IPT Prelim Text 2nd Edition

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Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing in publication data

Davis, Samuel, 1964-.

Information processes and technology: the preliminary course (second edition). Includes index.

ISBN 9780957891081.

1. Information storage and retrieval systems. 2. Electronic data processing. 3. Information technology. I. Title

004

Reviewer: Stephanie Schwarz Cover design: Great Minds

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Writing a text such as this is an enormous task. Technology changes continuously, indeed some technologies that were in common use when the first edition was published in 2004 have now (2009) been completely replaced with new technologies. Fortunately, there are numerous professionals across the globe who were more than willing to assist with valuable information and feedback on these new technologies – without the Internet, email and newsgroups such information would be simply impossible to obtain and verify. There are too many of these people to mention by name, but thankyou, your knowledge and comments has greatly enhanced the accuracy of the text.

The original text was reviewed by Stephanie Schwarz. Stephanie’s review comments, as expected, were always accurate, insightful and right on target. She has an uncanny ability to express relatively complex ideas in a succinct, yet understandable manner. Stephanie and I worked together as senior HSC marker for numerous years. We’ve worked together at the NSW Board of Studies and on numerous Trial HSC Exams. Many of the HSC Style Questions included within the text where originally published within past trial exams. Stephanie’s knowledge and enthusiasm for technology and education is legendary.

My wife Janine, together with my children Louise, Melissa, Kim and Luke have all made sacrifices so I can disappear to research and write. Janine provided much of the motivation to continue with such a detailed text, she also completed the final editing – thanks darling! My young son Luke has spent much of his life with a father sitting at a computer. Young man, you’ve got your Dad back!

Thanks also to the many companies and individuals who willingly assisted with the provision of screen shots, articles and other copyrighted material. Every effort has been made to contact and trace the original source of copyright material in this book. I would be pleased to hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions. Samuel Davis

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TO THE TEACHER

This book provides a thorough and detailed coverage of the revised NSW Information Processes and Technology Preliminary course. The revised syllabus was first examined at the 2009 Higher School Certificate. The text is written to closely reflect the syllabus, both in terms of content but also in terms of intent. In my view, the IPT syllabus is written in such a way that is relevant to students with a broad range of abilities. The best students will want to know the detail of how and why; this text includes such detail.

The text closely follows the syllabus and apart from Chapter 10, each builds on and refers to concepts introduced in previous chapters. The content of the text (and also the syllabus) is arranged around the seven, somewhat arbitrary syllabus information processes. To my mind this arrangement makes logical sense in terms of focussing on processes rather than hardware and software. However, it can mean that students place too much emphasis on arbitrarily splitting systems into these seven processes. Throughout the text I have endeavoured to downplay this tendency by considering the real and interrelated nature of information processes that occur in real systems. I applaud those who revised the syllabus for including specific content on the integration of processes. I specifically address this content at the start of Chapter 2 and again at the start of Chapter 7.

Numerous Group Tasks are included throughout the text. These tasks aim to build on both the theoretical and practical aspects of the course. A teacher resource kit is available that provides further details and discussion points for each of these tasks. The teacher resource kit also includes fully worked solutions for all sets of questions, blackline masters and a CD-ROM containing a variety of other relevant resources.

TO THE STUDENT

Information systems are all around us and we use them to meet our needs every day. In fact, meeting the needs of people is ultimately the purpose of all information systems. The Information Processes and Technology Preliminary Course focuses on the underlying processes occurring within information systems. These processes or actions are performed by computer hardware and software, together with people. IPT is not about learning how to use software applications – although you will develop some skills in this area. IPT is more about learning how and why things operate and how different components and processes can be combined to solve problems. It’s a course about systems that process data in to information; information systems!

The Preliminary course will provide you with a thorough grounding in regard to the operation and design of information systems. In the HSC course you will apply this knowledge as you examine and develop particular types of information systems such as communication systems and database systems.

Best wishes with your senior studies, and in particular with your Information Processes and Technology studies. Hopefully this text will provide worthwhile assistance in this regard.

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In this chapter you will learn to:

• diagrammatically represent a given scenario that involves an information system

• explain how an information system impacts on its environment and how it in turn impacts on the information system

• describe the environment and purpose of an information system for a given context

• explain how a given need can be supported by an information system

• describe an information system in terms of its purpose

• for a given scenario, identify the people who are: – in the environment

– users of the information system – participants in the information system • describe social and ethical issues that relate to:

– information system users – participants

• ensure that relevant social and ethical issues are addressed

• identify and explain reasons for the expansion of information systems, including:

– advances in technology

– suitability of information technology for repetitive tasks

Which will make you more able to:

• describe the nature of information processes and information technology

• classify the functions and operations of information processes and information technology

• identify and describe the information processes within an information system

• recognise and explain the interdependence between each of the information processes

• identify and describe social and ethical issues • describe the historical developments of information

systems and relate these to current and emerging technologies.

In this chapter you will learn about:

Information systems in context

• diagrammatic representation of an information system in context

• the environment – everything that influences and is influenced by the information system

• the purpose – a statement identifying who the information system is for and what it needs to achieve

• who the information system is for includes individuals and organisations

• the information system – a set of information processes requiring participants, data/information and information technology built to satisfy a purpose

• information processes – computer based and non-computer based activities

• information technology – hardware and software used in information processes

• data – the raw material used by information processes • information – the output displayed by an information system • user – a person who views or uses the information output

from an information system

• participant – a special class of user who carries out the information processes within an information system Social and ethical issues

• social and ethical issues arising from the processing of information, including:

– privacy of the individual – security of data and information – accuracy of data and information – data quality

– changing nature of work – appropriate information use – health and safety

– copyright laws

• the people affected by social and ethical issues, including: – participants within the information system

– users of the information system – those in the environment

• the ethical and social responsibility of developers

• current government legislation to protect the individual and organisations

• the use of information systems in fields such as

manufacturing as well as the traditional fields of observation and recording

• global information systems:

– where the purpose involves international organisations, or

– where the data and processes are distributed across national boundaries

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1

INTRODUCTION TO

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

What is an information system? The answer to this question is the central aim of this chapter. To understand information systems let us first consider the broader questions of ‘What is a system?’ and ‘What is information?’

