Subjective Ethnolinguistic Orientation Of The Bondos In Language Contact Situations: Language Attitudes, Communicative Repertoires And Ideologies

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Subjective Ethnolinguistic Orientation Of The

Bondos In Language Contact Situations:

Language Attitudes, Communicative Repertoires

And Ideologies

Mariakumar Mathangi David

Abstract: Archiving linguistic corpora serves two benefits: one is availability of linguistic data that captures the structures as well as performance for further cultural analysis (Boas, 1911) and second is an opportunity to examine the temporal dialectics of linguistic changes, especially due to non-linguistic factors. The present study is part of the doctoral dissertation in the broad area of non-linguistic anthropology in the department of anthropology, Pondicherry University. Among the linguistic sciences, Sociolinguistics is the closest to Linguistic Anthropology (Duranti, 1997). The current study borrows from the methodological wealth of sociolinguistics and is informed by an objective to build a quantifiable picture of the language ideology of the Bondo Highlanders of Malkangiri in Odisha. A representative sample of 122 consultants was randomly drawn coming from the cross-sections of teachers, students and those dependent on agriculture-based livelihood. Through administering questionnaires and producing descriptive statistical analysis through SPSS, crucial facts pronouncing on the linguistic vitality of the Bondos came up for further analysis. The Bondos are found to be a culturally close-knit group, yet the telling effects of vigorous communicative processes characteristic of contact situations cry for attention. Devaluation of their own language, gradual attrition in cultural domains to the local dialect ‗desiya,‘ and further, dwindling prospects of intergenerational transmission of linguistic knowledge are a few of the many consequences of contact.

Index Terms : ethnolinguistic, language attitude, Bondo, Remo language

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1 OVERVIEW

This study advances, on various levels, the crucial factors and their corresponding roles in shaping the ethnolinguistic orientation of the Bondo tribal people. The above objective is achieved by drawing a picture of the ethnolinguistic vitality of the study population out of the combined analyses of both: micro-level attitudes, values and behaviours of the people with respect to the language of heritage vis-à-vis the language(s) of contact and the general appearance of their linguistic environment under the influence of state-sponsored interventions and contact with other groups in different domains. With such an apparent multifariousness of broad-reaching elements like politics, economy, geography and culture along with the individual psycho-cultural dispositions, the ethnolinguistic orientation of the Bondo tribal people makes for an interesting study. By framing this inquiry on ethnolinguistic orientation in the broader context of an alternative universe, over which the Bondo tribal people have no immediate control, and in the specific, local attitudes and beliefs they harbour about the language of heritage, this study further attests to the new materialistic formulation of a ‗research-assemblage.‘ The technique of linguistic fieldwork was employed for the macro-level study of the indicators of Objective Ethnolinguistic Vitality and sociolinguistic survey was conducted to register the narratives surrounding the personal beliefs, attitudes of the people on their linguistic preferences and behaviours.

1.1 Objective Ethnolinguistic Vitality

The Subjective Ethnolinguistic Vitality (hereafter SELV) is greatly dependent on the Objective Ethnolinguistic Vitality (hereafter OELV) (Lenk, 2007). Landry & Bourhis (1997), for instance, draw a correlation between the linguistic landscape of any community of practice and the in-group SELV pointing towards a ‗carryover effect‘ of the former on the latter. Linguistic landscape indicates the prevalence or visibility of language(s) in a politico-geographical territory. Linguistic

landscape is defined as, ―…language in the environment, words and image displayed and exposed in public spaces, that is the center of attention in this rapidly growing area referred to as Linguistic Landscape.‖ (Shohamy, Ben-Rafael, & Barni, 2010) This certainly is a factor that is beyond any regulation or control by the local community of practice. It is rather the domain of the State to determine the salience of any language in constituting the linguistic landscape of the region. Likewise, there are many other factors determining the Objective Ethnolinguistic Vitality (OELV) of the Bondo tribal people like politics, economy and education, which are state-regulated, that inextricably influence their SELV. Therefore, the consequences of the juxtaposition of the community of practice (Bondo Highlanders) with the other centres of innovation, economy and political life, on their language of heritage was first investigated and the results have been published. In the said paper, the functional load of Remo in the verbal repertoire of the Bondo Highlanders as we all as the comprehension of the general trends of language maintenance and shift, is described using the technique of domain analysis (first proposed by Schmidt-Rohr in 1932 and later developed by Joshua Fishman in 1972) proves to be of great analytical advantage (Sahgal, 1991).As cited in (Laurén, Myking, & Picht, 2002), Fishman defines domains as clusters of social interactions that occur in multilingual contexts. Domains can differ and expand in terms of socio-psychological domains (intimate, informal, formal and intergroup domains) and the societal-institutional level (home, school, workplace etc.) (Hohenthal, n.d.).Among the four socio-cultural domains studied, with the exception of the domain of ‗friendship,‘ all the other domains (Arithmetic system, Kinship and Religion) showed signs of attrition at various degrees exposing the looming threat of total assimilation.

