. 2.. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.. 32 – 38. What are the basic principles of the ISM code? Define the following: 1. ISM code, 2. Company, 3. Administration, 4. Safety Management System, 5. Document of Compliance, 6. Safety Management Certificate, 7. Objective Evidence, 8. Observation, 9. Nonconformity, 10. Major Non-conformity, 11. Anniversary Date, 12. Convention. What are the objectives of SMS? What are the functional requirements for a SMS? What is the Safety and Environmental Protection Policy? What are the responsibilities and the authorities of the company? Who is a DPA and what are his responsibilities? What are Master's responsibilities and authorities? How does the company ensure proper resources and personnel are provided on the ship? How is the ISM code implemented on the ship? How is the certification and verification done for ISM? Under the ISM Code define a Safety Officer and a Safety representative and their duties. What is a safety committee and what is its function? What are the duties of the Company and Master under the Code of Safe Working Procedures on board?. CHAPTER 8: ISPS CODE 1. 2. 3. 4.. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.. 27 – 31. What types of marine insurance covers are required by ship owners and ship managers? What kind of insurance covers are there for Time and Voyage Charterers? What are the basic principles of marine insurance? Differentiate between a) Actual Total Loss and b) Constructive Total Loss. What is particular average loss in marine insurance? What is general average loss under marine insurance? What constitutes common maritime adventure? What are the essential elements of a general average act? What are the sacrifices or expenditures normally allowed in a general average act? What do you understand by sacrifices extraordinarily, intentionally and reasonably made? How is the general average adjustment made? What documents and information are required to make a claim?. 39 – 47. What is ISPS code? What are the objectives of the ISPS code? In order to achieve the objectives what functional requirements are embodied in the code? Define 1. Convention, 2. Ship Security Plan (SSP), 3. Port Facility Security Plan (PFSP), 4. Ship Security Officer (SSO), 5. Company Security Officer (CSO), 6. Port Facility Security Officer (PFSO), 7. Security Level 1 (SL1), 8. Security Level 2 (SL2) and 9. Security Level 3 (SL3). Which ships' are covered under ISPS code? What are the responsibilities of the CG under this code? What is DoS and when is it required to be completed? What is the obligation of the company under the ISPS code? What activities are allowed under different Security Levels, SL1, SL2 and SL3 on ships? How is a Ship Security Assessment (SSA) done? How is a Ship Security Plan (SSP) made? What records are required to be kept on board for the SSP? What are the duties and responsibilities of a CSO? What are duties and responsibilities of a SSO? What activities are allowed under different Security Levels, SL1, SL2 and SL3 in a port? How is the Port Facility Security Assessment (PFSA) done? How is the Port Facility Security Plan (PFSP) made? What are the duties and responsibilities of a PFSO. 3 of 101.
(4) 19. 20. 21.. What is the certificate issued to a port under the ISPS code? For the purpose of ISPS code which amendments were brought about in the SOLAS 1974? What are the functional requirements of a Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)? In the Indian context, what happens when the SSAS is alerted on board? 22. What do you understand by protocol of communication under the ISPS code?. CHAPTER 9: PORT STATE CONTROL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.. CHAPTER 10: PORT OF REFUGE 1. 2.. 6. 7. 8. 9.. 55 – 61. What is STCW 95 and how is different from STCW 78? What is a "White List"? What are the certificates required for a seafarer under the STCW code? What are the mandatory requirements for certification of deck and engineer officers? What are the functions for deck examination as defined by STCW 95 and what are the levels of responsibilities? What are the general provisions of sea service requirements as per STCW code? What are the training and certification requirements for 1. Tankers, 2. Gas and Chemical Carriers, 3. Ro-Ro Passenger Ships, and 4. Passenger ships other than Ro-Ro Ships. What are the requirements for revalidation of certificate of competency as per STCW Code? What are the safe manning regulations as per STCW 95 and the Code?. CHAPTER 12: MASTER AND HIS RESPONSIBILITY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.. 52 – 54. What constitutes a port of refuge? What are the typical procedures followed by a port for a ship calling a port of refuge?. CHAPTER 11: STCW 95 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.. 48 – 51. What is Port State Control? What are its primary responsibilities? Which are the eight PSC regimes in operation worldwide? What the general criteria are as laid down by the PSC MOUs? Which certificates and documents are to be inspected for the PSC? What is 'Equasis' and what are its main principles? When can a ship be detained under the PSC code?. 62 – 67. How is the command of a ship taken or handed over? How does a successor take over command of a ship in case of an emergency? What are the chief responsibilities of a master? What is a crew agreement and what are the master's responsibilities regarding it? What is a breach of crew agreement and how is it dealt with? What are the guidelines for drug and alcohol abuse on board? Which conditions may constitute a criminal liability for a seafarer? What are master's actions in response to complaints from seamen? What are the actions of a master if the crew goes on strike? What procedures are required to be followed in case of a death on board?. CHAPTER 13: CHARTER PARTY 1. 2. 3. 4.. 68 – 81. What is a liner trade and how is it different from a tramp trade? How are ships in the dry bulk and tanker market categorised? Which parties are involved in transportation of goods by sea? Outline the meaning of following International Trade Terms (INCOTERMS): EXW, FCA, FAS, FOB, CFR, CIF, CPT, CIP, DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU & DDP. 5. Explain the terms FOB and CIF in detail and their advantages. 6. What is a Documentary Credit System (DCS) between a buyer and seller of goods? 7. What are the different charters? Name salient features of a) Time, b) Voyage and c) Bareboat charter parties. 8. What is a sub-charter? 9. What is a contract of affreightment (COA)? 10. What are the duties and responsibilities of a shipbroker? 11. Given below are some of the chartering terms in abbreviations used by shipbrokers: 12. What are the salient clauses of a voyage charter party? 13. What is “ World Scale “ and how is it used for reference to fix a tanker on charter? 14. What are the salient features of a time charter party?. 4 of 101.
(5) CHAPTER 14: BILLS OF LADING. 82 – 88. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.. What is a Bill of Lading and describe its functions? How will you describe B/L as a receipt for goods? How will you describe B/L as evidence of contract? How will you describe B/L as a document of title? Describe different types of B/L. Differentiate between a Clean and Dirty B/L. What is a letter of indemnity (LOI) and what precaution must be used before accepting the same? 7. What is a Mate’s Receipt? 8. What precautions must be taken while signing a B/L? 9. How does the master give delivery of cargo on presentation of the original B/L? 10. What is a seaway bill? 11. What are the typical problems related to B/L? 12. What are the rules governing carrier’s obligations and liability?. CHAPTER 15: COGSA 1971-1992 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.. CHAPTER 16: INTERNATIONAL MARITIME LAW 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.. 95 – 99. What are International law, Customary law and Treaties? What is UNCLOS and what are the provisions incorporated in it? What is the nature and purpose of IMO? What are the main organs of the IMO? Describe the IMO instruments e.g. Conventions, Protocols, Amendments, Recommendations, Codes and Guidelines and Resolutions Give brief descriptions of various chapters of SOLAS 1974. How is a Convention developed, entered into force and amended in the IMO?. CHAPTER 17: SHIP REGISTRATION 1. 2. 3. 4.. 89 – 94. What are the salient features of the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1971 (COGSA 71)? What are the salient features of the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 (COGSA 92)? What are the provisions for carriage of deck cargo How is the rule of General Average (GA) act applicable in case of a deck cargo? What is IMDG Code? What are the classes of Dangerous Goods? How will you accept any bulk cargo other than grain for loading on board? What are the International Grain Code requirements? What are the hazardous bulk cargo documents needed?. 100 - 103. What are the provisions for ship registration? What are the purposes and benefits of ship registration? What is the IMO identification number? What is a classification society? Is it mandatory? What are the advantages of having a ship under class?. 5 of 101.
