An Invitation To Philosophy

(1)

AN

INVITATION TO

PHILOSOPHY

QUESTIONING THE FUNDAMENTALS WE

NORMALLY

TAKE FOR GRANTED (

MAGEE, B.,MAGEE, B., The Story of Philosophy)The Story of Philosophy)

T

T_{HE DAILY LIVES OF MOST of us are full of things that keep us}_{HE DAILY LIVES OF MOST of us are full of things that keep us}

bu

busy sy anand d prpreoeoccuccupipieded. . BuBut t eveverery y nonow w anand d agaagain in we we fifindnd ourselves

ourselves drawing drawing back back anand d wwonondederiring whng what it at it iis s alall l ababououtt.. And

And then, perhaps, then, perhaps, we may we may starstart t askiasking ng fundfundamenamental questiotal questionsns that normally we do not stop to ask.

that normally we do not stop to ask.

This can happen with regard to any aspect of life. In politics, for This can happen with regard to any aspect of life. In politics, for

example, people are all the time bandying

example, people are all the time bandying around terms liaround terms likeke "freedom,

"freedom,""equality""equality,""social justi,""social justice," and ce," and so on. so on. But every But every nownow and agai

and again somebon somebody comes along who asks: dy comes along who asks: "Yes, but what "Yes, but what dodo we a

we actuctuallally mey mean by freedom? an by freedom? And whAnd what do at do we mean we mean byby eq

equaualitlity?" y?" Such questSuch questioninioning can become chalg can become challengilenginglyngly awkward. The person may say: "Surely freedom and

awkward. The person may say: "Surely freedom and equality areequality are in conflict with one another? If we're all free to live our lives as in conflict with one another? If we're all free to live our lives as we like, aren't we bound to end up in a whole lot of different and we like, aren't we bound to end up in a whole lot of different and very unequal situations? And isn't that something that can be very unequal situations? And isn't that something that can be prevented only by government interference? If that's true, then prevented only by government interference? If that's true, then it's no good us saying we're in favour of freedom and equality it's no good us saying we're in favour of freedom and equality and just leaving it at that. There's an element of contradiction and just leaving it at that. There's an element of contradiction involved." It is when people start to

(2)

beginning to think philosophically. In this case they are beginning to think philosophically. In this case they are embarking on what it is known as political philosophy. embarking on what it is known as political philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY BEGINS IN WONDER PHILOSOPHY BEGINS IN WONDER

People can subject any field of human activity to fundamental People can subject any field of human activity to fundamental questioning like this – which is another way of saying that there questioning like this – which is another way of saying that there ca

can n be be a a phphililososopophy hy of of aanynytthihingng. . LLaawwyyeerrs s aarre e rreeffeerrrriingng constantly to guilt and innocence, justice, a fair trial, and so on. constantly to guilt and innocence, justice, a fair trial, and so on. Bu

But t if one if one of of ththem em sasaysys: : "W"Whehen n we we tatalk lk aboabout ut jujuststicice, e, do do wewe mean the same as what the politicians mean when they talk mean the same as what the politicians mean when they talk about

about social social justjustice, or are ice, or are we talking about sometwe talking about something diffehing differentrent here?" he is beginning to do philosophy of law. The doctor who here?" he is beginning to do philosophy of law. The doctor who as

asks ks hihimsmselelf; f; “I“Is s ththerere e anany y susuch ch peperfrfect ect ththining g heahealtlth h - - if if notnot,, wh

what at do do we we memean an by cure?by cure?" " is begiis beginninning ng to to do do phiphiloslosophophy y of of medicine. In every field of activity there is a philosophy of it that medicine. In every field of activity there is a philosophy of it that invol

involves ves questiquestioning oning its its fufundandamementantal l conconcepceptsts, , priprincinciplples, es, andand methods. So there is philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, methods. So there is philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, ph

phililososopophy hy of of artart, , anand d so so on. Nearon. Nearly ly alalwaways, some ys, some of of the bestthe best practitioners in each field are interested in its philosopophy.

practitioners in each field are interested in its philosopophy.

