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Introduction

This paper outlines some of the main influences on the National Literacy Strategy which was implemented in English primary schools in 1998. The paper draws upon a

Review of Research and Other Related Evidence (Beard, 1999) and has been prepared with an international audience in mind.

What is the National Literacy Strategy?

The National Literacy Strategy (NLS) was established in 1997 by the incoming UK government to raise standards of literacy in English primary schools over a five to ten year period. (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own curricula and Education Departments and are not formally affected by the NLS.) The Strategy was the result of the work of a Literacy Task Force which had been set up by the Shadow Secretary of State for Education and Employment, David Blunkett, in May 1996. The Task Force published a preliminary consultation report in February 1997 (LTF, 1997a) and a final report in August 1997. In its final report (LTF, 1997b) the Task Force set out the details of a ‘steady, consistent strategy’ for raising standards of literacy which could be sustained over a long period of time and be made a central priority for the education service as a whole.

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1. A national target that, by 2002, 80% of 11 year olds should reach the standard expected for their age in English (Level 4); (The proportion reaching this standard in 1996 was 57%.)

2. A Framework for Teaching (DfEE, 1998a) which (i) sets out termly teaching objectives for the 5-11 age range and (ii) provides a practical structure of time and class management for a daily LiteracyHour.

The Framework notes that further literacy work should be productively linked to other curriculum areas and that additional time may also be needed for:

• reading to the class (e.g. in end of day sessions)

• pupils’ own independent reading (for interest and pleasure)

• extended writing (especially for older pupils).

3. A programme of professional development for all primary teachers, centred on a

Literacy Training Pack (DfEE, 1998b). This Pack is made up of course booklets, overhead transparencies and audio and videotapes to support three in-service training days in 1998-9 and further training in after-school sessions.

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How Did the National LiteracyStrategy Come About?

There were a number of influences that shaped the nature and structure of the National Literacy Strategy. It may be helpful to see some as ‘predisposing’ influences,

implying

that literacy teaching in England was in need of radical change. Over the previous thirty years, standards in literacy in England had not increased in line with the hopes and expectations of policy makers. The teaching of early literacy had become largely individualised and appeared to be out of line with the practices suggested by school effectiveness research. The teaching of early reading often largely comprised hearing children read books in an order suggested by commercial publishers. Accumulating inspection evidence suggested that there was often relatively little ‘teaching’ per se. Furthermore, England (and Wales, according to Brooks et al., 1996) appeared to have a long tail of under-achievement, which seemed to call for the kinds of direct

interactive teaching approaches which had been successful with ‘at risk’ pupils in the USA and Australia.

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effectiveness and overseas literacy research. He saw these influences as having major implications for school improvement and for changing the way that literacy was taught in English primary schools (Stannard, 1997).

All these influences are set out below to show the time-scales involved.

Circa 1988-97 ‘Predisposing Influences’:

International Comparisons of Reading Standards School Effectiveness Research

Accumulating Inspection Evidence Literacy Research Evidence

1996

‘Precipitating Influence’: The National Literacy Project • Literacy Hour in 15 LEAs

• Draft Framework for Teaching

(Termly objectives at ‘text level’, ‘sentence level’ and ‘word level’)

1996-7 Literacy Task Force • National Targets

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• National Professional Development

Strategy

• National Year of Reading (1998-9)

National Literacy Strategy for 1997-2007

National Targets

Literacy Hour encouraged in all primary schools

Framework for Teaching sent to all primary schools NLS Training Pack sent to all primary schools

National Year of Reading (1998-9) etc.

Some of the main features of each of these influences will now be briefly discussed in turn.

International Comparison of Reading Standards

Standards in literacy among English primary school children have remained largely stable 1948-1996 (Brooks, 1998). Compared with other countries, English reading standards are similar to those in a ‘middle’ group of countries. In the middle and upper parts of the range of scores, children from England performed as well as those in countries much higher in the rank order. However, England has a long ‘tail’ of under-achievement (Brooks et al., 1996).