(6) INDEX CHAPTER 1 PASSAGE PLANNING Q.1. How will you plan a passage? Give all relevant publications/ documents etc., which are to be used in such planning. Ans. Passage planning is done from departure Berth to Berth on arrival. We come to know of the berth at destination port through the owner, the Master or the destination agent. Passage planning is through (a) Planning, (b) Execution and (c) Appraisal. It is a dynamical process and needs constant monitoring and reviewing as per the situation on hand e.g. in TRS weather conditions courses laid down need to be changed and evasive actions taken depending on the circumstances of the case. Following publications are referred for a passage planning: • Chart Catalogue, • Admiralty List of Radio Signal, • Admiralty Tide Tables, • Guide to Port Entry, • Notices to Mariners (latest), • Marine Observer's Hand Book. Chart Catalogue gives the names and the numbers of charts, which will be required for the particular passage. If any charts are not available on the ship or any chart not corrected for the latest Notices to Mariners, the new charts are to be ordered or corrected as the case may be, before laying down the courses and distances on them. Great care must be taken to ensure the largest scale charts available are used. While transferring the courses from one chart to another, ensure that positions, course and distances are accurate. Recheck all courses and distances as laid down. It is a good idea to have a small notebook with us to write down the courses and distances from point to point along with their latitudes and longitudes for our record. These may be useful in future or in case of a court of enquiry. Q.2. Which regulation relates to Safety of Navigation and Avoidance of Dangerous Situations? Ans. SOLAS regulation V/34 relates to Safety of Navigation and Avoidance of Dangerous Situations. It is applicable to all ships, which proceed to sea. SOLAS V/34.2 provides that the voyage plan must identify a route which: • takes into account any relevant ship's routing systems; • ensures sufficient sea room for the safe passage of the ship throughout the voyage; • anticipates all known navigational hazards and adverse weather conditions and expected current, tide, wind, swell and visibility; • takes into account the marine environmental protection measures that apply, and avoids as far as possible , actions and activities which would cause damage to the environment. 6 of 101.
(7) INDEX • • • • • • •. imposes routing constraints by draft or cargo on board; identifies areas of high traffic density; anticipates on shore sets due strong currents or tide; requires additional sea room for tank cleaning or pilot embarkation etc.; regulates ship routing or ship reporting systems; alters course at positions indicated on the chart taking the speed and turning circle of the ship into account; checks the reliability of propulsion and steering systems.. Q.3. Who checks and approves the passage planning? Ans. The master should check that the tracks so laid for planning a passage are safe and the chief engineer should verify that the ship has sufficient fuel, water and lubricants for the intended voyage. The responsibility of passage planning is normally entrusted to the 2nd officer on board. Q.4. Describe a typical checklist for passage planning. Ans. Every Company has a typical voyage plan checklist, which may be in the following format: • Charts used : Large scale for coastal waters Small scale for ocean passages Planning chart Routing, climatic, load line zone charts • Publications used: Sailing directions/ pilot book Guide to port entry List of lights Radio signals Tide table tidal stream atlas • All Charts and publications are corrected? By ordering new charts Notices to mariners Local area warning NAVAREA warning • Points considered? Drafts on departure and arrival Ship's cargo imposing any passage restrictions Ship's special operation requirements • Points checked? Ship Routing System, Ship Reporting System and Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) Weather charts of the area • Is the vessel under weather routing for the passage? • For arrival port: Large scale charts studied? 7 of 101.
(8) INDEX Ship/ Shore, Master/ Pilot exchange form ready? Pilot card updated? Port guide studied for arrival/ berthing restrictions? • Other checks: Q.5. How is ECDIS used in planning a passage? Ans. Passage planning with electronic navigating systems is no different, except that over reliance on the systems could take away the basic seamanship aspects of the mariner and non performance of any of the instruments may lead to confusion. Electronic Display and Information System (ECDIS) can be of Raster Chart Display Systems (RCDS) displaying Raster navigational charts (RNC), which can be used in conjunction, with paper charts. When passage planning uses ECDIS, it is prudent for the navigator to draw a Safety Contour around the ship. Crossing the safety contour e.g. shallow water, prohibited zone or a traffic separation scheme will be automatically indicated by the ECDIS. Q.6. What care must be taken when we use a combination of paper and electronic charts? Ans. When we use a combination of paper and electronic charts, care should be taken that all paper or all electronic charts are used at critical points of landfall, port arrival and pilotage etc. When transferring the details from a paper chart to an electronic chart display system or vice-versa the navigator should ensure that: • positions are transferred to and are verified on, electronic charts of an equivalent scale to that of the paper on which the position was originally plotted; • any differences in chart datum is applied to the transferred position; • the plan is rechecked for accuracy before being used. Q.7. What are the salient differences in the planning of a passage in Open Oceans and Coastal or Restricted waters? Ans. Open Oceans use small-scale charts, gnomonic projection ocean charts for plotting great circle routes. Load line zone charts are used to ensure Load Line rules are complied with. Ocean current charts are used to take advantage of the favourable currents. Ice movements are noted to keep clear of them. Frontal depressions and poor visibility can restrict the northerly or southerly latitudes for navigation. Seasonal Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS) where encountered are to be avoided and enough searoom provided to steer clear of the same. Weather routing services are to be followed. Landfall targets are identified with their likely radar/ visual ranges. In respects of lights, their rising and dipping ranges and arc/ colours along with their sectors are identified. Coastal or restricted waters have limited time available in taking corrective measures. Manoeuvring characteristics of the ship and its limitations, if any, particularly with reference to the propulsion and the steering systems must be taken into consideration before planning these passages. Ship squat can reduce underkeel clearance at speed and must be considered very carefully.. 8 of 101.