WHAT IS A SYSTEM?

A system is a collection of resources and processes that operate together to achieve some common purpose and hence fulfil some need. For example, the braking system in a car fulfils the need to slow down the car. Its purpose, or reason for existence, is to slow down the car. To achieve this purpose requires resources or components such as the brake pedal, brake pads, brake disks,

together with tyres and many other components. Even the driver is an essential component of the braking system. These components or resources must work together to successfully slow down the car. The ways in which they interact are known as the processes of the

system. Processes are actions that when systematically followed will cause the resources to achieve the specified purpose. In our braking system example the driver applies pressure to the brake pedal, which in turn causes fluid to move from the master cylinder to a calliper on each wheel. At each wheel calliper the fluid pressure causes the brake pads to push against the brake

disk causing friction and hence slowing down the wheels rotation. Because the tyres are gripping the road surface the reduction in rotation speed also slows down the road speed. Almost all systems are themselves made up of smaller sub-systems and similarly almost all systems are part of larger systems. Everything that influences or is influenced by the system is said to be in the environment. In our braking system the complete car is a larger system that has the braking system as one of its

sub-systems. Most of these other sub-systems affect or are affected by the braking system and hence are in its environment. For example, the braking system interfaces with the electrical system via a switch that turns the brake lights on or off as the brakes are activated or deactivated. Each of the component parts of the braking system can themselves be seen as a system, for example the master cylinder. Even within the master cylinder there are a number of sub-systems that each achieves a specific purpose within the larger master cylinder system.

System

Any organised assembly of resources and processes united and regulated by interaction or interdependence to accomplish a common purpose. Master cylinder Brake pedal Calliper Brake pads Brake disk Tyre Fig 1.1

The braking system is a sub-system of the car and is also made up of sub-systems.

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DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A SYSTEM System engineers from all fields use

diagrams and models to describe systems. Different types of diagrams are used to describe different aspects of the system. The diagram at right Fig 1.2, describes an overview of the resources and processes of a system, together with its purpose and environment. The arrows on the diagram show that the resources are used by the processes and in turn these processes work to achieve the system’s purpose.

There are many different methods for representing systems diagrammatically, including context diagrams, data flow diagrams, flowcharts and IPO charts. Context diagrams are used to model the data movements to and from the system and its environment. Data flow diagrams model the data movements within the system. Flowcharts describe the logic of the system’s processes. IPO charts identify how specific inputs are transformed into outputs. Throughout the IPT course we shall learn to use a variety of these techniques.

Consider the following:

A backyard swimming pool contains a filtration system that includes a timer, a pump, a filter, various pipes and electrical connections and a skimmer box. These components work together to keep the pool water clean and healthy. Fig 1.3 shows many of these components, together with the flow of water.

GROUP TASK Discussion

What is the purpose of this filtration system? What are the resources and processes of the system? Describe this systems environment and how it achieves its purpose within this environment?

GROUP TASK Activity

Draw a diagram, like the one shown in Fig1.2 above, to model the swimming pool filtration system.

Fig 1.3 Pool filtration system.

Timer Pump Filter Water from skimmer box To filter To pool Power Fig 1.2

Diagrammatic representation of the braking system on a car.

Environment

The car, including all its various sub-systems.

System

The braking system.

Purpose

To slow down the car.

Processes

Pressing brake pedal, fluid moving to callipers, friction between pads and disk, wheel slowing down, etc.

Resources

Brake pedal, master cylinder, callipers, brake pads and disks, wheels, tyres, etc.

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WHAT IS INFORMATION?

The word ‘information’ appears to be the catchword of the century. Apparently we are living in the information age. Information is supposed to help us all and the more we have the more enlightened and fulfilled our lives are supposed to be. There are even charitable organisations devoted to making information more accessible to those in third world countries. Information is traded as a commodity, like oil or even gold. The Internet is often referred to as the information super highway. So what is this stuff called information?

Information leads to knowledge and knowledge is acquired by being aware of and understanding the facts. The facts or data must be processed into information before humans can use the data to obtain knowledge. We may have access to a large store of facts or data but it is not until these facts are understood and their meaning derived that we have information. This is really the primary aim of this course, to

examine the processes and technologies used to turn raw facts or data into meaningful information. We must be careful with our understanding of facts in this context, the information resulting from the data will only be correct if indeed the data is factual. The cliché ‘garbage in – garbage out’ holds true, if the data is rubbish then the resulting information will also be rubbish.

Information is therefore the output displayed by an information system that we, as human users, use to acquire knowledge. When we receive information concerning some fact or circumstance we interpret the

information to acquire knowledge. For example, ‘123456.65’ is data; ‘your savings account balance is $123,456.65’ is information; whereas ‘I’ve got enough money to buy that Ferrari’ is knowledge.

Consider the following list of data items:

• All the HSC results for a given year.

• The daily rainfall over the last ten years in your area.

• The number of cars passing your school each minute.