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these issues). The study of literacy standards within countries, but between different points in time, raises additional issues. The National Curriculum assessments (SATs) are criterion-referenced and can accommodate shifts in the distributions of

performance without re-standardisation being necessary (TGAT, 1988). At the same time, the specific level descriptions have annually to be translated into different test formats to avoid the difficulties created by excessive ‘teaching to the test’. This re-writing raises further questions about year on year comparisons. As Level 4 in

English is being used as a national target for 80% of eleven year olds by 2002, there is a concomitant need for the body which oversees the national testing, the

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), to be rigorous in ensuring the consistency of Level 4 requirements (LTF, 1997a, p.7; Sainsbury and Twist, 1999).

School Effectiveness Research

The NLS reflects the implications of school effectiveness research. School effectiveness is generally gauged by the further progress which pupils make than might be expected from consideration of the school’s intake. The measures are normally in basic subjects, especially reading and numeracy, and examinations. The most valid research of this kind is longitudinal, so that cohorts can be followed over time. Leading researchers in the field stress that the outcomes from their work are not appropriate for the production of ‘blue-print’ schools (e.g. Mortimore, 1991).

A meta-analysis by Jaap Scheerens has identified two characteristics of school effectiveness which are found in multiple studies (Scheerens, 1992):

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dividing material into manageable units

teaching in a well-considered sequence

encouraging pupils to use hunches and prompts regular testing for progress

immediate feedback.

(ii) effective learning time: Whole class teaching can often be superior to

individualised teaching because, in the latter, the teacher has to divide attention and the net result per pupil is lower.

Similar factors are found in a meta-analysis of the effective classroom (Creemers, 1994; see also Reynolds, 1998 and Teddlie and Reynolds, 1999).

An earlier British study is generally seen as a landmark in school effectiveness research (Mortimore et al., 1988). Subsequent investigations have confirmed the importance of primary school provision:

• once pupils begin school, the school itself can have a greater influence than

background; and

• this variance may be greater in primary schools than in secondary schools

(Sammons, Hillmore and Mortimore, 1995);

• positive primary school factors affect examination attainment at the age of 16+ (the

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The NLStakes up the implications of Scheerens’ analysis in several ways. Firstly, it stresses the importance of direct teaching by the use of whole class teaching in the first

half of the Literacy Hour and the maintenance of direct teaching with groups, and then with the class again, in the second half. Secondly, it maximises effective learning time by ensuring that there is a dedicated Literacy Hour during each school day, with further suggestions on providing for additional literacy learning time during the rest of the day (DfEE, 1998a, p.14). Thirdly, it draws directly on the National Curriculum in the content of the Framework and assists the related ‘opportunities to learn’ by adopting a clear objectives-based approach for each primary school term.

Accumulating Inspection Evidence

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The reports and commentaries contain comments which indicate the need for (i) many schools to strengthen the ways in which some aspects of literacy are taught and for (ii) substantial in-service support to be given to develop teachers’ professional knowledge related to these aspects. In particular, there are recurrent comments on the need for the following to be strengthened in many schools:

i. the use of direct teaching, related to clear objectives and including skilful questioning;

ii. the provision of effective learning time;

iii. the appropriate balance of teaching methods and range of tasks provided; iv. the use of systematic phonics;

v. the teaching of writing, including provision for a range of writing tasks and the diagnosis of pupils’ weaknesses and related learning needs;

vi. the extension of reading skills beyond the initial stages; vii. teachers’ subject knowledge in literacy teaching.

The National Literacy Strategy incorporates a variety of features to accommodate these:

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ii. Effective Learning Time is provided for through a dedicated Literacy Hour, together with indicators of how at least three more aspects of literacy

development can be fostered at other points in the day: individual reading, reading to the class and extended writing.

iii. Balance and Extension are major features of the National LiteracyStrategy

Framework for Teaching. There is provision for consistent attention to the different levels of language and literacy learning by the systematic use of the text-sentence-word level sub-sections in the Framework. The sub-sections provide for a comprehensive mapping of each part of the National Curriculum, ‘Key Skills’, ‘Range’ and ‘Standard English and Language Study’. Illustrative details are included, particularly to encourage attention to the role of different skills and types of text in assisting the extension of literacy throughout the primary years.