(9) INDEX Ship routing schemes and reporting systems along with route and vessel traffic services should be strictly followed. Coastal weather bulletins including gale warnings may require changes in the passage plan. Q.8.How is the monitoring of passage plan conducted? Ans. In the oceans, monitoring of a passage plan is easier as it involves restructuring a course based on information received on weather, ice, fog, frontal depression or tropical storms with ample searoom. In the coastal or restricted waters the monitoring is highly critical especially the time to place the wheel over at the end of a track and ensuring that the ship is on the new track after the alteration of course. Distinctive features e.g. transit bearings, bearing line of conspicuous object etc., can be effectively used. Visual, Radar and Echo sounder information become an integral part of a passage plan. Radar clearing ranges and bearings are effectively used. Parallel indexing can be used to check that the ship is maintaining the course and not drifting to port or starboard. Q.9. Does the passage planning include pilotage waters? If so describe briefly pre-arrival, pilot on board and the outward-bound pilotage plan. Ans. Passage planning includes pilotage waters. Pre-arrival plan should be for anchoring or aborting port entry. The plan should also include contingency measures such as equipment failure, poor visibility etc. The Pilot Card should be updated. The card contains information on ship's draft, speed, turning circle and a checklist of all equipment available and working. The ship initiates a pre-arrival information exchange about 24 hours before her ETA pilot point. The Ship to Shore Master/ Pilot Exchange and Shore to Ship Pilot/ Master Exchange forms can be used. These information exchanges can be by facsimile transmission and will vary from ship to ship, port to port. It is better to keep them to the basics and have them the minimum possible to avoid confusion. Where passage can last for many hours situations may change, which will need changing of the plan. When pilot comes on board, he will have ample time to discuss the berthing with the master of the ship. The pilot should be handed over the Pilot Card and shown the wheelhouse poster, which provides the summary of the manoeuvring information of the ship. The outward-bound passage plan can be discussed with the inward pilot and made accordingly. Q.10. In a passage planning what are the elements used in the routing scheme? Ans. Elements used in routing scheme include: • traffic separation scheme aimed at separating opposing traffics; • traffic lane, which defines limits of one-way traffic flow; • separation zone besides which ships are proceeding in opposite or near opposite direction; • roundabout within a defining limit having a separation point or circular zone;. 9 of 101.
(10) INDEX • • • • • •. inshore traffic zone of a designated sea area between the adjacent coast and the boundary of the traffic separation scheme; recommended route often marked by buoys at the centre with undefined width; deep water routes accurately surveyed for clearance of sea bottom and submerged obstacles if any; archipelagic sea lane for expeditious navigation in archipelagic waters; precautionary areas where ships must navigate with great caution; areas to be avoided by certain classes of ships and where navigation is very hazardous.. Q.11. What do you understand by Ship Reporting System and how is it used to plan a passage? Ans. Ship Reporting System has been introduced by several countries in the world to keep a track of any ship in and around their coasts by radio, radar or transponder. Uses of Ship Reporting System form a part of passage planning. Ship Reporting System is used to get or exchange information about ships, such as their position, course, speed and cargo in addition to monitoring passing traffic. These information are useful for search and rescue and prevention of pollution. Ship Reporting Systems can be adopted internationally by IMO. All ships or certain category of ships or ships carrying certain cargoes will use such systems. It is the obligation of the ship and the master to comply with the requirements of a Ship Reporting System and report to the appropriate authorities all information that is required. The master will also give additional reports upon leaving or entering a Ship Reporting System. List of radio signals provides all details of Ship Reporting System. Details of IMO adopted Ship Reporting Systems are contained in Part G of the IMO publication Ships' Routing updated by the 1996 Amendments to Ships' Routing. Q.12. What role does a Vessel Traffic Service play in planning a passage? Ans. Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) is basically introduced in ports and their approaches to monitor the compliance of a ship with the local regulations. It also plays an important role in optimising traffic management. Vessel Traffic Service may be mandatory within the territorial seas of a coastal state. On board a ship Vessel Traffic Service should form a part of the passage planning. Specific radio frequencies are to be given for the ship to monitor navigational or other warnings and seek advice on when to proceed to areas where traffic flow is regulated. Vessel Traffic Service requirements are marked on the relevant charts. For more specific information sailing directions and list of radio signals should be used.. 10 of 101.
(11) INDEX CHAPTER 2 WATCHKEEPING Q.1. What are the duties of an Officer on Watch (OOW) on the bridge? Ans. The primary duties of an Officer on Watch are (i) Watchkeeping, (ii) Navigation and (iii) GMDSS radio watchkeeping. Officer on Watch is a representative of the master and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe navigation of the ship and for complying with COLREGS. As Officer on Watch, he is in charge of the bridge team for that watch, until properly relieved of his duty. The Officer on Watch shall ensure that master's standing orders are fully complied with and bridge watch manning levels are safe at all times under prevailing circumstances and conditions. Watchkeeping duties include but are not limited to the following: • maintaining a proper look out and general surveillance of the ship; • collision avoidance in accordance with COLREGS; • recording bridge activities and making periodic checks on all navigational equipment in use; • follow procedures for handing over watch as per shipboard operation procedures; • calling for support on the bridge as and when required; • execute the passage plan safely and monitor the progress; • maintain continuous GMDSS radio watch including distress signals if any; • be conversant thoroughly with the speed, handling characteristics, stopping distances and turning circle of the ship; • must not hesitate to use helm, engines or sound signalling apparatus at any time; • must be fully conversant with all safety equipment on board and their usage particularly with reference to prevention of pollution and emergency situations; • should not leave the bridge unattended at any time. There are additional duties for the Officer on Watch that will be entrusted to him depending on his rank. He must be fully familiar with them e.g. cargo monitoring, general communications, control of machinery, supervision and control of safety systems etc. These additional duties must not interfere with the primary duties of the Officer on Watch. Q.2. What do understand by maintaining a lookout? Ans. COLREG places a mandatory provision for keeping a proper lookout on ship at all times. It must serve the following purpose: • maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing as well as by all other available means in order to assess any significant change in the operating environment; • appraising at all times the risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to navigation; • detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris or other hazards to safe navigation.. 11 of 101.
(12) INDEX Lookout duties cannot be shared with other works e.g. a helmsman on duty, while steering should not be considered a lookout man unless the ship is small and he has the unobstructed all round view from the steering position. Ships with fully enclosed bridges should have such provisions that sound reception from all audible sounds on the open deck is clear at all times inside the bridge. Q.3. What do you understand by a sole lookout? Ans. Under the STCW code, the OOW may be the sole lookout in the daytime under the following conditions: • careful assessment has been made and established without doubt that it is safe to operate with a sole lookout; • full account has been taken of all relevant factors, including, but not limited to state of weather, visibility, traffic density, dangers to navigation in the proximity, navigating in or near traffic separation schemes etc.; • assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in situation so requires; • clear guidelines are incorporated in the shipboard operational procedures manual. Q.4. What special precautions are to be taken by the OOW? Ans. The OOW must maintain a very high level of general awareness of day-to-day operation of the ship. It will include general watch over the ship's decks to monitor, where possible people working on deck, and any cargo or cargo handling equipment. Special care and additional watches are to be kept in places where there is risk of piracy or armed attack. Whenever people are working aloft or in the vicinity of radar antennae, radio aerials and sound signalling apparatus, the OOW should be particularly observant. Warning notices are to be posted at appropriate places and all concerned should be informed to take adequate precautions and inform the OOW once the assigned work is completed. Q.5. How does the OOW comply with the provisions of the COLREGS? Ans. Compliance of the provisions of the COLREGS means not only the conduct of the vessels under steering and sailing rules, but displaying the correct lights, shapes and making the correct sound and light signals. Vessels may not be displaying their correct lights/ shapes or the lights/ shapes may not be visible due certain restrictions of the ship's structure when approached from a certain direction. It is therefore always prudent to allow extra searoom as long as it is safe to do so. In all cases early and positive action should be taken when close quarter situation exists and to avoid collision. Once an action is taken the OOW must ensure that the action so taken has the desired effect. Valuable time should not be wasted in trying to contact the other vessel seeking collision avoidance action from the other party. It is not possible to have confirmed and positive identification of the other party and even so misunderstanding in communication could arise leading to disastrous results.. 12 of 101.