1.2 Subjective Ethnolinguistic Vitality

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OELV. In the previous section we have seen that due to factors beyond the control of the Bondo tribal people, they are exposed to unregulated situations of contact, on ac of which, their language in principal domains is undergoing attrition to the local dialect (desiya). The following sub-sections intend to chart out the impact of these extraneous factors on the subjective perceptions of the community of practice of their own language and the language(s) of contact.

1.2.1 Justification of the Research Instrument

Surveys, in vogue since the late 19th century as instruments for gathering linguistic data, are considered to be one of the very important means of collecting data on language in its socio-cultural setting. Among the data collection methods designed to tap the language attitudes, perceptions and use in the community of practice, survey research, along with few others, is reputed to be reliable (Schilling, 2013). Also, Baker (1997) contends that surveys, although characterized by structured and systematic collection of data in the form of variables, are not necessarily ‗embedded‘ in positivism. The choice of survey method to collect data on language perceptions and attitudes of the Bondo tribal people, then, resonates with the philosophical bearings of the research design of this dissertation as maintaining conceptual distance from a dualistic understanding of reality. While survey method through questionnaire administration exhibits great rigor, from an anthropological perspective, however, relying solely on the former would yield a fractured assessment of the situation under study. Notwithstanding the above shortcoming, the usefulness of surveys in revealing regulatory patterns of the operational phenomenon being studied offsets its limited scope for an in-depth study. Therefore, a simultaneous or subsequent ethnographic appraisal of the output of survey research will only add to the reliability of the study. The same has been implemented in this study .The survey for this study work was conducted by means of a questionnaire. The design and development of the questionnaire is laid out in the following section.

1.2.2 Questionnaire Design

The Questionnaire was developed through a process of adaptation. The basic source for adaptation was Cooper (1980) and Thorburn (2006). The questionnaire consisted of 41 questions intended to measure variables subsumed under two broad categories: Language Behaviours and Behaviour Toward Language. The following table gives an idea of the areas of inquiry addressed by the questionnaire adapted from Cooper‘s (1980) sociolinguistic framework.

Language Behaviours

Proficiency speaking, listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and writing skills in the target language

Use the domains in which the language is used and the frequency of its use

Behaviour Toward Language

Attitudinal attitudes towards, and beliefs and values about, the target language

Implementational extent to which the attitudinal aspects are

supported by behaviours, or actions

Based on the above framework the 41 questions were sorted under various clusters to facilitate comparative analysis.

1.2.3 Administration of the Questionnaire

Among the five main methods of administering a questionnaire, as listed by Erik Schleef (2014), Assisted Completion Method was used in this study. This method involves direct administration of the questionnaire by the researcher. The questionnaire was administered during a period of 25 days in Dumuripada and the adjoining villages. During the administration of the survey I was always accompanied by my fellow ethnographer Mangala Muduli, who is a resident of Dumuripada and is conversant in four languages (Remo, Desiya, Odia and Hindi).

1.2.3.1. Sampling

The primary aim of the sampling design was to draw a representative sample corresponding to age, gender education and occupation. The following points detail the salient features of the sampling design:



As it was not feasible to go for stratified random sampling, quota sampling technique was resorted to for achieving representation of the sub-groups of interest to the study.



The age factor was further categorised as 15-35 yrs., 36-50 yrs., and 51 yrs., and above, with corresponding values assigned in SPSS.



The variable of education was further operationalized into non-literate, primary, secondary and graduation and above.



In terms of occupational status, the study participants were categorised into teacher, student, agriculture and other.