• Details on each take-off and landing at Mascot airport.

INFORMATION PROCESSES & TECHNOLOGY

Fig 1.4

Data is transformed into information using information processes and technology.

List at least 2 types of information that may be derived from each of the above sets of data.

Discuss how humans may use the above information to acquire knowledge.

Information

Information is the output displayed by an information system. Knowledge is acquired when information is received.

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INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN CONTEXT

An information system is a system whose primary purpose is to process data into information. The data is collected, processed using various resources of the system and finally the resulting information is output.

In this section we examine the general nature of information systems including:

• the environment

• the boundary

• the purpose

• information processes and

• resources.

The resources used by all information systems includes the participants, the data and information, together with all the various forms of inform-ation technology. As computers are particularly suited to data processing tasks, it is common for the information tech-nologies used to include com-puter hardware and software. ENVIRONMENT

The environment in which an information system operates is everything that influences, and is influenced by, the information system but is not part of the information system. It encompasses all the conditions, components and circumstances that surround the system. This includes those users who do not directly interact or

perform processes within the system. That is, users who are not participants are part of the environment. The information system may collect data from and display information to these indirect users, however they do not participate in the information system’s operation.

The word environment is often used in terms of the natural environment in which we or some plant or animal live. The natural environment contains many complex and interrelated systems that are so intricate that we can never hope to understand or control them in their entirety. The environment for most information systems is less complex yet in most cases it contains many aspects that cannot be controlled or even predicted. For example, many information systems require network access; however the network is commonly part of the information systems environment. Hence the system must know how to communicate using the network but correcting faults within the network is beyond the scope of the information system. Information systems must aim to minimise any environmental effects that could hinder the system as it operates to achieve its purpose.

Environment

The circumstances and conditions that surround an information system.

Everything that influences or is influenced by the system.

Fig 1.5

Diagrammatic representation of an information system.

Environment

Information System

Information Processes

Resources

Participants Data/ _Information Information Technology

Purpose

Users

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BOUNDARY

The boundary defines what is part of the information system and what is part of the environment. It is the delineation between the system and its environment. For example, an online ordering system designed to process orders for a business may use the services of a payments system to process and approve credit card

payments. The payments system is in the environment of the online ordering system, however the ordering system must be able to interface with the payments system but cannot affect how payments are processed by the payments system.

When developing new information systems it is critical to define the boundaries of the system as clearly as possible so that all parties understand what a new system will do and often more importantly what it will not do. All the processes and resources that will form part of the new system are said to be within the scope of the system. If there is likely to be confusion about whether some process or resource is or is not included then a specific statement should be included to remove any doubts. Consider a new online ordering system. The system scope may include collecting order details from customers and storing them in a database. It is reasonable that a client may expect the system to include approval of credit card payments as payment approval is closely related to ordering. The developer would be wise to clearly state whether payment approval is or is not within the systems scope.

Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) are now common items in every bank, shopping centre and even in most service stations. An ATM is an information system, its primary purpose is to process data into information. Account details, PINs and transaction details are entered by the user and result in a combination of outputs in the form of cash, receipts and information displayed on the monitor. These processes occur within an environment that cannot be fully controlled by the ATM system. Let us consider some aspects of the environment that could potentially cause disruptions to the ATM information system achieving its purpose:

• Power failure – consider the consequences of loss of power half way through a transaction.

• Problems with network connection – could be a physical loss of the complete connection or an issue with response times.

• Incorrect output of cash – could be the result of crumpled notes or notes sticking together.

• Insufficient receipt paper, receipt ink or cash – how can this be detected and what response is reasonable.

• Fraudulent use – consider techniques for dealing with incorrect PINs, physical tampering with the machine, unusual transaction patterns for individuals, etc.

Boundary

The delineation between a system and its environment. The boundary defines what is part of the system and what is part of the environment.

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PURPOSE

The purpose of an information system is to fulfill some need or needs. To achieve this purpose is the aim or objective of the system. In fact the purpose of the system is the whole reason for the system’s existence. To accurately realise the system’s purpose requires an understanding of who the

information system is for and what it is they need to achieve. Therefore the purpose of an information system is very closely linked to the needs of those for whom the system is created.

The purpose of an information system should be stated clearly and in achievable terms. The word purpose implies a conscious and determined act, which is achieved through guided and thoughtful processes. The purpose of the system should remain at the forefront during the creation and use of any information system.

Information systems can be designed for individuals or for organisations. Information systems for organisations must meet the common needs of the individuals that make up the organisation. Determining these needs and then translating them into a common purpose can often be quite a daunting yet crucial task.

Determining the purpose of an information system involves the following steps: 1. Identify the people whose needs the information system should meet.

2. Formulate a list of needs that the information system should realise.

3. Translate these needs into objectives that form the purpose of the information system.

When developing new information systems the purpose is used as the basis for developing a series of definite and achievable requirements. If the requirements are achieved then the purpose has also been achieved.

Consider the following scenarios:

• The territory manager for an oil company has some 500 service station, factory and rural customers to service. Their job is to maintain contact with existing customers as well as to promote the oil company to potential customers. A

How is it that each of the above points relates to the environment within which ATMs operate? Discuss.

Discuss suitable techniques that are, or could be used to overcome or at least lessen the impact should any of the above disruptions occur.

Fig 1.6

Understanding needs leads to a clear and achievable purpose.

Purpose

A statement identifying who the information system is for and what it needs to achieve.

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separate department processes all orders and deliveries so the territory manager’s only input in this area occurs when a problem arises with one of their clients. Most of the territory manager’s time is spent visiting each of their customers to ensure personal contact as well as to provide information on new products.