(13) INDEX Risk of collision in a clear weather can be detected by taking frequent compass bearings of the other approaching vessel/s. If the bearings are study risk of collision exist. However risk of collision may still be there when approaching very large ships, ships under tow or ships at close range even when there is an appreciable bearing change. In restricted visibility radar and radar plotting can be effectively used to assess risk of collision. However over reliance on electronic gadgets can be dangerous and the OOW should take every opportunity in clear weather to practice radar plotting and check and improve on his efficiency. Q.6. What records must be maintained on the bridge by the OOW? Ans. The OOW must maintain a proper and formal record of all-navigational activities and incidents, which are of importance to safety of navigation. OOW is provided with appropriate logbooks. Besides notations in the logbook, paper records from the course recorders, echo sounders, NAVTEX receivers etc. should be retained at least for the duration of the voyage marked with date and time. All information on position, course and speed should be recorded in the bridge logbook or in an approved electronic means in such a manner that the ship's actual track can be reconstructed at any time later. Q.7. What kinds of checks are required to be carried out on the navigational equipment on board? Ans. The OOW must carry out the operational checks on navigation equipment when preparing for sea and prior to port entry. It is important for the OOW to know that full engine power and the manoeuvrability of the ship is available especially before entering restricted coastal waters after a long ocean passage. Routine checks include: • daily manual steering at least once a watch when the automatic pilot is in use; • magnetic and gyro compass errors once a watch if possible and after every major change of course; • synchronisation of gyro repeaters including engine room control and emergency steering position; • electronic equipment for accurate functioning and proper synchronisation with the bridge to which it is connected; • proper configuration of the electronic equipment as set is not changed; • in built check systems of the electronic equipment to have a periodic review of the health of the system; • comparison with other equipment or independent sources to ensure good and adequate performance at all times; • helm and engine room RPM indicators to ensure that helm and engine orders are followed.. 13 of 101.
(14) INDEX Q.8. How does the OOW hand over watch? Ans. The OOW should not hand over the watch if he has reasons to believe the relieving officer is unfit due to illness, inebriated due to alcohol/drug or unable due to fatigue to take over the watch. He must inform the master of the ship immediately. The relieving OOW must come at least 10/15 minutes before his watch to familiarise himself with the night vision and get satisfied with the ship's position, its course and speed, engine controls, visibility and that of any dangers to navigation he may encounter in his watch. The relieving OOW must also ensure that his bridge team for the new watch is properly familiar with the night vision and fit for duty. If any avoiding action is being taken at the time of relieving of duty, hand over should be deferred till such time such action is completed. Q.9. When does the OOW call the Master? Ans. Guidance on specific circumstances for calling the master is given in the shipboard operational procedures. Standing and bridge orders by the master support it. All companies have a checklist giving circumstances and situations where the master should be called. A typical checklist could be in the following format: • restricted visibility is encountered or expected; • traffic conditions or movement of other ships are causing concern; • difficulties are encountered in maintaining course; • failure to sight land or a navigation mark or change of sounding at the appropriate time; • conversely if sighted land or a navigation mark or change of sounding at an inappropriate time; • breakdown of machinery, propulsion, steering gear or any essential navigational equipment failure; • alarm, indicator of any malfunction especially radio equipment; • heavy weather and suspicion of any damage due to it; • navigational hazards encountered, e.g. ice or derelict; • any other emergencies or if in doubt. Once on the bridge, the master must take over the total control of the ship and inform the OOW in clear and unambiguous terms. The fact that the master has taken command on the bridge should be recorded in the logbook. Q.10.What constitutes a bridge team and what are the assigned duties of a bridge team? Ans. A bridge team is assigned specified duties, which can be performed effectively by the individuals in the team. Duties are prioritised and each member must understand his tasks and duties so assigned. A continuous and positive reporting system of events must be part of the assignment of the bridge team to monitor the performance. The team should be able to take actions appropriate to the circumstances and conditions if any deterioration of the performance takes place. The team should be able to co-ordinate and communicate with other effectively at all times and especially so during emergency situations. It should be able to support each 14 of 101.
(15) INDEX other and anticipate dangerous situations arising at any time. The bridge team must have a plan, which must be well understood by all members of the team having good situational awareness. The development of an error chain should be avoided and actions taken to break such error sequence. Q.11. How are new personnel familiarised with the watchkeeping? Ans. Under the ISM Code and the STCW Convention, every personnel joining the ship must familiarise himself with the ship specific equipment and associated ship procedures as laid down in the shipboard operational procedure manual. He must observe, practice and understand the limitations of the navigational aids and systems being used and continually monitor their performance. He must use the dead reckoning position to check the position fixes obtained from GPS and /or sextant observations. Over reliance on automated electronic navigational equipment should be avoided at all times. Visual navigational aids like bearing of lighthouses etc. should always be used to support electronic position fixing. Q.12. What special precautions must be taken while navigating in coastal waters? Ans. Following steps should be followed along with any special instructions from the master: • most suitable large scale chart should be used; • position of the ship should be fixed at frequent intervals; • all relevant navigational aids must be positively identified before they are used; • ship's routing scheme and ship reporting system must be followed scrupulously; • OOW must be aware of the draft of the ship with relation to the depth of water for squat, which may have very critical effect on the safe navigation of the ship; • he must be fully aware of the stability conditions of the ship and its manoeuvring characteristics; • parallel indexing while alteration of course in restricted waters. Q.13. While navigating in pilotage waters with a pilot on board describe the duties of the OOW. (Refer to Q.9 of Chapter 1) Ans. Pilot is a part of the bridge team once he embarks and arrives on the bridge. Pilot has specialised knowledge of navigation in local waters. Depending on the local pilotage laws, the master may delegate the conduct of the ship to the pilot, who will navigate the ship in close co-ordination with the master. It is important that responsibilities of the master and the pilot are clearly agreed and mutually understood. There should be no ambiguity. The presence of the pilot does not relieve the master or the OOW of their duties and obligations for the safety of the ship. Passage plan made on board for pilotage waters must be discussed with the pilot and agreed or amended as the case may be in a safe place with sufficient time and sea room. Safe passage must be monitored at all times by regularly fixing the position of the ship particularly after each alteration of course and observing the squat and keel clearance. 15 of 101.
