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TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION AS A MOTIVATIONAL TOOL FOR SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS: AN ASSESSMENT OF PRIVATE BASIC SCHOOLS IN GHANA
Aaron Kumah*
1& Williams Kwasi Boachie
2*1&2Department of Management Studies Education University of Education, Winneba College of Technology
Education (COLTEK), Kumasi
Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Private Basic Schools,Intrinsic Motivation,Extrinsic, Motivation, Ashanti Region, Teachers, Ghana
Abstract
This is a survey study undertaken to assess the function of extrinsic and intrinsic factors of motivation in determining job satisfaction of private basic school teachers in Ghana. Demographic variables such as teachers' gender, age, marital status, school resources, teaching experience, academic qualifications, and rank were examined to ascertain whether these had any reasonable large relevance, or made any significant contribution, to the level of job satisfaction experienced by teachers as well as ascertaining the mutual relationship between the teachers’ diminished interest and job satisfaction as a determinant of the extent of their relationship.A 412 sample from the population was used across 31 private basic schools in Ashanti Region of Ghana. The results showed reasonable large levels of dissatisfaction in relation to intrinsic factors of work. There was a significant dissatisfaction factors in mutual relationship with demographic variables of school area and rank.A reasonable large relationship between levels of diminished interest and job satisfaction was also identified, specifically, in respect of consumption of sentimental resources and emotional detachment, which were shown to be in mutual relationship with low levels of job satisfaction. The study recommended that training must be offered to private basic school owners and encourage effective communication among stakeholders in educational sector whereas authorities in education sector should develop a formalized advancement programmes for teachers in schools notably in private basic schools
Introduction
Job satisfaction and motivation are very critical to the overall long-term growth and development of any organization in this globalized world for which educational systems are not exception. In these recent times there has been a convergence of interest on the efforts by organizations to examine conditions that foster greater satisfaction with job. The basic reason for this renewed interest is the perception that broad even global,changes in the internal layouts and employment practices are inducing changes in the ties that bind employees to their job. As Aziri (2011) indicated, despite its wide accepted practice in scientific research, as well as in everyday life, there is still no general agreement in relationship to what job satisfaction is. Ramayah, Jantan and Tadisina (2001) postulated that today's managers find it hard to ignore the issue of job satisfaction at a time when the demand of meaningful work is increasing. They further indicated two main reasons why managers are interested in job satisfaction. First, they have a moral responsibility to do what they can to provide their employees with a satisfying work environment. Second, their belief was that, the conduct of satisfied workers will contribute positively to the organization. Teachers in this sense are not exempted. Studies have shown that job satisfaction have a direct effect on turnover (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Fishbein, 1980). Therefore, the viable organization must achieve a minimum level of productivity and also provide a minimum level of job satisfaction for its members.
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chance to experience personal growth and the benefits from a physically supportive work environment, and independence are among the factors that impact on job satisfaction. Although there have been an increasing interest in job satisfaction of teachers in their field of work during the last two decades, this has been as a result of an increasing trend of trained teachers leaving the profession for reasons other than retirement (Ingersoll, 2003).
Basic education in Ghana lasts eleven (11) years divided into preschool (Kindergarten), Primary and Junior High School (JHS), which ends on Basic Education Certificate (BECE) (Adu-Agyem and Osei-Poku, 2012). It is grouped into two, managed as public and private. The curriculum of the basic school education is developed by Ghana Education Service (GES) to serve as a guide in Ghana’s Educational system whereas the West African Examination Council (WAEC) serves as the examining body. In terms of running cost, the public is tuition free whereas the private is paid for by parents and guardians. Thus, according to Bonsu (2016), in Ghana we have a total of 5955 basic schools comprising of 1589 private and 4366 public schools. Most privately owned basic schools are said to better perform in the BECE than those in the public due to the fact that owners or proprietors are able to provide the requisite logistics that enable pupils to understand what they are being taught in the classroom.
The goal of this study therefore is to:
a. extend our knowledge about teachers' job satisfaction based on their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation b. assess teachers’ attitudes towards the perceptions of their overall job satisfaction and,
c. explore the ways of assessing of teachers’ burnout correlation and job satisfaction.