iv. Phonics Similarly, there is provision for consistent and systematic attention to the teaching of the English alphabetic writing system, in both reading and writing. The specific phonics and spelling work in Years R to 2 is also set out in an

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v. Writing There is detailed attention to the compositional and presentational aspects of writing through the ‘text level’ work in composition; the ‘sentence level’ work in grammatical awareness, sentence construction and punctuation and revision; and the ‘word level’ work in spelling, vocabulary and handwriting. The

Framework (p.14) also notes that extended writing may need to be tackled in independent work outside the Literacy Hour, thus recognising the central role of reading and writing in many subjects across the curriculum.

vi. Teachers’ Professional Knowledge The National LiteracyStrategy supports staff development opportunities on an unprecedented scale, in that three full days of training (plus after-school sessions) are provided for the staff in every primary school. The Training Pack and its audio-visual components structure this

training through carefully timed activities, discussion opportunities and source material. The Framework includes a Glossary of terms used. The NLS appears to reflect the belief that ‘there is a link between the investment in staff

development and the learning of children’ (Joyce and Showers, 1995, p.17).

Literacy Research Evidence

TheNLS has clearly been influenced by the work of Bob Slavin and his colleagues in the USA. Slavin presented a paper at the launch of the Literacy Task Force

Consultation Report (Slavin, 1997). His work at the Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk in Baltimore has consistently supported several features of educational provision now adopted by the NLS:

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• direct, interactive teaching;

• systematic phonics in the context of interesting text;

• a combination of shared and paired reading and writing;

• early interventions for pupils who have not made expected progress after one year

at school.

These are very similar to the approaches adopted by the NLS, with the exception of the last one. The evaluation of the National LiteracyStrategy may indicate whether it needs to be extended to provide additional systematic intervention for children at risk after one year of schooling.

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dramatic improvements are achievable within the context of a fully implemented, comprehensive strategy that involves both system- and school-wide commitment and co-ordination.

Crévola and Hill emphasise that the starting point of all comprehensive early literacy prevention and intervention strategies is attitudinal: high expectations; a belief in the capacity of all students to make progress, given sufficient time and support; and a relentless determination to persist with those who are not experiencing success.

The National Literacy Project

The National Literacy Project (NLP) was set up in the Spring of 1996 in 15 local Education Authorities. It had the following aims:

• to improve standards of literacy in participating primary schools in line with

national expectations;

• to provide detailed support to schools and teachers through a structured

programme and consultancy support;

• through the national network, to develop detailed, practical guidance on teaching

methods and activities, and to disseminate these to the project schools; • to disseminate the work of the NLP to other, non-participating LEAs and

institutions;

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Participating schools implemented two key structures, a Framework for Teaching and the Literacy Hour. These were earlier versions of what were subsequently to be included in the NLS. The Framework provided schools with a means of shifting the emphasis in planning for the revised National Curriculum for English (DfE, 1995) from ‘what’ to ‘how’. This was done by using three strands (text level, sentence level and word level) to provide coverage, balance and progression in literacy teaching. The purpose of this Framework was to present teachers not with increased

prescription but with a wide range of new and challenging decisions about tasks, activities and methods (Stannard, 1997).

Teaching Objectives

Teachers were given further assistance in this by the use of objectives for each of the three levels of teaching for each term of the seven primary school years. In Y1-6, there were separate, sometimes overlapping, objectives for each of the 18 terms. For the Reception age-range (four year olds, to whom the National Curriculum does not formally apply until they reach the age of five), there were objectives for the whole year. This yearly provision helps to cater for variations in local admissions policies: some pupils begin school at the beginning of the school year when they are become five; others at the beginning of the respective school term.

The use of objectives for curriculum planning draws on the tradition of educational thinking going back to the work of Ralph Tyler. Tyler (1949, p.3) acknowledges that excellent educational work can be done by teachers who do not have a clear

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adds, however, that, if an educational programme is to be planned and if efforts for continued improvement are to be made, it is very necessary to have some conception of the goals that are being pursued. These educational objectives become the criteria by which materials are selected, content outlined, teaching approaches developed and assessment procedures prepared.

The NLS extends the use of objectives in innovative ways beyond the programmes of study set out in the National Curriculum. For example, its structured and routinised approach allows teachers to share and explain the objectives with their pupils. This sharing can develop a common sense of purpose in the classroom. It can increase a sense of responsibility in independent working. The recursive features in the objectives can extend the sense of purpose across yearly transitions. Shared

objectives, translated into appropriate language, can also help to focus on key points in plenary sessions.

The Literacy Hour

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The General Model of Reading and Writing in the Framework for Teaching

The model of reading and writing used in the Framework uses a consistent sub-division between ‘word level’, ‘sentence level’ and ‘text level’ work. These distinctions are common in linguistic description:

• The word is the smallest free-standing unit of linguistic description. (Morphemes

are the smallest units of meaning but may not be independent e.g. ‘un-’ or ‘-ness’; words can also be single morphemes e.g. ‘book’.)

• The sentence is the largest linguistic unit within which grammatical rules

systematically operate.

• A text (sometimes referred to as ‘discourse’) is a collection of one or more

sentences that display a coherent theme and appropriate grammatical cohesion.

Other more detailed distinctions can be built on these. For instance, phonemes, the smallest sound units which contrast with each (e.g. /b/ or /r/), exist below word level. Clauses are part of sentence level. Phrases exist between sentence/clause level and word level. The word/sentence/text level distinctions are a convenient way of

referring to the visual features of what we read and write and are helpful in providing consistent points of reference for teachers and pupils when talking about the processes and products of literacy learning.

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the use of context are viewed and secondly in relation to the role of phonological processing (see the section below on Phonics and Spelling). For some years several influential writers argued that fluent reading was characterised by increasing use of contextual cues and minimal use of visual cues. In the last twenty years a great deal of evidence has been put forward in support of the opposite view: that it is less-skilled readers who are more dependent on context in word recognition. The word

recognition processes of skilled readers are so rapid and automatic that they generally do not need to rely on contextual information - except to decide between homonyms. These changing views of the nature of fluent reading and their influences on

educational practice have been discussed by researchers such as Marilyn Jager Adams (1990; 1991); Jessie Reid (1993); Keith and Paula Stanovich (1995) and Charles Perfetti (1995).

It should be noted that, although the skills of the fluent reader are distinguished by fast, context-free, word recognition, where the effective reader does use context extensively is in comprehension. Indeed, Perfetti (1995) concludes that the hallmark of skilled reading is fast context-free word identification and rich context-dependent text understanding.

The Evaluation of the National Literacy Project

The NLP was evaluated by Ofsted and the National Foundation for Educational Research using data from 250 schools. The latter’s test results revealed a significant and substantial improvement over the 18 month period. Final test scores had

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Girls had higher average scores than boys and made more progress during the project. Children eligible for free school meals, those with special educational needs and those learning English as an additional language had lower scores, but all these groups also made statistically significant progress. All ethnic groups benefited equally (Sainsbury

et al., 1998).

Some Key Sources in the Field

A range of research evidence has been drawn upon to inform recent developments in literacy education in England. The range includes sources that have psychological, sociological, linguistic and literary perspectives, as well as work in curriculum

development. The following table includes some extracts from the associated Review of Research and Related Evidence (Beard, 1999) which further illustrate the range of the sources that support current policy and practice in English primary schools.

THE RECEPTION AGE-RANGE Reception practice is likely to be assisted by some form of

collaboration between homes and schools to promote early literacy

development (e.g. Hannon, 1995; Weinberger, 1996).

Researchers have associated phonological development with early

success in learning to read for some years (Goswami, 1999). There

is a significant connection between children’s phonological

development and their later reading success, linking oracy and

literacy in highly specific ways. Children’s phonological

development follows a clear pattern, from being aware of syllables,

to being aware of onsets and rimes within syllables, to being aware

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Children’s ability to write their name without a model has been

found to be correlated with a number of aspects of writing at 7 years

(Blatchford, 1991). In addition, there is a strong link between

children’s early letter-name knowledge and their subsequent reading

development (Blatchford et al., 1987; Blatchford and Plewis, 1990).

However, the results on later attainment from the direct teaching of

letter names have been largely inconclusive (Riley, 1996).