(16) INDEX carefully. Verbal orders from the pilot must be repeated and executed correctly. These will include the helm and engine orders and the OOW must ensure that rudder angle and the RPM indicator confirm to the order so given. If a master leaves the bridge, the OOW should not hesitate to clarify any doubt with the pilot and if not satisfied with the situation call the master urgently. In high traffic density or restricted visibility, there should be a helmsman steering the vessel to assist the OOW. Q.14. What basic principles the ship for communication by radio must follow? Ans. The ship for radio communication must follow the following basic principles: • top priority is given to distress, urgency and safety communication; • interference with other radio users should be avoided; • proper frequencies should be used for the correct purpose. Q.15. What precautions are required while anchoring and at anchor watch? Ans. Anchoring position is predetermined with careful consideration to the swinging circle based upon the length of cable used. Landmarks and transit bearings should be selected for easier monitoring of the position of the ship. Appropriate lights and shapes must be displayed according to the COLREGS and the local regulations. OOW must check the anchorage position to ensure that the ship does not drag its anchor or move too close to another anchored vessel. A proper lookout must be maintained at all times and inspections round the ship carried out especially in waters where there is a risk of piracy or armed robbery. The master should immediately be notified in case any of the above incident or bad weather, bad visibility or the ship is suspected to be dragging her anchor. Q.16. Which are the danger messages the OOW is obliged under SOLAS to broadcast to ships and near coast stations? Ans. Under the SOLAS, the OOW is obliged to broadcast the following danger messages: • dangerous ice; • a dangerous derelict or any other direct danger to navigation; • a tropical storm; • sub-freezing air temperatures associated with gale force winds causing severe ice accretion or superstructures; • winds of force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale for which no storm warning has been received. The safety signal should be used when announcing danger messages.. 16 of 101.
(17) INDEX CHAPTER 3 BRIDGE EQUIPMENTS Q.1.What are the general precautions the OOW should take in the operation and maintenance of bridge equipment? Ans. OOW must be completely familiar with all the navigational and communications equipment, charts and publication on board. He must be fully acquainted with the operating manual of each equipment, particularly with regard to setting up the controls and procedures to be followed in case of equipment failure. Periodic checks must be conducted on the equipment and defects, if any must be brought to the notice of the master and entered in the logbook. Preventive maintenance must be carried out as per the instruction manual. All charts and publications for the intended voyage should be kept on board and corrected up to date. Q.2. What do you understand by good Radar Practice? Ans. The radar should be kept running at all times and when using the same, the OOW should keep the following points in mind: • quality of performance should be continuously monitored through a performance monitor, if fitted; • heading marker should be correctly aligned checking it with the fore and aft of the ship and the compass heading; • small vessels, ice and objects like containers may not be detected by the radar; • video processing techniques should be used with care; • careful use of clutter control to avoid obscuring of objects by sea or rain clutter; • shadow and blind sectors should be known to the OOW and adequate precautions taken while navigating by radar; • practising in clear weather for radar collision avoidance can be greatly helpful in restricted visibility, radar observations and target vectors can be visually checked; • range scales depend on the traffic density, speed of the ship and how often the radar is being observed; • detection of small targets is better at short range; • plotting of targets is better at longer range; • use of long range is advisable to give advance warning of approaching vessels and land; • safe speed of a ship is dependant on the above factors; • closest point of approach (CPA) of a target is determined by the course, speed and aspect of the target to indicate whether or not there is a risk of collision; • accuracy of the CPA plot is dependant on the accurate input of own ship's course and speed, yawing ship or inaccurate speed can make a head-on target look like passing clear; • multiple plotting must be done to have greater accuracy; • change in course or speed of either ship or target may loose accuracy of plotting;. 17 of 101.
(18) INDEX •. change of relative bearing of the target can not be assumed as no risk of collision.. Q.3.What aspects of the radar need to be checked while using the same for position fixing and monitoring ship's progress? Ans. When using radar for position fixing and monitoring ship's progress, the OOW must check: • the overall performance of the radar; • the identity of the fixed object being observed; • gyro error and accuracy of the heading line alignment; • accuracy of the variable range marker (VRM), electronic bearing lines (EBL) and fixed range rings; • the parallel index lines are set correctly. Q.4. What is parallel indexing when monitoring the ship's progress in a passage planning? Ans. Parallel indexing provides a method on the radar of verifying that the ship is maintaining a safe course to pass a fixed object, such as a head landmark at the desired distance. Parallel indexing does not substitute position fixing of a ship at regular intervals. The technique requires an index line to be drawn to pass through the radar echo of a fixed object at a tangent to a fixed VRM decided as the safe distance. The index line will line up parallel to the ground track that the ship will need to follow to maintain a safe distance while passing. Parallel indexing can be used in both true motion and relative motion screen of the radar. In case of true motion display the echo remains stationary and the edge of VRM should move along the index line. In case of relative motion display, the echo of a fixed object moves in a direction and speed reciprocal of own ship's speed on the ground and the echo should move along the index line.. 18 of 101.
(19) INDEX CHAPTER 4 STEERING GEAR AND ELECTRONIC POSITION-FIXING SYSTEMS Q.1. How is a steering gear tested? Ans. After prolonged use of autopilot and before entering coastal waters the steering gear must be tested at all the manual steering positions on the bridge. In coastal waters more than one steering gear power unit, when such units are capable of simultaneous operation should be used. Within 12 hours before departure from a port, check and test the steering gear along with the operation of the following: • the main steering gear; • the auxiliary steering gear; • the remote steering gear control systems; • the main steering position on the bridge; • the emergency power supply; • the rudder angle indicator in relation to actual rudder position; • the remote steering gear control system power failure alarms; • the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and • automatic isolating arrangements and other automatic equipment. The checks and test should include the full rudder movement, the timing of such movement from hard-over to hard-over and the operation of the means of communication between the bridge and the steering gear compartment. All OOW must ensure they are familiar with the operation or maintenance of the steering gear along with the change over procedures. Emergency steering drills should take place at least in every three months. It should include direct control from within the steering gear compartment, the communication procedure with the bridge and, where applicable the operation of alternative power supplies. The dates/ time of testing including details of emergency steering drills carried out are to be recorded in the logbook. Q.2. What is the difference between a track-keeping and course-keeping autopilot? Ans. Track-keeping autopilot allows the ship to follow the track laid for a passage, whereas course-keeping autopilot ensures that the ship points to the right direction. Wind and current for example can move the ship sideways and off its track, while the ship's heading remains same. In a track-keeping mode the autopilot should perform turns automatically between track legs, using either pre-set turn radius or rate of turn values. If there is a malfunction in track-keeping mode, an alarm should come and the system should automatically revert to course-keeping mode.. 19 of 101.