Literature Review
The term employee motivation is a complex and difficult term to define; therefore a precise definition of this concept is elusive as the notion comprises the characteristics of individual and situation as well as the perception of that situation by the individual (Ifinedo 2003; Rosenfeld & Wilson 1999).To Edrak, Yin-Fah, Gharleghi and Seng (2013), both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards motivate us to join and continue contributing to organizational promotion. One size does not fit all and also each individual has his/her own personal needs and preferences for rewards. Various researches showed that job satisfaction is related to teachers' sense of efficacy (Currall, Towler, Judge, & Kohn, 2005). Hence, when teachers have high insight of their professional job quality, they also have positive position towards teaching, as an achievement factor. As Drake (2002) supposed, teachers' skills and competency are likely to be changed with time; ensuring more professional development opportunities to increase teachers' skills and competency, it can be helped reduce the level of job pressure and in effect increase satisfaction from teaching.
According to Robbins, (2003) cited in Mafini & Dlodio (2014) work motivation is defined as the willingness of an individual to put forth high levels of effort toward organizational goals and objectives, necessitated by the individual’s ability to satisfy some need. The two-factor theory of motivation (Herzberg, 1966, cited in Kanungo, 1979) shows the difference between intrinsic motivations (e.g. recognition, responsibility, autonomy, ability utilization, remuneration, working conditions, promotion, prestige, etc.) which may be linked to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The theory further presupposes that intrinsic factors are motivators whereas extrinsic (hygiene) factors are essential but do not necessarily motivate employees (Hennessey & Amabile, 2005). In effect, extrinsic motivation factors simply sees to it that some external goal or some externally imposed constraint is met (Ryan &Deci, 2000).But studies from modern organizational behaviour research have objected and revolutionized the traditional assertion that extrinsic factors do not motivate employees. For example, studies showed that extrinsic motivation has an impact on a number of aspects such as employee commitment (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2003), organizational citizenship behaviour.
Empirical Reviews
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Westover and Taylor (2010) researched from USA and Australia by taking a sample size of six countries utilizing non-panel longitudinal data from the International Social Survey Program on Work Orientations I, II, and III for 1989, 1997 and 2005 with a total of 14192 respondents showed the relationship that intrinsic rewards explain the most variation in the respondents job satisfaction followed by work relations with the management. In contrast, public service motivation-fit and work relations with co-workers are found to play a less important role in determining job satisfaction. Above-mentioned shaping factors of job satisfaction differ by country having variables like; job satisfactions, long term worker, productivity and performances using regression as a statistical tool.
Chuang, Yin, & Jenkins (2008) conducted a study at USA by taking a sample size of 25 major casino hotels with 152 hotel chefs (139 males and 13 females) on Intrinsic and extrinsic factors impacting casino hotel chefs‟ job satisfaction, identified variables as Job satisfaction,Intrinsic factors and Extrinsic factors, by applying Cronbach’s alpha, Descriptive statistics, One-way ANOVA, t-test and Multivariate ‟analysis of variance (MANOVA) analysis found out that among intrinsic factors, the chefs were most satisfied with the “growth and recognition they received”. Among extrinsic factors, they were most satisfied with “supervision” and least satisfied with “company policy” pertaining to sick leave and paid vacation. Highest job satisfaction levels were identified among chefs who worked in the fine dining kitchens and supervised between 21 and 30 employees.
Job satisfaction and life satisfaction
According to Zhang and Howell (2011), job satisfaction is a key indicator of the overall life satisfaction amongst employees because it culminates when jobs meet people’s expectations. This implies that job satisfaction would be a subset (component) of life satisfaction, a study result by Sirgy, Efraty, Siegel and Lee (2001). Kinicki, McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim & Carson (2002) also are in agreement that the two concepts are more strongly and positively correlated than what many researchers concluded to be.
A widely acknowledged theory that tries to address the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction is Chacko’s (1983) spill over model.This model suggests that satisfactionin one territory of an individual’s life,which extends into other areas of life such that a positive correlation between life and job satisfaction is implied (Ignat & Clipa, 2012). In effect, an individual may bring to the job a level of dissatisfaction with life that can show up as dissatisfaction with the job (Buetell, 2006). But, the direction of the correlation between job and life satisfaction is subject to extensive debate. For example, Rode (2004) suggests that, there is a general extension of affective life satisfaction to the work situation. Mount, Ilies and Johnson (2006) argued that job satisfaction is prior to overall life satisfaction amongst employees such that employees who are unhappy in their non-work activities will not be happy in their work related activities. In addition, Heller, Judge and Watson (2002) also affirmed that job satisfaction has a positive influence on life satisfaction.