There are some twenty territory managers across the country and each is free to use any information system that suits their needs. Some territory managers use a traditional diary/planner whilst others utilise electronic versions and even laptop computers. The oil company provides either printouts or computer files containing all customer details and sales histories for their area.

• Each school needs a timetable to operate effectively. The requirements relate to each teacher and student knowing where they should be and what they should be doing at any given time.

INFORMATION PROCESSES

Collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving, processing, transmitting and receiving and displaying are all examples of information processes. Together these seven basic activities are what needs to be done to transform the data into useful information. The bulk of the preliminary course deals with these information processes and their related tools. We

therefore need to be crystal clear about the concept of information processes before we proceed further.

In general, information processes are computer and non-computer based activities that are carried out using the resources or tools of the information system. These activities coordinate and

direct the system’s resources to complete the required task and achieve the system’s purpose. Therefore information processes use participants, data and information and information technologies to achieve the system’s purpose. Information processes are not necessarily performed by computer-based technologies; they can equally be performed using other means.

What is the purpose of timetable systems in schools? What needs do they address? Discuss.

Discuss the processes and resources used at your school to create, maintain and publish the school’s timetable. Do these processes and resources achieve their purpose successfully?

Information Processes What needs to be done to collect and transform data into useful information. These activities coordinate and direct the system’s resources to achieve the system’s purpose. GROUP TASK Discussion

Assume you have just gained employment as a territory manager. What are your information needs? How would you decide which form of

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Most of us own an address book; this is an example of an information system. Let us consider some of the information processes necessary for this information system to operate:

• We collect names, addresses and phone numbers of our friends, relatives and other acquaintances. This does not happen all at once, we revisit this information process each time we wish to add a new contact.

• We decide on the format we will use in our address book. Perhaps each page has three columns; one for names, another for addresses and a third for phone numbers. To enable us to later locate an individual we setup individual pages for each letter according to surname.

• We recognise the first letter of the surname to enable us to correctly store the data. We also isolate the name, address and phone number. This process, although it seems trivial in this example, is where we make sense of the data, that is, it is transformed into information.

• We locate the correct page in the address book and write in the new contacts details.

• We locate the correct page and then scan to the required contact’s name and read their details.

• When a contact moves house or changes their phone number we find their name and edit the changed details.

• We skim through our address book and prepare a list of individuals to be invited to a party.

• We use the phone numbers or addresses to contact individuals.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants are a special class of user who carry out or initiate the information processes. Users are all the people who view or make use of the information output from an information system. Participants also view or use information from the system; however they are also actively

involved in the operation of the information system. The word participate involves sharing and having a part in something, therefore participants in an information system share and have a part in its operation. They perform or carry out the system’s information processes.

For most information systems there are a variety of different personnel; some directly use the system, others indirectly use the system and some create or develop

Classify each of the above information processes as either collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving, processing, transmitting and receiving or displaying. Discuss your responses.

Participants

A special class of user who carries out (or initiates) the information processes within an information system. Users

People who view or use the information output from an information system.

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the system. Participants are involved in the actual operation of the system and are integral to that operation, in essence they are resources used by the system. Thus indirect users and developers are not considered participants in the system. Indirect users are often a source of data for the system or they receive information from the system rather than being themselves involved in its operation. These indirect users are in the system’s environment. They can influence or be influenced by the information system but they do not directly carry out its information processes. For example, a customer in a shop is an indirect user of the cash register system. They provide data and in turn are provided with receipts but they have no control over the information processes that occur to transform this data into information. The shop assistant, on the other hand is a direct user of the cash register, they carry out the information processes and are therefore a participant in the system.

Development personnel include system analysts, engineers, programmers and testers. The job of developers is to design, create and upgrade the system, rather than being involved in its operation. As a consequence most development personnel are not considered participants. Their job is over once the system is implemented and operational.

We now have an understanding of the personnel who are not participants, let us now consider personnel who are

participants in the information system. Participants are made up of all the personnel who are used by the information processes of the system. This includes managers, data entry operators and other users who initiate or perform information processes as part of the system’s operation. Most of these personnel can be classified as direct users; they directly interact with the information system during its operation. Each of these groups of people are part of the information system’s resources and without their contribution the system would not operate. Each is used as a resource during one or more of the system’s information processes. For small systems an individual fulfills multiple tasks, whereas larger systems operating within organisations may have many personnel engaged in each task.

Each school is required by law to maintain an accurate information system to monitor student attendance on a daily basis. There are many people involved in this information system including the principal, deputy principal, office staff, teachers, parents and government bodies including the NSW Board of Studies.

Consider each of the personnel mentioned above in relation to your school’s attendance system. Are they participants in the information system? Justify your response by outlining the information processes in which each are involved.

Fig 1.7

Participants are an integral resource of all information systems

Environment Information System Purpose Information Processes Resources Participants Data/ Information Information Technology Participants Managers,

data entry operators, direct users.

Boundary Users

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DATA/INFORMATION

Data is the raw material of an information system in the same way as timber is the raw material for a carpenter building a deck. The whole aim of an information system is to process data into information. Thus data is a required resource for all information systems. This data is transformed using

information processes into something useful that achieves the system’s purpose. In the case of an information system the ‘something useful’ is information; in the case of the carpenter the ‘something useful’ is the finished deck.