(20) INDEX Q.3. How does an off-course alarm work in an autopilot? Ans. Off-course alarm is fitted in every autopilot to warn the OOW when the ship deviates from the course set by a pre-set amount. Non-activation of the off-course alarm will not always mean that the ship is maintaining its planned track. The ship may have moved off the track by wind or current even though the heading remains same. Q.4. What precautions are required to be taken while using a transmitting magnetic compass (TMC) or a gyro compass for navigating a ship? Ans. A transmitting magnetic compass (TMC), if used to provide heading outputs to other bridge systems should be corrected for compass error through transit bearings, azimuth or amplitude observations. The TMC should be tested once a week in clear weather. If TMC is not used the magnetic compass is generally fitted above the bridge on the centreline of the ship with a periscope so that the compass is readable from the helmsman's position. Magnetic compass uses the magnetic properties of the earth for its direction finding. There are corrections like variation, which is the difference between the true north and the magnetic north and deviation, which is the difference between the magnetic north and the compass north of a ship. Both these corrections vary from place to place and with different ship's head. They must be recorded and applied correctly to the compass course to find the true course. Every ship is provided with a deviation chart posted on the bridge. Large or unusual deviation found for a ship's head should be investigated thoroughly. It could be because of major steel conversion of the ship, magnetic anomaly in a certain place or carriage of magnetic cargoes like iron ore or steel. It is also possible that magnets inside the binnacle of the compass were tempered with. Magnetism of all electrical bridge equipment can affect the magnetic compass and the minimum distances from them are specified and should be strictly followed. Gyrocompass uses the directional properties of a gyroscope, which is the rigidity in space and precession. Gyrocompass should be run continuously. Should a gyrocompass stop for any reasons, it should be restarted and checked for errors after it is 'settled'. Speed and latitude corrections must be applied to the gyrocompass. Where the gyro has no speed log or position input, manual corrections would have to be made. Gyrocompass has a number of repeaters connected to it. They must all be checked for alignment with the master gyro including the repeater in the emergency steering gear compartment. Gyro repeaters on the bridge wings must be checked against the master gyro at least once a watch and after excessive manoeuvring. Gyro compass error must be checked and recorded every watch if possible. Care must be taken the error is applied correctly for all bearings etc. Gyrocompass gives the output of direction to several bridge equipment and care should be taken that in case of failure of the gyro, the OOW is aware of contingency plans and actions required.. 20 of 101.
(21) INDEX Q.5. What types of speed measurement instruments are used on the ship? Ans. Generally speed through the water is used for collision avoidance and speed over the ground is used for navigation. Speed made good can be measured on ships and represents the speed the ship has achieved over a period of time. Speed made good can also be measured from the charts between two position fixes and calculated and transmitted by electronic position-fixing systems. Doppler-type logs can be single-axis or dual-axis. In case of single-axis, the speed is measured in the fore and aft direction and in dual-axis measured fore and aft and athwartships. If coupled with a rate of turn measurement, dual-axis logs can calculate the speed and direction of movement of the bow and the stern. It is good navigation practice to set the log at zero at the start of every voyage. Q.6. What precautions are required to be taken while using an echo sounder? Ans. A navigational echo sounder is expected to work up to a depth of 200m (approximately 110 fathoms). Care should be taken as follows: • units of sounding of the echo sounder is the same as those used in the chart; • when comparing the echo and chart soundings, allowance must be made for the draft of the ship or any tidal effects; • errors caused due to aeration, double reflection of echo are taken into consideration; • echo sounder is always used in coastal waters and when making a landfall; • shallow water alarm system if fitted should be set to an appropriate depth to warn of approaching shallow waters. Q.7. What are the electronic position-fixing systems used on the ship and what care should be taken while using the same? Ans. Except Loran C, other electronic position-fixing systems like Decca and Omega is being phased out. Loran C has a basic range of 1200 miles and corrections need to be applied for the variations of the conductivity of the earth's surface. A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) today provides continuous worldwide position, time and speed information. The USA operates global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian Federation operates Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). GPS provides an accuracy of 100 metres. Differential GPS (DGPS) is corrected by terrestrial monitoring systems and can be as accurate as 10 metres. Following care should be taken when using electronic position-fixing systems: • OOW must understand the capabilities and the limitations of all electronic positionfixing systems; • the integrity and the quality of the data transmitted must be safe guarded by pre-set quality limits to monitor the quality of the fix; • comparing all positions to identify and reject any false position; • comparing electronic position-fixing with estimated position calculated by taking observation with input from log, gyro etc.; • checking the status of the data and ensuring only the valid data is used. 21 of 101.
(22) INDEX Q.8. What is Integrated Bridge Systems (IBS)? Ans. Integrated Bridge Systems (IBS) are designed to combine systems, which are interconnected to allow centralised monitoring of sensor information and control of a number of operations such as passage execution, communications, machinery control, safety and security. IBS is not mandatory. Various designs are offered by classification societies and factors taken into account are the design of the bridge, type of equipment fitted and the layout of that equipment on the bridge. Design of the IBS should be such that failure of one sub-system does not cause the failure of another and the OOW knows about the failure immediately. In a navigation management system, the link is provided between charts, position-fixing system, the log, the gyrocompass and the autopilot. The IBS has an alarm system provided to warn the OOW if a potential dangerous situation arises. The alarm system is connected to radar, gyro, autopilot, position-fixing systems, ECDIS, the steering gear and the power distribution system. There should be watch safety or fitness alarm to transfer the alarm to cabins within 30 seconds, if the OOW fails to acknowledge the alarm. An interval timer for setting alarm intervals of up to 12 minutes should be part of the system. A number of alarm acknowledge points, each with a pre-warning alarm to give the OOW notice that the alarm is about to be activated should be available around the bridge. If the fitness time interval expires, an alarm should sound away from the bridge. Clear guidelines are to be written in the shipboard operation procedure manual with advice as to when to commence and when to suspend the use of IBS. Over-reliance on automatic systems with OOW not paying proper attention to visual navigational watchkeeping techniques can be very dangerous. Q.9. What is ECDIS and how is it used for navigation on ships? Ans. Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) include the display of electronic vector and/or raster charts overlaid with the position of the ship and its track. It has facilities to route plan and automatically update chart corrections using digital notices to mariners. Sensors from GPS, log and gyro are connected to ECDIS to provide position of the ship. Autopilot may be connected to provide an integrated bridge system. Some ECDIS has radar-input display overlaid on the chart. This can be either selected targets or a full radar picture. Care should be taken in differentiating target vectors based on ship's speed through the water when OOW tries to overlay the same in a chart that is displaying speed over the ground. Electronic chart display systems can be categorised as ECDIS, RCDS (Raster Chart Display System) or ECS (Electronic Chart System). ECS must have a complete set of paper charts to supplement it on board.. 22 of 101.
(23) INDEX Q.10. What is the difference between the electronic chart format of Vector and Raster charts? Ans. Vector chart has its features stored in a layered digital format and each feature has a set of typical values. Storage in the database allows the chart to be displayed as a seamless chart. The layers can be added or removed enabling fields of data required or not required respectively. Chart features can be expanded to get any additional information on any charted object. Vector charts are inherently "intelligent" and thus allows three-dimensional monitoring while sailing. Chart depth contours and air draught clearances around the ship can be automatically monitored both at the planning stage and while the ship is on passage. Alarms will be automatically triggered if a safety zone around the ship is breached at any time. Raster charts are exact copies of a paper chart and are produced by digital scanning techniques. Information on raster charts cannot be layered and the move from one chart to another cannot be seamless. Raster charts have to be individually selected and displayed. Raster charts have no inherent "intelligence" and the chart data itself cannot generate automatic alarm systems, unless fed manually by the user during the route planning. Datum and projections will be different in case of raster charts and care must be taken to take account of such differences.. 23 of 101.