The Reception age-range warranted a separate section in the Review

because its teachers have to strike a balance between promoting

early progress and avoiding an inappropriate emphasis on academic

provision for children so young.

Concerns about inappropriate provision are valid but they have also

to be related to the findings of a three year study of 33 schools by

Barbara Tizard et al. (1988). Children made relatively more

progress in literacy learning between beginning school and the end

of the Reception year than they did in any of the following three

school years (see also Ofsted, 1998).

SHARED READING Shared reading, in which teacher and pupils simultaneously read aloud a large format text, has been especially promoted in the

writing of Don Holdaway (1979, 1982). He was particularly

interested in developing methods which resembled the visual

intimacy with print which characterises the pre-school book

experience of parents reading with their children. Interestingly,

Holdaway’s early work did not involve commercially produced big

books. Instead it involved the teacher transcribing popular texts in

bold print onto large ‘newsprint’ paper or overhead transparencies.

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In subsequent publications, Holdaway elaborates further on some of

the key principles in successful shared book experience:

• the texts used need to be those which children enjoy

• the teacher needs to present new material with wholehearted

enjoyment

• the ancient satisfactions of chant and song can be used to

sustain the feelings of involvement among pupils

• teaching-learning sequences can be developed to revisit

favourite poems, jingles, songs and stories; to attend to words,

letters and sounds; to use a new story to model and explain

word-solving strategies; to link shared reading to independent

and group reading and writing (Holdaway, 1982).

GUIDEDREADING ‘Guided reading’ is an approach in which the teacher works with a small group of pupils who use similar reading processes and are

able to read similar levels of text with support (Fountas and Pinnell,

1996). The teacher (i) introduces a text to the group; (ii) works

briefly with individuals as they simultaneously read their own copy

at their own individual pace; and (iii) may select one or two points

for the whole group to consolidate or extend their reading

experience. The ultimate goal of guided reading is to help children

learn how to use independent reading strategies successfully. It has

several advantages over hearing children read on an entirely

individual basis. It substantially increases the time which children

actually spend reading. It creates a helpful social context for

reading and responding to texts. It allows the teacher to make

considered decisions in drawing the children’s attention to

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SHAREDWRITING Shared writing, the joint construction of a text by teacher and pupils, has attracted increasing attention in educational publications.

It has built upon research which has revealed the complexity of the

writing process (Hayes and Flower, 1980; Hayes, 1996) and the

recognition of the value of teachers modelling what is involved.

After over a hundred experiments into the psychological aspects of

writing, Carl Bereiter and Marlene Scardamalia (1987, pp. 362-3)

make a number of recommendations:

• pupils (and teachers) need to be made aware of the full extent

of the composing process;

• the thinking that goes on in composition needs to be modelled

by the teacher;

• pupils will benefit from reviewing their own writing strategies

and knowledge;

• pupils need a supportive and congenial writing environment,

but will also benefit from experiencing the struggles that are

an integral part of developing writing skill;

• pupils may also benefit from using various ‘facilitating’

techniques to help them through the initial stages of acquiring

more complex processes e.g. listing words which may be used,

points which may be made or the wording of final sentences

etc., in advance of tackling the full text.

GUIDEDWRITING Guided writing is a pragmatic aspect of managing children’s independent writing in the Literacy Hour. It allows the teacher to

support and encourage pupils who are tackling a similar task and to

monitor their use of the range of skills and processes in writing

(Hayes and Flower, 1980; Hayes, 1996). Close observation of

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a text, the fluency of their transcription skills (grammatical order,

handwriting and spelling) and how far they are re-reading and

revising. As in guided reading, the sense of shared context assists

the teacher in exploiting common concerns and to draw upon the

key links between reading and writing.

Meta-analyses of research evidence suggests that provision for

writing development is most effective if writing is undertaken when

teachers and pupils discuss and tackle targeted writing tasks in a

spirit of inquiry and problem-solving (Hillocks, 1986; 1995). The

potential of guided writing is further explored in Beard (2000).