1.2.4 Results & Data Analysis

Data analysis was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software (v 25). Before we proceed with the descriptives of the data for the purpose of analysis let us have a look at the reliability scores of the subscales of the questionnaire given in the following table:

Questionnaire Clusters Alpha coefficient

Language use in different domains

.81

Language preferences .79

Language attitudes .87

As shown in the above table the internal consistency of the questionnaire is reflected in the reliability scores, which range from 0.79 to 0.87, indicating that they have acceptable reliability.

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It was decided that minimum 30 respondents belonging to each age group have to be roped in for the survey. The following table gives the demographic picture with respect to age groups of the sample.

Age of the Respondent

Revision of age into groups

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

15-35 55 45.1 45.1 45.1

36-50 32 26.2 26.2 71.3

51 & above 35 28.7 28.7 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

A majority of the sample belongs to 15-35 age group. This number becomes significant as it indicates the current generation. Therefore, mapping their attitudes towards the language of heritage and their linguistic preferences gives an added advantage of grasping the prospective picture of the linguistic environment of the Bondo tribal people.

Gender of the Respondent * Age of the Respondent Crosstabulation

Age of the Respondent Total 15-35 36-50 51 & above Gender of the

Respondent

Female 19 17 15 51

Male 36 15 20 71

Total 55 32 35 122

The percentage of male and female in the given sample is proportionately distributed in all the demographic parameters thereby enabling equitable representation of the narratives reported by both the genders in sample.

1.2.4.1.2 Education

Educational level of the Respondent * Age of the Respondent Crosstabulation

Age of the Respondent

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above Educational

level of the Responden t

Non-literate 6 27 35 68

Secondary Education

47 5 0 52

Graduation and above

2 0 0 2

Total 55 32 35 122

Education becomes an important factor in influence language maintenance either positively or negatively. The above table shows that most of the younger population has now gained access to education and are therefore exposed to centres of innovation and economic growth, not-to- mention the frequency of contact that education puts them in terms of ideological and material aspects of other culture(s).

1.2.4.1.3 Occupation

Occupation of the Respondent Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Student 25 20.5 20.5 20.5

Teacher 29 23.8 23.8 44.3

Agriculture 68 55.7 55.7 100.0

Total 122 100.0 100.0

The occupation of the respondents was an important factor to gauge the level of exposure that the former had in terms of elements of alien culture and how this exposure in turn was reflected in their attitudes and preferences regarding linguistic behaviour. The Bondo tribal people are still predominantly agricultural, which is meant for sustenance.

1.2.4.1.4 Summary

The demographic variables indicate that there is a spurt in the Bondo tribal people accessing education and a clear influence of education is seen in their choice of linguistic behaviour, as it will be shown in the flowing sections.

1.2.4.2. Proficiency in languages 1.2.4.2.1 Odia

Proficiency in other languages (Odia)

Total 15-35 36-50 51&

above Other

languages

known by

the respondent (Odia)

understand and speak

4 1 0 5

not familiar 2 26 35 63

understand,

speak, read

and write

49 5 0 54

Total 55 32 35 122

1.2.4.2.2 Hindi

Proficiency in other languages (Hindi)

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above Other

languages known by the respondent (Hindi)

understand and speak

17 0 0 17

not familiar 38 32 35 105

Total 55 32 35 122

1.2.4.2.3. Desiya

Proficiency in other languages (Desiya)

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above

Any other

language known by the respondent

Desiya 55 17 4 76

NA 0 15 31 46

Total 55 32 35 122

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Bondo tribal people. A majority still are monolingual (using only Remo) and incidentally most of them belong to the senior group age-wise. Prevalence of bilingualism and even multilingualism in a few cases is clearly seen in the younger population. Bilingualism is often linked to the onset of language shift and sometimes even total obsolescence.

1.2.4.3. Language Use

The use of language in various domains is an effective indicator of the actual life of the language, as it indicates what type of linguistic resources the people seek access to when negotiating communication in different domains.