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achievement, sense of accomplishment, and prestige. Extrinsic factors are those derived from factors in the practice environment and include pay and benefits, working conditions, and resources. According to Kozloski (2002) although extrinsic rewards such as payment or positive teacher evaluation was involved and supportive, it was the intrinsic motivation that played more important role and was responsible for teachers' motivation and job satisfaction.
Intrinsic motivation is defined as being energized by the inherent satisfactions gain from undertaking an activity rather than for some distinguishedconsequence. An intrinsically motivated person is energized to act for the fun or challenge demanded rather than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards. In persons, intrinsic motivation is not the only form of motivation, or even apower of willing activity, but it is entirely affective and important one. From birth onward, humans, in their sound condition, are active, inquisitive, curious, and playful creatures, displaying a universally present readiness to learn and explore, and they do not require extrinsic incentives to do so. This natural motivational inclination is a crucial element in intellectual, social, and physical development because it is through acting on one’s inborn interests that one grows in knowledge and skills. Extrinsic motivation is gained from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Extrinsic motivation is when a person is energized to undertake an action based on external factors, such as the expectation of rewards or fear of punishment.
The basis for teacher motivational relationships, like all close relationships, is job satisfaction derived from intrinsic and extrinsic motivation resulting in effective tuition, teacher punctuality and increased enrolment. Teachers have a sense of belongingness to a school when stakeholders indicate involvement and warmth (Martin & Dowson, 2009; Wentzel, 1997) by handling teachers with care and affection and pointing out that, they enjoy having them in the school. When school management are reliable sources of emotional and instrumental support in hard times, teachers feel a sense of belongingness to their work, students and school.
Upon the earlier expositions and the research objectives, the following hypothesis were formulated for the study:
Research hypothesis 1– there exists a significant difference in respect of the average job satisfaction scores
(intrinsic, extrinsic, and general) for the teacher population of Ghanaian private basic schools concerning their demographic factors of gender, age, marital status, school area, teaching experience, academic qualifications, and rank.
Research hypothesis 2- A statistically significant correlation exists between personal accomplishment scores and job satisfaction scores for the population of Ghanaian private basic school teachers.
Methodology
This study employs the survey research method to investigate the impact of teacher job satisfaction as a motivational tool among private basic school teachers in Ghana.Based on demographic information in respect of gender, age, marital status, school area, teaching experience, qualifications, and rank, a self-compiled questionnaire was used to the collect data whereas Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)(Weiss, Dawis, England & Lofquist, 1967) used worldwide to measure the job satisfaction of employees, including teachers was also used for the analysisof research objectives.
For purposes of achieving the objective of this research, only teachers from private basic schools in Ashanti region of Ghana were used. Permission for this study was granted by the various heads of the schools. Four-hundred and fifty (450) teachers were randomly selected from thirty-one (31)private basic schools in Ashanti Region of Ghana to participate in the study. Both teachers and heads were included in the sample. Each set of questionnaires, consisting of the demographic questionnaire and the MSQ (described in table 1below), including a covering letter explaining the purpose of the study to the participants. The principals of the schools were contacted concerning the study, and the sets of questionnaires were personally delivered to the tried schools, where they were distributed to the teachers and collected after completion. A total of four hundred and twelve (412) participants responded, giving an overall response rate of 91.56%.
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instruments by investigating their internal consistency using the MSQ. This was done by calculating Cronbach's alpha coefficients using the SPSS computer program (SPSS Incorporated, 1983). The coefficients are indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 Cronbach alpha coefficient for the sub-scales of the MSQ
With respect to statistical procedures seven demographical variables concerning the levels of job satisfaction of respondents asgender, marital status, school area, qualification, teacher experience and rank were used. All the demographic variables were divided into only two (2) categories, with only age and teaching experience divided into three (3) categories. In effect, different statistical procedures were employed to test the hypothesis. In cases where only two (2) categories were present for a specific demographic variable, the Hotelling T-square test for independent groups was used (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). For the variables for which statistically significant T 2 values were obtained, the differences were followed up by means of post-hoc t tests.Where more than two (2) categories were present for a demographic variable, a multi-variate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was
performed. In cases where a significant result (F value) was obtained with the MANOVA analyses, the results
were followed up with one-way analyses of variance. Since more than two categories (subgroups) per demographic variable were taken into account in this case, the Scheffé procedure was used to determine which of the average scores on the dependent variables of the subgroups showed a statistically significant difference. With MANOVA analyses, statistical inferences were based on the following assumptions (Du Toit & Stumpf, 1982):
The dataset will have to originate from a multivariate normal population,
With equal subgroup covariance matrices, and
The subgroups are a collection of the various independent datasets.