Most data is itself the information derived from another system or process, and similarly the information output from a system is often used as data for another

system or process. Consider Fig 1.8, which describes the issuing of a speeding ticket by a police officer. The speed is the information derived from the officer’s speed radar. The speed is then used to determine the amount of the fine when issuing the speeding ticket. In turn this information is used as data by the driver when they pay their fine. Fig 1.8 is a simplified dataflow diagram describing the flow of data and information through three processes. Note that each arrow indicates information out of a process and data flowing into a subsequent process.

Earlier in this chapter we discussed information as being the meaning that a human assigns to data. This is the central purpose of information systems, to derive meaning from data. To do this requires the resources and information processes of the system. The system must be able to understand the nature of the data if it is to successfully transform it into information. In Chapter 2 we examine, in some detail, the nature of data and how it is represented in digital form.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

We know what information is, but what is technology? Technology is the result of science being applied to practical problems. This is what engineers do; they apply scientific knowledge to practical problems to produce new technology. Therefore technology is things people create to assist

them in solving some problem. A hammer is an example of technology; it is used to assist us to use nails and bind timber together. The scientific principles of force, leverage and momentum have been used

Radar system Issue speeding ticket Fine payment Speed Radio waves Fine Payment Fig 1.8

Simplified dataflow diagram for the speeding ticket scenario.

Data is represented in many different and varied forms. For example video can be stored in analogue form on videotape, sent using radio waves to a TV, transmitted using cable, or stored digitally on a DVD. Make a list of as many different forms of data as you can together with different ways in which the data is stored or transmitted.

Technology

The result of scientific knowledge being applied to practical problems.

Information

Information is the output displayed by an information system. Knowledge is acquired when information is received. Data

The raw material used by information processes.

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to engineer the hammer into a technology. Because the hammer is used to solve other problems it is also known as a tool. The items of technology we examine in this course are also used as tools to assist in the solution of problems.

Technology is not always physical objects, it can also be the way things are done or the steps undertaken to accomplish some aim. For example DNA technology is more about techniques than physical tools. In this case scientific principles have led to the development of these new techniques, in turn these new techniques are used in medicine, forensics, genetics, etc.

Information technology encompasses all the tools used to assist an information system to carry out its information processes. Most of this course is devoted to examining these tools. In general information technology can be split into hardware and software. The hardware

being the physical equipment and the software being the instructions that coordinate and direct the operation of the hardware. Computer hardware is particularly suited to many information processing tasks, however there are many other forms of hardware that are also used as resources within information systems. Much of the preliminary course is devoted to examining various tools, both hardware and software, that are used to complete the various information processes.

Writing, publishing and printing a book, such as this one, requires various tools. These tools are forms of information technology and include computer hardware and software together with various non-computer based tools.

One of the major functions for most secretaries is to type various forms of letters for their bosses. The letters produced need to be stored in a logical manner so they can be later retrieved efficiently. In this information system the secretary is the sole participant. The boss and the recipients of the letters being indirect users.

Let us examine the information processes and technologies used by a particular secretary, who we’ll call Sue, to complete these tasks.

Information Technology The hardware and software used by an information system to carry out its information processes.

Make a list of all the tools that would most likely be required during the writing, publishing and printing processes.

Your list created above probably contains many computer-based tools. How would the processes performed by these tools have been

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Information Processes Information Technologies

• Letters being dictated by boss.

• Entering, editing and formatting letters.

• Printing and posting letters.

• Saving and retrieving letters.

• Backing up files.

• Personal computer

• Laser printer

• Wooden in and out trays

• Word processing software

• Operating system, specifically the file management utility

Normally the sequence of events for preparing a letter is as follows:

1. Sue is called into the boss’s office, when her boss wishes to dictate a letter.

2. She then returns to her office and places the work into her in tray according to its urgency compared to other work in her in tray.

3. Once the letter reaches the top of the in tray she types it into the word processor, edits, formats and prints it.

4. Sue is in the habit of saving new files as soon as they are created and then about every 15 minutes or so. Sue has her own system of filing where she has setup a hierarchy of folders on her hard disk, she also uses the date as part of each filename.

5. The completed letter is placed in her out tray.

6. Towards the end of each day Sue takes all the letters from her out tray into her boss to be signed.

7. She then prepares them for mailing and posts them.

Consider the following: A stationary supply company sells approximately 500 different products. Most of their sales are made either by phone or fax. The company has five telephone sales people who answer phones and respond to incoming faxes. The salesman then enters the order into their computer. Once an order has been entered by the sales staff a delivery docket is printed on the printer in the warehouse. The warehouse staff then pack the goods and send them off with the delivery docket. The day after the goods have been shipped all invoices from the previous day’s orders are printed and posted.

Management are able to view up-to-date statistics on sales, stock levels and overdue accounts. The warehouse is able to view current stock levels, graphs on the sales history of each product and are able to produce orders to enable them to purchase

Pack and send goods Salesman enters order Generate statistics Company database Delivery

docket Yesterday’s _invoices

Compile and post invoices View statistics Purchase order Process new

order Generate invoices

Generate purchase order

Fig 1.9

System flowchart for the stationary supply company.

List the forms of information technology Sue uses during each of the seven steps listed above.

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stock. In total the company employs 20 personnel, including a single technical person who oversees the computer network and its security.

The system flowchart, shown in Fig 1.9 above, shows the logic and basic flow of data through this information system. For example: a salesman manually enters an order, the order is processed which would likely involve checking for available stock and its price and then storing the order details, the delivery docket is printed and finally the goods are packed and sent. System flowcharts are not a necessary part of the IPT course, therefore there is no need understand the meaning of each symbol. The flowchart is included to diagramatically represent the system.