Language used to talk to grand parents

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above Language

used to talk to Grand Parents

Remo 35 26 27 88

Desiya 3 0 0 3

Remo & Desiya equally

16 2 0 18

NA 1 4 8 13

Total 55 32 35 122

Language used to communicate with parents

Total

15-35 36-50

51 & above Language used

for talking to Parents

Remo 29 28 35 92

26 4 0 30

Total 55 32 35 122

Language used to talk to children Age of the Respondent

Total 15-35

36-50

for talking to Children

Remo 0 18 31 49

28 14 4 46

NA 27 0 0 27

Total 55 32 35 122

Language used to talk to friends

Total 15-35

36-50

for talking to Friends

Remo 27 18 31 76

Desiya 14 1 0 15

14 13 4 31

Total 55 32 35 122

In the above displayed tables Remo seems to dominate only in occasion that demand conversing either to parents or friends. Ethnographic data corroborates the above observations that many of those educated prefer to talk to

their children in Odia, as they would want their children to be adequately equipped to handle the pressures of multicultural settings. Most of them who said that they use Remo to talk to their parents, had monolingual (Remo) parents. In other words, talking in Remo was inevitable.

Inter-tribal communication

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above Language used

for Inter- tribal communication

Desiya 55 17 4 76

Any other

0 0 1 1

NA 0 15 30 45

Total 55 32 35 122

Non-tribal people

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above Language used for

communicating with Non- tribals

Desiya 6 12 4 22

Odia 49 5 0 54

NA 0 14 31 45

Total 55 31 35 121

TELEVISION AND MOBILE

Total 15-35 36-50 51 &

above Language used for

watching Programmes through

Television/Mobile

Odia 0 2 0 2

Odia & Hindi

53 18 1 72

NA 2 12 33 47

Total 55 32 34 121

RELIGIOUS RITUALS

Total 15-35 36-50 51&above

Language used for religious rituals

Remo 30 12 20 62

Don‘t know

25 20 15 60

Total 55 32 35 122

Use of Remo in religious rituals stays intact and doesn‘t seem to be influenced by any contact with other languages. However, the ethnographic inquiry and transcription and translation of the ritual prayers and songs indicate medium to heavy lexical borrowing from the Odia language. Also, the contact lingua franca is Desiya, a dialect of the state official language. This language is the medium of communication at the inter-tribal level and with the non-tribal people as well.

1.2.4.4. Language preference

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early age.

1.2.4.5 Language attitudes

Language attitude of the Bondo tribal people towards their own mother tongue is not very promising as most of the younger speakers in the sample consider Remo to be harsh and as lacking resources to convey what they want to say adequately. It would be interesting to probe this disposition towards their own language. Is this acquired with some rational grounding or is it an effect of the objective ethnolinguistic vitality, which is dependent on external interventions. Most of those having linguistic skills in other languages have a low opinion about the resourcefulness of Remo.

1.4. Concluding Remarks

Majority of the Bondos in Highlands in Malkangiri, while retaining their core cultural identity, have become proficient in the main regional dialect, i.e., desiya. Bilingualism, in many research works, has been observed as a precursor to decline and eventual extinction of the linguistic minority. Centuries of linguistic assimilation has resulted in the loss of languages of many tribal communities in India. As shown in the above sections, objective and subjective ethnolinguistic vitality of Remo does not paint a promising picture either. Though, linguistic acculturation here is noteworthy with borrowing of Odia loanwords and expressions on the one hand, and presence of eloquent examples of drawing from the native linguistic deposit to accommodate concepts acquired through exposure to the Odia culture. Among the four socio- cultural domains studied, with the exception of the domain of ‗friendship,‘ all the other domains (Arithmetic system, Kinship and Religion) show signs of acculturation with the looming threat of total assimilation. Besides the above, as Remo is a non-literal language, the linguistic landscape in the Bondaghati is replete with signboards only in Odia. Certainly, the current study on linguistic acculturation among the Bondos identifies a portent challenge to the ethnolinguistic vitality of this minority.It can also be observed that in contact situations the native language of the Bondos seems to be at risk not just from circumstantial exposure to Desiya, Odia or Hindi, but also ‗collective indifference,‘ towards their language from the Bondos themselves. To use Fishman's (1991) assessment of threat to linguistic vitality of minorities, the Remo language is threatened equally by hostile outsiders inflicting symbolic violence and by unsympathetic insiders, who consider their language to be inferior to the language of contact. Revival of linguistic vitality of Remo would require not just intervention from the external agents but efforts from the Bondos themselves as well.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I gratefully acknowledge the support of my Research Supervisor Dr. Jesurathnam Devarapally, Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, Pondicherry University.

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