In relation to the first assumption, it could be accepted with relative certainty that the dataset came from a multivariate normal population. The lowest number of observations per level in respect of the three independent variables was 51 and, according to the central-limit theorem (Huysamen, 1983), hence, the assumption that the means of the sub-population had an approximate multivariate normal distribution.To determine whether the datasets satisfied the conditions for the second assumption, namely, equal subgroup covariance matrices, a
section of the SAS-DISCRIM procedure was used (SAS Institute, 1985). When a significant 2 value is obtained
by means of this procedure, it indicates uneven subgroup covariance matrices. This assumption was investigated for both demographic variables (age and experience) regarding the sub-scales. Not one of the 2 values was significant on at least the 0.01 level and therefore it could be accepted that equal subgroup co-variances existed for these two demographic variables. The 0.01 level was used in this study.As far as the third assumption is concerned, it appeared from the research design that the subgroups were mutually independent.
Findings and Discussions
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Table 2 Job satisfaction results of the participants
To determine the levels of job satisfaction (on the three subscales of the MSQ) experienced by the Ghanaian private basic school teachers, their scores on the three subscales were divided into the categories "satisfied", "neutral" and "dissatisfied" and the results appear in Table 3 as follows:
Table 3 Percentage of teachers concerning the various levels job satisfaction based MSQ three sub-scales (N=412)
Table 3 shows that approximately two-thirds (66.26%) of the teachers experience dissatisfaction with intrinsic motivational factors, while 55.20% also experienced a dissatisfied attitude towards extrinsic motivational factors. Regarding general satisfaction, approximately 34.47% of the teachers in the present study showed a neutral attitude while about 49.51% indicated dissatisfaction. From these results it is evident that teachers in private basic schoolsin Ghana did experience dissatisfaction with their work set-up, and especially with the intrinsic factors of their work. Findings concerning Ghanaian private basic school teachers' level of job satisfaction with intrinsic factors are supported by findings from studies in South Africa (Van der Westhuizen &
Du Toit, 1994), Transkei (Mwamwenda, 1995); Zimbabwe (Nhundu, 1994); the United Kingdom (Scott et al.,
1999); and Australia (Tuettemann, 1991; Rice & Schneider, 1994).
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Table 4 Dissatisfaction with the intrinsic factors based on the demographic variables (N=273)
The results in Table 4 indicate that the majority of teachers, regardless of which category of the demographic variables they represented, reported a high level of dissatisfaction with the intrinsic factors of their job. These findings are supported by results from a study by Frase (1989) in which it was determined that intrinsic factors were more powerful motivators than extrinsic factors. Furthermore, it was clear that teachers who were dissatisfied with the intrinsic factors of their work were distributed relatively equally among the different categories of a specific demographic variables.
With hypothesis 1 the teachers' mean scores on the job satisfaction sub-scales regarding the seven demographic
variables were compared. The Hotelling T-square was used for the five demographic variables for which there
were only two categories, to compare the means of the three job satisfaction sub-scales (Table5 and 6). The remaining two demographic variables (age and experience), which consisted of three categories each, were dealt with afterwards by making use of the MANOVA analyses (Table 6).
Table 5Results of the T2 and F values for the comparison of the vector means
according to the five demographic variables on the job satisfaction sub-scales
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From the table, it is clear that the demographic variable, school area, was found to be significant on the 0.01 level. No significant results were found for the other four variables. For the variable, school area, the difference was further analyzed by means of t tests for independent groups. The analysis of multiple comparisons was done by means of separate t tests for the three dependent variables of intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors and general satisfaction. The results appear in Table 6.