It

It _{is important to realize that when the}_{is important to realize that when the political philosopher asks.-}_{political philosopher}

asks.-“What is freedom?" he is not just asking for a definition of the “What is freedom?" he is not just asking for a definition of the word. If that were all he wanted he could look

word. If that were all he wanted he could look it up in theit up in the dictionary. His question goes far beyond. He is seeking an dictionary. His question goes far beyond. He is seeking an altogether

altogether deeper deeper understanding of understanding of concept concept and and of of how how itit actually functions in our

actually functions in our thoughts and our lives, and of otherthoughts and our lives, and of other ways in which it might also be used, and of the possible dangers ways in which it might also be used, and of the possible dangers

(3)

of its use, and

of its use, and of how it does or could of how it does or could relate to other keyrelate to other key political concepts such as equality. He is trying to clarify his political concepts such as equality. He is trying to clarify his mind and ours

mind and ours on a subject that has important practicalon a subject that has important practical implications for us and yet which bristles with difficulties. implications for us and yet which bristles with difficulties.

HIS ELUCIDATION OF CONCEPTS, though, fascinating as it is, is HIS ELUCIDATION OF CONCEPTS, though, fascinating as it is, is th

the mee mere sre surfurfacace of philosophy. e of philosophy. The The greatest greatest philosopphilosophershers have gone much deeper than that and questioned the most have gone much deeper than that and questioned the most fundamental aspects of our existence

fundamental aspects of our existence and our experience. Weand our experience. We human beings find ourselves in a world we had

human beings find ourselves in a world we had no say aboutno say about entering. In its most obvious and basic features it consists entering. In its most obvious and basic features it consists of aof a framework of space and time - three dimensions of space and framework of space and time - three dimensions of space and one dimension of time - inhabited by a large number of widely one dimension of time - inhabited by a large number of widely differing material objects, some of which are people like

differing material objects, some of which are people like ourselves. And

ourselves. And philosophers hphilosophers have raised questions like: "What iave raised questions like: "What iss time?" and “Is everything that actually exists, including people, a time?" and “Is everything that actually exists, including people, a material obje

material object and nothing more? Can something that is not ct and nothing more? Can something that is not aa material object and nothing more? Can soemthing that it is not material object and nothing more? Can soemthing that it is not aa material object have real existence? If so, What is the

material object have real existence? If so, What is the nature of nature of that existence?” In asking question like this they

that existence?” In asking question like this they are not justare not just trying to achieve a deeper understanding of concepts. They are trying to achieve a deeper understanding of concepts. They are striving towards a fundamental understanding at whatever it is striving towards a fundamental understanding at whatever it is that exists, including ourselves, and there are

that exists, including ourselves, and there are trying to do thistrying to do this without making it a question of religious faith, or appealing to the without making it a question of religious faith, or appealing to the say-so of an author

say-so of an authority. They ity. They may as may as individuals have religiousindividuals have religious beliefs - most great philosophers have had, though some have beliefs - most great philosophers have had, though some have not –

not – yet yet as good as good philosophers they do philosophers they do not attempt not attempt to supportto support their philosophical arguments with appeals to religion. A

their philosophical arguments with appeals to religion. A philosophical argument is one that carries its own

philosophical argument is one that carries its own credentialscredentials with it, in the form of reasons: it asks

with it, in the form of reasons: it asks you your rational assent,you your rational assent, not for faith or

not for faith or obedient. Philosophy tries to see how far reasonobedient. Philosophy tries to see how far reason alone will take us.

alone will take us.