PHONICSANDSPELLING The National Literacy Strategy Framework follows the

recommendations of such reviews of research evidence as that in

Beginning to Read by Marilyn Jager Adams which was

commissioned by the USA Congress (Adams, 1990). Adams’

conclusions were that teaching approaches in which systematic code

instruction is included along with the reading and writing of

meaningful text results in superior reading achievement overall,

both for low-readiness and better prepared pupils (Adams, 1993, p.

213).

There is now much more interest in the nature of the English

alphabetic writing system: 26 alphabetic letters are used as

graphemes, singly and as digraphs (e.g. <sh>) and trigraphs (e.g.

<igh>) to represent approximately 44 speech sounds (phonemes).

As a recent major survey of English spelling shows (Carney, 1994),

the correspondences between phonemes and graphemes are in some

cases highly consistent: the phoneme /b/ is represented by the letter

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phonics teaching needs to be well-informed and undertaken with a

sense of proportion regarding the patterns and inconsistencies of the

English orthography.

One of the most influential publications on spelling in recent years

has been a paper by Richard Gentry (1982). Gentry outlines a

five-stage model of spelling development, using data from a case study

by Glenda Bissex (1980) of her own son’s early writing. The NLS

Framework brings phonics and spelling together in the word level

strand, and by providing different objectives under ‘spelling

strategies’ which allow for the visual and aural aspects of learning

to support each other. These strategies also reflect how success in

spelling involves understanding other kinds of links between

language and literacy. This understanding needs to include

vocabulary connections between words which are pronounced

differently (e.g. medicine/medical). It also needs to include

grammatical influences on words which are pronounced differently

(e.g. the use of -ed in kissed, purred and booted). John Mountford

(1998) explores these different influences on the spelling system.

LITERATURE AND POETRY For many years, children’s literature has been an area of substantial strength in British education (e.g. Meek et al., 1977; Tucker, 1993;

Fox, 1995; Styles, 1998).

Provision of literature for children also needs to be informed by

what they choose to read in their leisure time (Hall and Coles,

1999).

The conspicuous structures and forms of poetry arouse interest and

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particular poems and help children to understand the techniques

from which poetry is constructed (Morse, 1995).

READING AND WRITING FOR

INFORMATION

The EXEL project at Exeter University has been an important

influence on the NLS Framework. The project has drawn together

a range of skills and strategies to form the EXIT model (‘Extending

Interactions With Text’). The model maps ten process stages and

related questions from activation of previous knowledge, through

establishing purposes and locating information, to interacting with a

text and communicating the information to others (Wray and Lewis,

1997). To assist children in the writing of non-fiction, the project

has used a number of ‘frames’, skeleton outlines of starters,

connectives and sentence modifiers, to help to ‘scaffold’ early

attempts to write in particular genres (Lewis and Wray, 1995).

GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION Contemporary approaches to grammar tend to be concerned with the ways in which different words and phrases add interest to texts

and reflect particular genre features (Halliday, 1985; Perera, 1988).

Recent investigations by Nigel Hall and Anne Robinson (1996)

have highlighted how little is known about how punctuation is

taught and learned. It is salutary to note that the use of punctuation

marks in books for children is often inconsistent from one author to

another. Katharine Perera’s research has shown very different

approaches in authors’ practices and how these variations are

accompanied by marked differences in how several grammatical

structures are presented, including the use of pronouns and reduced

forms (‘I’ll’ etc.) (Perera, 1993; 1996).

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The National LiteracyStrategy is underpinned by evidence from survey, experimental and observational research; analyses and discussions from literary scholarship; and reports from curriculum development projects and school inspections. The

relationship between research and practice, in this as in other areas of education, is not a perfect one. It is a relationship which is mediated by many other factors (see Beard, 1999, pp. 11-15).

Overall, however, there is substantial evidence to support the case for raising literacy standards in the United Kingdom and considerable support for modifying the ways in which reading and writing are taught in many primary schools. The success of the NLS will be influenced by a widespread professional recognition of the need for the modification referred to above and a willingness to accommodate the challenges to knowledge and practice which it will bring. The complementary nature of much of the evidence is a clear indicator that, if it is widely and sensitively implemented, the National Literacy Strategy offers a major promise of significantly raising standards and of improving the life-chances of thousands of children.

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