(24) INDEX CHAPTER 5 P AND I CLUB Q.1. What are P and I clubs? Ans. P and I club means Protection and Indemnity club. The roots of the club were found in 18th century England. Those were the days of sailing ships and extremely slow and inefficient communication system. Ship owners and the underwriters had limited contact and the hull insurance did not cover all aspects of loss on board. A group of ship owners formed an association to provide each other insurance cover. This association was a nonprofit making body controlled by a group of close-knit ship owners. These associations were named as Mutual Hull Insurance Clubs. The basic principle of the club was that each member of the group of ship owners would share with other members the cost of any hull claim, which an individual member suffered. It was paid rateably according to the value of the vessel or vessels owned by that member of the club. This spread the risk over a number of owners and provided the cover, which was otherwise lacking in the insurance market. Pooling of risks made the cover cheaper than what was available in the market. In addition the club was able to have greater control over the handling of claims when compared to the insurance cover provided by underwriters. The increase in the volume and the complexities of world trade expanded the risks covered. In due course the mutual insurance organisations joined forces to form the present date Protection and Indemnity Club. Most of the P and I clubs were established by beginning of 20th century. They were administered by a group of members, the committee, which met periodically to decide on the payment of claims and the levying of calls (premium). Q.2. What are the covers provided by the P and I club? Ans. Following are the typical covers provided by a P and I club: • personal injury claims covering third party liabilities covering death or injury to crew, passenger and stevedores etc.; • crew claims covering repatriation; th • collision liabilities e.g. 1/4 collision, excess collision, carriage of cargo after th collision, risks excluded under 3/4 collision liability clause; • fixed and floating objects claims; • cargo claims; • environmental pollution claims; • miscellaneous claims e.g. wreck removal, custom fines etc.; • freight, demurrage and defence for disputes under charter parties. Claims other than above can also be considered under the so-called 'Omnibus Rule', in which the club committee has the discretion to consider deserving claims from any members at any time. 24 of 101.
(25) INDEX Q.3. What is “call money” and how is decided by the P and I Club? Ans. The premium rates to be paid to the club by a ship owner are called the “call money”. The amount is decided by the committee based on the fleet’s ship types, ages, gross tonnage, trades, flags, crew nationality, exposure to risks, and other factors including the member’s claims record and the likelihood of large claims in the coming year. The member is advised of the total estimated call for the next 12 months; this comprises of an advance call and a supplementary call. Advance calls are levied on all members at the start of the P & I year, which is February 20th (on this date sailing vessels would depart for the Baltic from ports in the north-east coast of England following their winter lay-up and by tradition and still is the date from which insurance was required). Later in the year, if claims have been heavier than expected, the managers will ask the members for a supplementary call to “balance the books”. Clubs aim to be accurate in their predictions of future claims so as not to burden owners with supplementary calls. Refunds are made when income (calls + investments) exceeds outgoing (claims + expenses). Q.4. Who are P & I club correspondents and what are their functions? Ans. P & I clubs retain correspondents at numerous ports worldwide. In the USA a correspondent is normally a law firm with maritime lawyers. The correspondents: • Are for legal reasons, representatives and not agents of the club; • Will attend members’ vessels when so requested by the master or agent in order to protect a member’s interests; • Are generally well acquainted with the club’s rules and policy, etc.; • Will report any occurrence likely to result in claim on the club; • May, pending instructions, appoint surveyors to inspect damages; • May be instructed by the club to offer letter of undertaking in case of possible liability. In most cases of bunkering oil pollution or damage to jetty etc., a bond is to be posted to avoid arrest. Most clubs provide the ships with a list of correspondents. Q.5. How are claims of P & I clubs paid? Ans. When a member of a P & I club has a claim, the first $5 million will be met by the club’s own fund. In excess of $5 million and up to $30 million the claim is divided among the member clubs in the International Group Pool (including the club making the claim), with the pooling contribution of each club being calculated taking into account its entered tonnage, premium income and claims record in the Pool. For claims in excess of the Pool limit, the International Group arranges an ‘Excess of Loss reinsurance contract’ in the market; this currently provides cover for $2000 million ($2 billion) in excess of $30 million in relation to all types of claim except oil pollution, where the limit is $1000 million ($1 billion).. 25 of 101.
(26) INDEX Should the claim ever exceed the upper limit of the Excess of Loss Contract, it should fall back on the Pool and be borne by each club pro rata according to its entered tonnage. Such a claim is called an “overspill claim” and would be funded either from the club reserves or by making a special “overspill call” on the membership. For most of the history of the P & I clubs there are no upper limit to cover, but there is an upper limit of $4.25 billion on overspill claims. Some clubs extensive reinsurance for overspill claims. Q.6. How does a ship owner register his claim? Ans. A ship owner, who is a member of the club, must give immediate notification of any incident, which could result in a claim or liability within the scope of the club’s cover. Once a claim or a potential claim has been notified the club takes over the investigation and handling of the claim. It takes the help of the correspondents, surveyors and lawyers appointed by the club. In liaison with the member, the club will handle the claim to its logical conclusion. If there is a third party claim where the member has to pay, the club will ask the member to pay for the liability. Once the member pays the amount, an indemnity (i.e. reimbursement) is asked for from the club in accordance with the club rules and the member’s terms of entry. The amount recoverable is subject to a deductible i.e. an amount agreed by the member to bear himself before he can claim from the club. Q.7. Which liabilities are normally not covered by the P & I clubs? Ans. Clubs will not normally cover: • Ad valorem bill of lading; • Deviation; • Delivery of cargo in a port other than the port specified in the bill of lading; • Failure to arrive or late arrival at a port of loading; • Delivery of cargo without production of bill of lading; • Ante-dated or post-dated bill of lading; • Clean bills of lading in case of damaged cargo; • Deck cargo carried on terms of an under-deck bill of lading; • Arrest or detention of an entered ship. Q.8. What are the P & I covers for pollution? Ans. P & I cover for pollution liabilities is generally to the extent that the pollution is as a result of an escape or discharge or threatened escape or discharge of oil or any other substance. Clubs have traditionally covered: • Liabilities for damages or compensation; • Costs of reasonably-taken measures for preventing, minimizing or cleaning up pollution; • Costs or liabilities incurred as a result of compliance during government directions during a pollution incident; • Special compensation payable to salvers; Fines for pollution. 26 of 101.