Many newer mobile phones include GPS (Global Positioning System) navigation functions. The GPS receiver within the phone receives data from satellites to accurately determine the current location of the phone. The current location is used by the navigation software to plot the users current position on a map and also to direct them to other locations they specify. The initial map data and also regular updates are downloaded from a website and stored on the phone’s flash memory card. Downloads occur either using the phone’s 3G wireless connection or via a USB interface to an Internet connected computer.

Consider the GPS mobile phone navigation system as an information system.

(a) Identify the data collected by the system and the information displayed by the system.

(b) Identify the information technology within the mobile phone that is used to implement the GPS navigation functions.

Suggested Solution

(a) Data collected includes updates to map data in digital form, satellite data in digital form used to pinpoint position of phone and user entered locations of interest.

Information displayed includes plot of current position on displayed map, directions to selected locations (includes spoken instructions and path on displayed map).

(b) Information technology includes speaker (to generate speech output), LCD screen (to display maps), GPS receiver (to receive time/location data from satellites), keypad (for entry of locations or menu choices), wireless receiver/transmitter (connection to 3G network), USB interface (connection to computer), flash memory card (for storing/retrieving map data), CPU and RAM (for all processing, such as generating graphical maps), and navigation software to determine current location, process GPS data, produce maps and speech output.

HSC style question: GROUP TASK Activity

List all the people involved at each symbol of the system flowchart above. Are there personnel involved who are not participants?

List the forms of information technology used by this system. Include both computer and non-computer based technologies.

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SET 1A

1. The circumstances and conditions that surround a system but are not part of the system are know as the:

(A) system’s purpose. (B) environment.

(C) resources of the system.

(D) processes performed by the system. 2. Data entry operators are primarily involved

in which information process? (A) organising.

(B) storing. (C) displaying. (D) collecting.

3. “I’m going to be late for school” is an example of A, “The time is 9:25 AM” would be an example of B and “0925” would be C. A, B and C respectively could best be replaced with the words:

(A) data, information, knowledge. (B) information, knowledge, data. (C) knowledge, information, data. (D) knowledge, data, information 4. Information technology is a term used to

describe:

(A) the hardware and software resources of the system.

(B) the resources available to the system. (C) each of the information processes

occurring within the system.

(D) how scientific knowledge is applied to the solution of practical problems. 5. Participants in an information system

commonly include all of the following: (A) managers, end-users, programmers,

engineers and data entry operators. (B) direct users, indirect users, managers

and data entry operators. (C) managers, direct users, system

administrators, engineers and data entry operators.

(D) managers, end-users, system

administrators, network personnel and data entry operators.

6. A system can be best described as:

(A) a collection of connected sub-systems that work together to achieve a purpose.

(B) containing data, participants, information technology and information processes.

(C) an organised assembly of resources and processes that interact to achieve a common purpose.

(D) all the different types of organisms present in the environment that interact and are dependant on each others actions.

7. The purpose of an information system: (A) is the reason for the system’s existence. (B) is to fulfill some need or needs. (C) should be clear and achievable. (D) All of the above.

8. Activities that coordinate resources to achieve the system’s purpose are known as: (A) Information Technologies.

(B) Information Activities. (C) Information Resources. (D) Information Processes.

9. The main difference between data and information is:

(A) Data is always digital whereas information is not.

(B) Data is the raw material that is processed by information systems to create information.

(C) There is no difference; they are interchangeable terms.

(D) Data is individual characters or numbers, whereas information is words, sentences and charts.

10. Which term defines the line between what is and what is not part of a system?

(A) users (B) boundary

(C) information technology (D) information processes 11. Define each of the following terms:

(a) Environment (c) Information System (e) Participants

(b) Purpose (d) Information Processes (f) Information Technology

12. Make a list of all the different types of information technology you use every day. Which of these utilise computer-based technologies to operate?

13. A telephone directory can be thought of as an information system. Are the names, addresses and phone numbers data or information? Discuss.

14. Think of the kitchen in your home as a system. What is its purpose? List all the resources used by this system? What processes are used in the kitchen?

15. Open a new document in a word processor with which you are familiar. Examine each of the menu items and classify each item as collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving, processing, transmitting and receiving, or displaying.

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SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

We live together as a social group rather than in isolation. For this to occur harmoniously requires laws for correct conduct but it also involves many unwritten ways of going about the business of living. These unwritten morals are known as ethics. Some ethics have evolved over

time into laws, however many others remain principles that are understood by society and that influence the conduct of its members. For example, most would agree that it is morally unacceptable to commence a new relationship whilst already in a relationship. It is not illegal, however most of us would look poorly on someone who does this. We would also accept that stealing is unethical, in this case society has, over time, created laws to ensure those who steal are punished.

In this section we examine social and ethical issues arising from the processing of information. These issues affect not only the participants within the system but also those outside the information system. It is the responsibility of system designers to ensure the information systems they create take account of social and ethical issues. Likewise participants must ensure they use systems in a socially and ethically acceptable manner. Some of these issues have been recognised by governments and as a consequence laws have been inacted to ensure compliance. Some of the major issues include:

• Privacy of the individual

• Security of data and information

• Accuracy of data and information

• Data quality

• Changing nature of work

• Appropriate information use

• Health and safety

• Copyright laws

1. A website collects email addresses and subsequently sends out advertising emails. 2. A mail order company sells its customer details to another direct mail company. 3. An employee of an energy company views details of her friends’ accounts.

4. A student downloads information from the web and uses it as part of an assignment.

5. An employee spends at least 8 hours per day at the keyboard. Social

Friendly companionship. Living together in harmony rather than in isolation.