Because philosophy is a quest for

(4)

most

most fundamental kind it fundamental kind it raises important raises important questions about questions about thethe nature of understanding and hence of enquiry and knowledge. nature of understanding and hence of enquiry and knowledge. How are we to go about finding answers to all these questions of How are we to go about finding answers to all these questions of ours? Can we ever really know, in the sense of being sure of,

ours? Can we ever really know, in the sense of being sure of, anything? If so, what? And even if we do know, how will we be anything? If so, what? And even if we do know, how will we be able to be sure that we know; in other words can we ever know able to be sure that we know; in other words can we ever know that we know? Questions like this have themselves come to that we know? Questions like this have themselves come to occupy a place near the center of philosophy. Alongside occupy a place near the center of philosophy. Alongside questions about the

questions about the world around world around us, the philus, the philosopher askosopher askss

questions about the nature of human perception, experience, and questions about the nature of human perception, experience, and understanding. So, put at its most basic philosophy has

understanding. So, put at its most basic philosophy has

developed in a such a way the two fundamental questions lie at developed in a such a way the two fundamental questions lie at its heart; the first is “What is the

its heart; the first is “What is the nature of whatever it is thatnature of whatever it is that exists? And the second is

exists? And the second is if at all, can we know?" Investigationif at all, can we know?" Investigation into the first question, about what exists and the nature of into the first question, about what exists and the nature of existence, constitutes the branch of philosophy known as existence, constitutes the branch of philosophy known as ontology. Investigation into the second question - about the ontology. Investigation into the second question - about the nature of knowl

nature of knowledge, and what, if anythiedge, and what, if anything, we can knng, we can know ow - i- iss called epistemology. It is the development of these two over called epistemology. It is the development of these two over the centuries - and of all the subsidiary questions than arise out the centuries - and of all the subsidiary questions than arise out of them – that constitute the main stream of philosophy’s history. of them – that constitute the main stream of philosophy’s history. Into this mainstream flow all the important tributaries, such as Into this mainstream flow all the important tributaries, such as moral and political philosophy, philosophy of science, aesthetics, moral and political philosophy, philosophy of science, aesthetics, philosophy of religion, and the rest. All these have their place in philosophy of religion, and the rest. All these have their place in philosophy as a whole, but questions about what exists, and how philosophy as a whole, but questions about what exists, and how we can know, are

we can know, are logicalllogically prior to questions raised in y prior to questions raised in these otherthese other branches.

branches.

It may be that to some of our most important questions we shall It may be that to some of our most important questions we shall never find the answers. But that is itself not something we can never find the answers. But that is itself not something we can know in adva

know in advance. So nce. So we shall want to mount assaults on all thewe shall want to mount assaults on all the problems that interest us. If in the course of doing so we

problems that interest us. If in the course of doing so we

discover good reasons to believe that a particular question is not discover good reasons to believe that a particular question is not susceptible of an answer we shall have to find a way of coming susceptible of an answer we shall have to find a way of coming

(5)

to terms with that. It is a conclusion which -like all other to terms with that. It is a conclusion which -like all other philosophical conclusions - we sh

philosophical conclusions - we shall require good reasons forall require good reasons for believing. We shall not be willing just to accept it on spec, or believing. We shall not be willing just to accept it on spec, or on faith, or because we have an intuition to that effect: we shall on faith, or because we have an intuition to that effect: we shall want to know why we should believe it to be true.

want to know why we should believe it to be true.

T

T_{HIS INSISTENCE ON R}_{HIS INSISTENCE ON REASONS is one of the hallmarks}_{EASONS is one of the hallmarks of}_of

philosophy. It distinguishes philosophy from, for example, philosophy. It distinguishes philosophy from, for example, both religion and the arts. In religion, reasons are appealed to both religion and the arts. In religion, reasons are appealed to sometimes, but also faith, revelation, ritual, and obedience sometimes, but also faith, revelation, ritual, and obedience have indispensable roles, and reason can never take a person have indispensable roles, and reason can never take a person the whole

the whole way. The cway. The creative artist, reative artist, like the philolike the philosopher, is fullysopher, is fully committ

committed to a truth-seeking activity, trying to see ed to a truth-seeking activity, trying to see below thebelow the surface of things and acquire a deeper understanding of human surface of things and acquire a deeper understanding of human experience; however, he publishes, or publicly presents, his experience; however, he publishes, or publicly presents, his insights in

insights in a different form from the philosopher, a form thata different form from the philosopher, a form that relies on direct perception and intuition rather than on rational relies on direct perception and intuition rather than on rational argument.

(6)

WILLIAM BLAKE,

WILLIAM BLAKE, THE ANCIENT OF DAYS (1794)THE ANCIENT OF DAYS (1794)

Regularity is found at every level in the known universe, Regularity is found at every level in the known universe,

from the very biggest to the very smallest, and from the very biggest to the very smallest, and usually in forms that can be expressed in mathematical usually in forms that can be expressed in mathematical

equations. It is as if the universe itself embodies equations. It is as if the universe itself embodies

rationality. It is as if, somebody once said.. rationality. It is as if, somebody once said..

"God is a mathematician." "God is a mathematician."

A

A difdiffeferenrent t sorsort t of of frfrontontier ier runruns s betbetweeween n phiphilolosopsophy hy and and ththee sc

scieiencnceses. . AgAgaiain, n, ththe e scscieientntisist t lilike ke ththe e phphililososopopheher r anand d ththee cre

creatative ive artartistist, , is is engengageaged d in in trtruthuth-se-seekekining g enqenquiruiry, y, trytrying ing toto mak

make e new disconew discoveriveries about the es about the worlworld d and the and the natunature re of ourof our experience of it, and

experience of it, and to make sense to make sense of these, and to publof these, and to publish hisish his findings. And he, like the philosopher, is much concerned to be findings. And he, like the philosopher, is much concerned to be able to provi

able to provide de ratiorational backing for everythinal backing for everything ng he says. he says. In hisIn his c

caasse e tthe he kekey y didifffferereencnce e ffrrom om tthe he phphiillososoophpher er iis s tthhat at tthehe scientist is concerned with questions that can be decided by scientist is concerned with questions that can be decided by

(7)

exp

experierimement nt or or obsobservervatiation. on. And And thethere re are are no no expexperierimements nts oror o

obsbseervrvatatiionons s tthahat t wwiilll l ttelell l us us wwheheththeer r oor r nonot t ttimime e hhaad d aa beginning, or what "rights" are. Questions like that, which are beginning, or what "rights" are. Questions like that, which are a

ammeennaabblle e tto o rraattiioonnaal l eennqquuiirry y bbuut t nnoott am

amenenabable le to to ththe e mmetethohods ds of of scscieiencnce, e, arare e tytypipicacal l of of tthhee questions that get bequathed to philosophers.

questions that get bequathed to philosophers. ,,

It is essential to realize that philosophy, science, and art are not It is essential to realize that philosophy, science, and art are not at odds wit

at odds with one anotherh one another. They have . They have much more much more in commonin common than appears at first sight. In fact, as we shall see in this book, than appears at first sight. In fact, as we shall see in this book, it was out of philosophy that science was born. It is the same it was out of philosophy that science was born. It is the same world that philosophy, science, and art are

world that philosophy, science, and art are all exploring. Allall exploring. All three confront the mystery of the world's existence, and our three confront the mystery of the world's existence, and our existence as human beings, and try to achieve a deeper

existence as human beings, and try to achieve a deeper understanding of it. All three make perpetual use of both understanding of it. All three make perpetual use of both inspiration and

inspiration and criticism. And criticism. And all three all three make theimake their findingr findings publics public so that t

so that they can be sharhey can be shared. But beced. But because they ause they use differentuse different methods, and

methods, and follow different paths, they may sometimfollow different paths, they may sometimeses appeal to different temperaments. Yet they share the goal of appeal to different temperaments. Yet they share the goal of exploring human knowledge and experience, and trying to bring exploring human knowledge and experience, and trying to bring what is hidden to light, and organize their findings into publicly what is hidden to light, and organize their findings into publicly articulate form. They enrich one another, and a fully rounded articulate form. They enrich one another, and a fully rounded human being will find himself becoming naturally interested in human being will find himself becoming naturally interested in all three. This book tells the story of one of them, philosophy. all three. This book tells the story of one of them, philosophy. Like the other two. It is among the most fascinating and valuable Like the other two. It is among the most fascinating and valuable things tha

things that civilit civilizatiozation has produn has produced. And, ced. And, like the like the others, others, itsits future is likely to be richer than its past.