(27) INDEX CHAPTER 6 MARINE INSURANCE Q.1.What types of marine insurance covers are required by ship owners and ship managers? Ans. A ship owner or a ship manager acting on behalf of a ship owner may require the following insurance covers against: • actual or total loss of his ship's hull, machinery and equipment (H & M cover); • accidental (particular average) damage to his ship's hull, machinery and equipment (H & M cover); • liability to owners of other vessels (and their cargoes) with which the ship collides (collision liability); • liabilities for general average charges; • liabilities for damage done by his ship to a third party's properties; • liabilities for other third party risks, e.g. cargo claims, personal injuries, pollution, wreck removal costs, etc. (called P & I risks); • liabilities for oil pollution claims; • loss of earnings due to strikes; • loss of earnings due to operation of war risks; • loss of freight; • loss of charter hire (e.g. When vessel goes “off hire” after sustaining damage); • increased value, disbursements and excess liabilities (an additional source of recovery over and above the hull and machinery insured value in case of a total loss); and • employer's liabilities to workers. Ship owners may need additional special insurance when the vessel is deviated from the intended course e.g. “ ship owners' liability insurance (SOL)”, if he looses his defences to liabilities under The Hague or Hague-Visby Rules. There are no statutory requirements for ships or cargo to be insured, but if they are not insured they need to be self-insured. IMO guide lines on Shipowners' Responsibilities in Respect of Maritime Claims recommends Shipowners to place on board the certificate of entry of the P & I Club. Q.2. What kind of insurance covers are there for Time and Voyage Charterers? Ans. The normal insurance covers for Time and Voyage Charterers are: • legal costs and expenses arising out of disputes related to hire, freight, dead freight and passage money, general and particular average, demurrage or despatch, detention, breach of charter party, bill of lading etc., the proper loading etc. of cargo, quality of bunkers supplied; • loss of or damage to vessel; • loss of or damage to cargo; • oil pollution other than that arising from a tanker in US territorial waters;. 27 of 101.
(28) INDEX • • • • • • • • • • •. loss of or damage to third party property; death or personal injury claims; fines; damage to fixed property (e.g. wharf or dock); wreck clearance costs; proportion of general average or salvage charges not covered by any other insurance; liability arising out of breach of or deviation under a bill of lading (e.g. cargo carried on deck against underdeck bill of lading); physical loss of charterers bunkers; loss of freight at risk; oil pollution arising from a tanker in US territorial waters; and stowaway costs.. Q.3. What are the basic principles of marine insurance? Ans. The basic principles of marine insurance are: • indemnity, subrogation; • insurable interest i.e. ownership; • utmost good faith; and • doctrine of proximate cause. Q.4. Differentiate between a) Actual Total Loss and b) Constructive Total Loss. Ans. Actual Total Loss means when the subject matter is destroyed or so damaged as to cease to be the thing of the kind insured or the assured is irretrievably deprived of the subject matter insured. When a ship concerned is missing and after a lapse of a reasonable time, no news of her has been received, an actual total loss can be presumed. An actual total loss can occur in four ways: • where property insured is actually destroyed e.g. a ship is wrecked or burnt out or where the goods are totally crushed in the collapse of a stow of cargo; • where goods change their characteristic in such a manner that they are no more the thing of the kind that was insured; • where the assured is irretrievably deprived of his property i.e. the ship is sunk in deep waters; • where the insured property is reported as missing in the Lloyd's e.g. where a ship has not reported for several weeks. A constructive total loss is where the subject matter insured is reasonably abandoned on account of: • its actual total loss appearing to be unavoidable; or • because it could not be prevented from actual total loss without an expenditure which will exceed its insured value. Where an assured is deprived of possession of his ship or goods by a peril insured against and it is unlikely he can recover them or the cost of recovering exceeds the insured value.. 28 of 101.
(29) INDEX In case of goods the cost of repairing the damage and despatches to destination exceed their value. Constructive total loss is where a ship is in danger of breaking or under war risk, she is entrapped by war wrecked vessel. Constructive total loss is also where the ship is grounded and so damaged that the retrieval and repairing cost will exceed the insured value. When an owner claims a constructive total loss, he must abandon the property to the insurer. Q.5. What is particular average loss in marine insurance? Ans. Marine insurance act defines particular average loss as "partial loss, proximately caused by a peril insured against and which is not a general average loss". The perils insured are a set of clauses called the Perils Clause attached to the policy. Under such clauses structural damage proximately caused by collision, grounding, heavy weather etc. (perils of the sea) would normally be classed as a particular average loss. Many owners prefer to pay an additional premium and cover the ship for any accidental damages under the Institute Additional Perils Clauses – Hull (APCs). Q.6. What is general average loss under marine insurance? Ans. The principle of general average can be said as " that which has been sacrificed for the benefit of all shall be made good by the contribution of all ". The objective of general average is to ensure that the owner of the ship or cargo who has incurred an expenditure or suffered a sacrifice of his property in order to save the vessel or the cargo from a perilous position receives a contribution to his loss from all those who have benefited from the action. General average loss is a partial loss incurred through a deliberate act performed with the intention of preserving all the property involved in a voyage from a danger which threatens them all. General average losses are equitably shared by all the parties to the " common maritime adventure ", each party contributing in proportion to his share of the total values involved. In theory therefore any expense, no matter how small, by a shipowner resulting in saving the ship or cargo on board can be a general average act. However in practice general average is not declared every time since it involves lots of calculations, contributions, collection and huge amount of time, effort and expense. Q.7. What constitutes common maritime adventure? Ans. A common maritime adventure is a voyage where several parties have some financial interest, as opposed to ballast voyage of a non-chartered liner vessel, where the only party involved is the shipowner. The parties to the common maritime adventure could include: • the shipowner; • each consignee of cargo; • if ship on time charter, owner of bunkers on board; • the recipient of freight (shipowner or time charterers); • the owner of any equipment on hire e.g. welding machine or diving equipment etc.. 29 of 101.
(30) INDEX Q.8. What are the essential elements of a general average act? Ans. The essential elements of a general average act are: • there must be a sacrifice or expenditure; • the sacrifice or expenditure must be extraordinary; • the sacrifice or expenditure must be intentionally made or incurred; • the sacrifice or expenditure must be reasonably made or incurred; • the sacrifice or expenditure must be made for the common safety; • the sacrifice or expenditure must be made for the purpose of preserving the property from peril. Q.9. What are the sacrifices or expenditures normally allowed in a general average act? Ans. Examples of sacrifices that may be allowed in a general average are: • cargo jettisoned to refloat a grounded vessel or to prevent the capsizing of a dangerously listed vessel; • machinery damage sustained during refloating operations. Examples of expenditures that may be allowed in a general average are: • costs of salvage expenditure including salver's reward; • costs of entering port, staying in and leaving a port of refuge; • costs of cargo discharge or any other operations including dry docking etc. Q.10. What do you understand by sacrifices extraordinarily, intentionally and reasonably made? Ans. Extraordinary nature of sacrifice and expenditure is not an ordinary or every-day loss or expense incurred in running a ship and carrying cargoes. Loss of anchor to prevent grounding is not extraordinary, where as loosing an anchor laid out as ground tackle during a refloating operation may be allowed. Similarly damage to engine due overworking in trying to prevent grounding is not extraordinary, where as damage to engine during a refloating operation may be allowed. A wide variety of costs, however small including extra taxi fares for superintendents can be recovered in general average expenditure. Intentionally made expenditure are those of CO2 cylinders discharged to put off a fire on board or wetting damage done due to flooding of a hold. The cost of damage done by the fire itself is not covered under the general average act. Beaching a leaking ship to prevent sinking is intentional and covered by general average. Cost of refloating an accidentally grounded ship is intentional and allowed. Reasonable expenditure can be that of amount of cargo required to be jettisoned. Excess cargo jettisoned is not reasonable and may not be allowed under general average. Similarly expenditure in a port of refuge over and above reasonable costs may not be allowed.. 30 of 101.
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