Ethical

Dealing with morals or the principles of morality. The rules or standards for right conduct or practice.

Under certain conditions each of the above scenarios could be socially and ethically acceptable, and under others they would not. Discuss.

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PRIVACY OF THE INDIVIDUAL

Privacy is about protecting an individual’s personal information. Personal information is any information that allows others to identify you. Privacy is a fundamental principle of our society, we have the right to know who holds our personal information. Privacy is a feeling of seclusion, where we can be safe from observation and intrusion. For this to occur we need to feel confident that our personal information will not be collected, disclosed or otherwise used without our knowledge or permission.

Personal information is required, quite legitimately by many organisations when carrying out their various functions. This creates a problem, how do we ensure this information is used only for its intended task and how do we know what these intended tasks are? Laws are needed that require organisations to provide individuals with answers to these questions. In this way individuals can protect their privacy.

In Australia, privacy is legally protected under the Privacy Act 1988 and its subsequent amendments. This act contains ten National Privacy Principles, that set standards that organisations are required to meet when dealing with personal information; the text in Fig 1.10 briefly explains each of these principles.

What are the ten National Privacy Principles? The following briefly explains what the NPPs mean for you.

NPP1: Collection - describes what an organisation should do when collecting your personal information.

NPP2: Use and Disclosure - outlines how organisations can use and disclose your personal information.

NPP3: Data Quality & NPP4: Data Security - set the standards that organisations must meet for the accuracy, currency, completeness and security of your personal information.

NPP5: Openness - requires organisations to be open about how they handle your personal information.

NPP6: Access & Correction - gives you a general right of access to your own personal information, and the right to have that information corrected, if it is inaccurate, incomplete or out of date.

NPP7: Identifiers - says that generally, Commonwealth government identifiers (such as the Medicare number or the Veterans Affairs number) can only be used for the purposes for which they were issued.

NPP8: Anonymity - where possible, requires organisations to provide the opportunity for you to interact with them without identifying yourself.

NPP9: Transborder Data Flows - outlines privacy protections that apply to the transfer of your personal information out of Australia.

NPP10: Sensitive Information - requires your consent when an organisation collects sensitive information about you such as health information, or information about your racial or ethnic

background, or criminal record. Sensitive information is a subset of personal information and special protection applies to this information.

Fig 1.10

The ten ‘National Privacy Principles’ briefly described from the Office of the Federal Privacy Commissioner’s website at http://www.privacy.gov.au

GROUP TASK Activity/Discussion

Make up a list of all the organisations that are likely to hold personal information about you. Do you know what information is held and how it is used?

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Consequences of the Privacy Act 1988 mean that information systems that contain personal information must legally be able to:

• explain why personal information is being collected and how it will be used

• provide individuals with access to their records

• correct inaccurate information

• divulge details of other organisations that may be provided with information from the system

• describe to individuals the purpose of holding the information

• describe the information held and how it is managed

SECURITY OF DATA AND INFORMATION

Security of most resources is about guarding against theft or destruction. For example, an alarm on your car aims to deter thieves and vandals. PIN and PUK codes on mobile phones are deterrents to theft. Similar techniques are used to protect data and information, however there is an additional problem; most data and information can easily be edited or copied without any noticable change to the original. We therefore require additional techniques and strategies for dealing with the security of data and information.

Generally the larger the information system becomes the more crucial effective security of the data and information becomes. If your home computer crashes then the consequences are annoying but if a bank’s computer system fails, even for an hour, the consequences are enormous.

Some possible security issues that all information system designers need to consider include:

• Virus attacks – Viruses are software programs that deliberately produce some undesired or unwanted result. Most viruses are spread via attachments to emails but also by infected media such as flash drives and CDs.

• Hackers – These are people, often with extensive technical knowledge and skill, who aim to overcome or get around any security mechanisms used by a computer system. This allows them to view, utlise and even edit data and information.

• Theft – Unauthorised copying of data and information onto another system. Also physical theft of hardware, and as a consequence, the data and information it contains.

• Unauthorised access by past and present employees – Past and present employees may maliciously tamper with data or they may view and use data of a private nature inappropriately.

• Hardware faults – Failure of hardware, and in particular storage devices, can result in loss of data. It is inevitable that hardware will eventually fail at some time.

• Software faults – Errors in programs can cause data to become corrupted. No software is completely free of errors.

GROUP TASK Research

Using the Internet, or otherwise, examine the privacy policies for a

number of organisations that hold personal information. Do these policies address the above dot points appropriately?

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Some strategies commonly used to address the above issues include:

• Passwords – Passwords are used to confirm that a user is who they say they are. Once verified the user name is then used by the system to assign particular access rights to the user.

• Backup copies – A copy of important files is made on a regular basis. Should the original file fail or be lost then the backup copy can be used. It is important to keep backup copies in a secure location.

• Physical barriers – Machines storing important data and information, or performing critical tasks are physically locked away.

• Anti-virus software – All files are scanned to look for possible viruses. The anti-virus software then either removes the anti-virus or quarantines the file. The widespread use of networks, and in particular the Internet, has made anti-virus software a virtual necessity.

• Firewalls – A firewall provides protection from outside penetration by hackers. It monitors the transfer of information to and from the network. Most firewalls are used to provide a barrier between a local area network and the Internet.

• Data encryption – Data is encrypted in such a way that it is unreadable by those who do not possess the decryption code.

• Audit trails – The information system maintains records of the details of all transactions. The aim is to make it possible to work backwards and trace the origin of any problem that may occur.