Table 6 Means, Standard deviations, t and p values regarding the three (3) MSQ Sub-scales for area
Indications from Table 6portray that the t values for all three MSQ sub-scales produced a p value lower than 0.01, so that it could be accepted that the results were significant on the 0.01 level. The mean scores on all three scales of the MSQ for the teachers from schools with above-average resources were consistently higher than those of teachers from schools with average resources. This meant that, in comparison to the latter group, the teachers in schools with above-average resources were more dissatisfied with all three of the components (intrinsic, extrinsic, and general) of job satisfaction. In this regard, it needs to be mentioned that since liberalizing school ownership and allowing private participating, the schools with above-average resources were mainly owned by the well-to-do Ghanaians or foreigners in the society who by their ability to provide requisite resources which attracts teachers coupled with high unemployment levels do not give relevant recognition and utmost respect to these teachers and hence treat teachers poorly leading to the high level of job dissatisfaction. This is so as they perceive the schools established as money making venture aimed to make profit without paying much attention to the personal needs and interest of their workforce.
Table 7 MANOVA F values for testing the main effects on MSQ sub-scales
The analyses were then followed up by using the two demographic variables (age and teaching experience) that each consisted of three categories. For this purpose, the MANOVA procedures were performed, by means of the SAS computer program (SAS Institute, 1985). The results for the MSQ sub-scales appear in Table 7.From Table 7 it appears that no significant differences existed in respect of the mean MSQ sub-scale scores for teachers from the different age and experience groups.
In the final analysis, Hypothesis 1 was therefore rejected as a significant difference (school area) could be found in only one of the seven tested variables of gender, marital status, school area, qualification, teacher experience and rank.
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Table 8 Correlation coefficients among the sub-scales of job satisfaction and personal accomplishments for the teacher population Burnout
The results in Table 8 show that there was a significant correlation between Ghanaian private basic school teachers' levels of job satisfaction and burnout. The calculated correlation coefficients were all significant (p = 0.01). The negative correlation between depletion or draining of emotional resources and the three job satisfaction scores indicated that the higher the level of depletionof emotions experienced by the teachers, the lower their level of job satisfaction (in respect of all three components). The same tendency appeared regarding feelings of emotional detachment or estrangement and job satisfaction. On the other hand, the positive correlation between the personal achievement and job satisfaction scores indicated that teachers who experienced high levels of personal achievement were also inclined to experience a high level of job satisfaction (Decker & Borgen, 1993). This illustrated the reciprocal relationship between personal achievement and job satisfaction: the higher the job satisfaction, the higher the sense of personal achievement and psychological gain, which in turn act as a reinforcement to achieve job satisfaction. This result therefore signify the research hypothesis 2 was accepted.
Conclusion
Many studies have demonstrated an unusual large impact on the job satisfaction on the motivation of workers. The level of motivation has an impact on productivity, and hence also on performance of business organizations with teachers not being an exemption. The research findings shows teachers in the private basic schools are not satisfied both intrinsically and extrinsically. There was a significant dissatisfaction factors relating to demographic variables of school area and rank. A significant correlation between levels of burnout and job satisfaction was also found, particularly in respect of draining of emotional resources and emotional detachment, which were shown to correlate with low levels of job satisfaction.
Recommendations and Managerial Implications
Discovering what matters to teachers and how best to motivate them for sustained and improved performance is a complicated challenge. Extrinsic rewards that have been tried in the past have generally not produced the desired results. Research and experience show that teachers are most likely to value intrinsic rewards such as self-respect, responsibility, and a sense of accomplishment. It is therefore imperative for not just only owners but employers, management and supervisors as well as policy makers to note and consider noting the following recommendations as measures to keep in their work, sustained and improved.
The relationship an employee has with his or her supervisor is a central element to the employee’s affiliation to the organization, and it has been argued that many employees’ behaviours are largely a function of the way they are managed by their supervisors or employers. One of the components of a good relationship is effective communication. When there are open lines of communication (e.g., encouraging an open-door policy), supervisors or employers can respond more effectively to the needs and problems of their employees. Effective communication from management can provide the workforce and for that matter teachers to be precise with direction and hope for deriving satiety at work since they have the ability get their issues across all angles. In addition, management’s recognition of employees’ performance through praise (private or public), awards and incentives is a cost-effective way of increasing employee morale, productivity and competitiveness.
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It needs to be mentioned that continuing research on teachers' levels of work output and job satisfaction could eventually lead to realistic and successful intervention and prevention programmes such as training of school proprietors to understand teacher needs, provision of defined promotion and career advancement policy for teachers and encouraging effective communication systems with all stakeholders among others. Such intervention and prevention may ultimately result in higher levels of job satisfaction. Teachers would then be more likely to stay in the teaching profession and to find fulfilment in what they do. The hope is expressed that this study will stimulate more research on variables such as those that have emerged in this study as being significant.
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