To implement the above strategies requires that procedures be put in place to ensure their correct operation. For example: if an employee leaves, their user name and password needs to be removed, anti-virus software needs to updated regularly to take account of any new viruses and backup copies need to be checked to ensure they are occuring correctly.

1. An employee works on a file on their home computer. They then email the file to work. Unfortunately the file contains a virus.

2. The network administrator for a company is reading employees’ emails without their knowledge.

3. Scott likes trying to ‘get around’ the security on government computer systems. He never changes any of the data he finds, he just enjoys breaking in.

4. An employee, whose job is to chase overdue accounts, marks the account of a friend as paid.

What strategies could be used to stop, or at least discourage, each of the above scenarios from occurring? Discuss.

Some strategies aim to prevent security issues occurring whilst others help correct the problem once it has occurred. Classify each of the strategies above as either prevention or correction.

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ACCURACY OF DATA AND INFORMATION

Inaccurate data results in incorrect information being output from the information system. The consequences of such incorrect information can be minor, for example a letter addressed incorrectly, or major, for example a country going to war. The term ‘data integrity’ is used to describe the correctness, accuracy and validity of data. All information systems should include mechanisms for maximising data integrity.

There are various techniques used including: data validation and data verification checks. Data validation involves checking the data is in the correct format and is reasonable as it is entered into the system. For example your HSC assessment mark in this course must be a number between 0 and 100, the software can perform such validation and ensure this is the case. However, knowing the mark entered is your actual result is a different matter. Data verification checks ensure the data entered is actually correct. For example, although 97 is a legitimate HSC mark, perhaps it was mistyped as 79, data verification aims to corrects such errors. In this case, the data entry operator may be required to physically check each entered mark before pressing the submit button. Verifying data as correct is a much more difficult task than validating it as reasonable. Data can become inaccurate over time, for example addresses change, so verifying the accuracy of data is an ongoing process.

The accuracy of collected data is improved when the format of data collection forms ensure data is in the required format and required range. For example computer-based forms can use check boxes ;, radio buttons ~, or list boxes to ensure input is of the type required. These items are said to be ‘self- validating’ – they ensure the data entered is reasonable in terms of format and range. Both computer and paper-based forms can include masks that provide a template to indicate the format of the data required. For example a phone number mask could be ( _ _ ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, a post code mask could be .

DATA QUALITY

Quality data meets the requirements of all information systems that will make use of the data. For example, a database that processes customer orders is not just used by the ordering system; it is also used for stock control, analysing sales patterns, marketing and numerous other tasks. Quality data meets the needs of all systems. Many organisations develop data quality policies and standards to ensure the data within its systems will meet the needs of all its current and future systems.

There are a number of perpectives that should be considered when assessing data quality. Accuracy, timeliness and accessibility are three common data quality perpectives (there are many others). The importance of each perspective is closely related to the particular information systems that will utilise the data. The different perspectives are not separate, rather they each have an effect on the others. For instance, inaccurate data occurs when data is not updated in a timely manner. In terms of accuracy, data quality encompasses the above section on “Accuracy of data and information”.

Fig 1.11

Adobe Acrobat screen showing a number of self-validating screen elements.

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The timeliness of data relates to how soon changes to data are actually made and also how soon such data changes are available to other processes or systems. For example, purchases made using a credit card can take some time to be reflected in both the purchasers account and the merchants account. If the purchase is processed using an online facility then both accounts are adjusted in close to real time, however if the purchase is processed manually then it can be some days for the account balances of the purchaser and merchant to reflect the change.

Accessibility of data refers to the availability and suitability of data for processing. For example, many organisations maintain separate databases at each branch. Management at head office requires access to all branch databases if it is to accurately produce sales totals. If the business only calculates monthly sales totals then online access to each branch database may not be a priority, however if sales totals are monitored on an hourly basis then online access is needed. In addition, if the organisation of the data within each branch database is different then it will be difficult for the head office system to calculate the sales totals efficiently. For instance, some branches may add GST to each product within each order whilst others may add GST to the total of each order.

A time and motion study is being undertaken for a white goods manufacturer. Each worker on the assembly line is asked to keep records on the time taken to assemble each component. The results of the study are used to pinpoint bottle necks in the manufacturing process.

The results are compiled and as a consequence various recommendations are made to management. Management disagrees with many of the recommendations and doubts the accuracy of the data used. It is later found that the times submitted by many of the individual workers were inaccurate. When these times are totalled the result is far greater than the time they actually worked.

CHANGING NATURE OF WORK

The nature of work has seen significant change since the 1960s. These changes have been both in terms of the types of jobs available and also in the way work is undertaken. The widespread implementation of computer-based systems, including computer-based information systems, has been the driving force behind most of these changes. In the early 1970s many thought that the consequence of new technologies would be a reduction in the total amount of work needing to be done; this has not occurred. Rather new industries and new types of employment have been created. Many people are now working longer hours, in more highly skilled and stressful jobs than ever before.

The term ‘Information Technology Revolution’ has been widely used to describe changes occuring over the last few decades, however more recently the term ‘Global Knowledge Economy’ has emerged. Information and communication technologies can be regarded as truly global technologies; they provide the ability to code information and share it globally at high speed and at minimal cost. Consider the

Discuss reasons why the workers recorded inaccurate times? What techniques could have been used to improve the quality of the data?

IPT Prelim Text 2nd Edition

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TO THE TEACHER

TO THE STUDENT

In this chapter you will learn to:

Which will make you more able to:

In this chapter you will learn about:

1

INTRODUCTION TO

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

WHAT IS A SYSTEM?

WHAT IS INFORMATION?

INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN CONTEXT

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES