Critical Writing Program Komaba Organization for Educational Development Department of English The University of Tokyo, Komaba
To All Writing Students
When you are writing a paper...
• If you use another person
’s
words, then you must put those
words in quotation marks and give a reference to indicate the
source of the words.
• You must also cite the source when you express another
person
’s
ideas in your own words and when you translate from
a source in another language.
• You must indicate your sources using a standard and
consistent reference style.
• If you use another person
’s
words or ideas without the proper
use of quotation marks and references, then you are guilty of
plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious offense, and the College of
Arts and Sciences imposes strict punishments on students who
plagiarize.
For more information, read “In Your Words or Others’?
Guidelines on Quoting, Paraphrasing, Translating, References,
and Plagiarism.”
Critical Writing Program Komaba Organization for Educational Development Department of English The University of Tokyo, Komaba
In Your Words or Others’?
Guidelines on Quoting, Paraphrasing, Translating,
References, and Plagiarism
When you write an academic paper, you have two main purposes: to describe previous knowledge, and to present your new ideas. Because the value of your paper is determined in part by the quality of your new ideas, your text must indicate clearly which statements and concepts were created originally by you and which were taken from other sources. If this distinction is unclear—particularly if you present borrowed ideas as if they were your own—then you can be accused of plagiarism, a serious ethical offense that deserves serious punishment. To avoid accusations of plagiarism, you must be very careful when quoting, paraphrasing, and translating other people’s writing.
Quoting
If you use another person’s words, then you must put those words in quotation marks and give a reference to indicate the source of the words.
Suppose you are writing a paper about the origins of various writing systems and you read the following passage, which appears on page 154 of the book Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World by Nicholas Ostler (HarperCollins Publishers, 2005):
Egypt’s writing system is strange in that it has no known precursors. The first hieroglyphic inscriptions, on seals, cosmetics palettes, epitaphs and monuments, though they may be short, are well formed in the system that was to persist for the next 3500 years. They use pictures phonetically, making an illustrated word’s characteristic consonants do multiple duty, as if a picture of a knife were to stand in English not just for ‘knife’, but also for ‘niffy’, ‘nephew’ and ‘enough’.
If your paper repeats any significant words or phrases from this passage, then you must use quotation marks and indicate where the phrases came from:
Neither of the two main components of the Japanese writing system, kanji and kana, is completely original; most kanji are taken directly from Chinese
hanzi, while the kana are abbreviated forms of kanji. Similarly, the letters of the English alphabet can be traced to characters in the Latin, Greek, and other writing systems of Europe and the Middle East. In contrast, the writing system used in ancient Egypt has “no known precursors,” and even the earliest examples of Egyptian writing were “well formed in the system that was to persist for the next 3500 years” (Ostler, 2005, p. 154).
You must indicate if you make any changes to a quotation.
Mark omissions with an ellipsis (...) and changes with square brackets ([ ]). Even a change from a capital letter to a small letter or vice-versa is often indicated:
Ostler (2005) notes that “[t]he first hieroglyphic inscriptions ... are well formed in the system that was to persist for the next 3500 years.”
If an error appears in the original text, then put the word sic (Latin for “thus”) in square brackets after it to tell the reader that the mistake is the original author’s and not yours:
The New York Times reported the incident online on December 13, 2003: “The police did not say how the officer died, but said they were not looking for any suspects in the shooting, which occured [sic] at 11:57 outside 328 West 53rd street.”
You must not alter the original author’s intent.
In the passage from Ostler quoted on page 1, he says that he regards the Egyptian writing system as “strange” because no other writing systems are known to have preceded it. The following quotation would therefore be wrong, because it takes words out of context to suggest that Ostler had another reason for calling the writing system strange:
In Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World (2005), Nicholas Ostler wrote that “Egypt’s writing system is strange” because it makes “an illustrated word’s characteristic consonants do multiple duty.”
You do not need to put quotation marks around words or phrases that are commonly used and that do not reflect the source author’s original ideas.
In the Ostler quotation, the phrases “no known precursors” and “well formed in the system that was to persist for the next 3500 years” represent significant points made by Ostler and are not standard expressions, so if you use them you must put them in quotation marks. The phrase “hieroglyphic inscriptions,” by contrast, is a standard expression and does
not express an original idea, so you can use the phrase in other contexts without quotation marks:
The languages of the world have been written in many ways, from the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt and the ideographic characters of China to the phonetic alphabets of Europe.
To determine whether a term or phrase is standard, try searching for it on Google or another search engine. If the phrase gets hundreds or thousands of hits in independent contexts (as “hieroglyphic inscriptions” does), then you can probably use it safely without quotation marks. If your search engine results are unclear, then play it safe: mark the phrase as a quotation and give a reference.
How to format quotations
Either single quotation marks (‘ ’), also called inverted commas, or double quotation marks (“ ”) may be used for quotations. Single quotation marks are used in most British-English publications and double quotation marks in nearly all American-English publications; choose one system and be consistent.
Quotations within quotations use double quotation marks in the British system and single quotation marks in the American system. For example, here is a passage as it appears in Ostler 2005 (p. 517), which uses the British system:
It is also just possible that some features seen in Irish English, such as ‘I’m after finishing my work’ and ‘I saw Thomas and he sitting by the fire’, imported from typical phraseology in Irish, are features that happen to go back to the language spoken here before the Celts even got here.
If you quote part of this passage and include the examples of Irish English that Ostler quotes, then you would format it as follows in the British and American styles:
British: Ostler 2005 suggests that perhaps ‘some features seen in Irish English, such as “I’m after finishing my work” and “I saw Thomas and he sitting by the fire”, ... are features that happen to go back to the language spoken’ in Britain before the arrival of the Celts.
American: Ostler 2005 suggests that perhaps “some features seen in Irish English, such as ‘I’m after finishing my work’ and ‘I saw Thomas and he sitting by the fire’, ... are features that happen to go back to the language spoken” in Britain before the arrival of the Celts.
If you quote a passage longer than three or four lines, then, rather than using quotation marks, indent the passage on the right and left and separate it from the preceding and following paragraphs with extra space:
Neither of the two main components of the Japanese writing system, kanji and kana, is completely original; most kanji are taken directly from Chinese
hanzi, while the kana are abbreviated forms of kanji. Similarly, the letters of the English alphabet can be traced to characters in the Latin, Greek, and other writing systems of Europe or the Middle East. The Egyptian writing system was different, though. As Ostler (2005) notes:
Egypt’s writing system is strange in that it has no known precursors. The first hieroglyphic inscriptions, on seals, cosmetics palettes, epitaphs and monuments, though they may be short, are well formed in the system that was to persist for the next 3500 years. (p. 154)
If Egyptian hieroglyphics did evolve from an earlier system, then the archaeological evidence for that evolution has not yet been found.
Paraphrasing
You must cite the source not only when you quote another person’s words exactly but also when you express another person’s ideas in your own words.
The following passage would be unacceptable, because it copies the ideas from Ostler’s paragraph (p. 1 above) exactly:
The writing system used in ancient Egypt was unusual because it was like none that came before. The first writing in hieroglyphics, although brief, was fully developed in the form that would remain for the following three-and-a-half millennia. The system uses images to represent sounds, and each consonant in an illustrated word performs more than one task. It is as if an image of a gun were to represent in English not only “gun” but “again,” “goner,” and “goon.”
This paraphrase must cite the source for the ideas: “Ostler (2005) explains that the writing system used in ancient Egypt was unusual because....”
An even better version would add your own interpretation of Ostler’s ideas or put them into a broader context. In the following, for example, the first half summarizes Ostler’s ideas, while the second half offers new ideas:
While Ostler (2005) points out that the writing system used in ancient Egypt is unusual in that it seems to have been born fully formed as a system that would remain intact for three-and-a-half millennia, the lack of archaeological evidence of earlier forms does not eliminate the possibility that previous Egyptian writing systems did exist but only in media, such as wood or mud, that have since perished.
You do not need to give references for information that is general knowledge or that is available from multiple independent sources.
Historical facts, birth and death dates, scientific principles, and information that is widely known do not need to be accompanied by citations:
The Special Theory of Relativity proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein (1879-1955) provided mankind with a completely new view of the universe, particularly the notion that no fixed reference points exist.
All of the information in the above sentence can be found in many books and other sources, so no references are necessary.
Translation
If you translate a phrase or sentence from a source in another language, then you must use quotation marks and cite the source.
Suppose you are writing a paper in English about Japanese diplomacy in the 20th century and you want to refer to part of the following passage, which appears on page 154 of the book 『日本の外交』 by 入江昭
(Chuokoron-Shinsha, Inc., 1966/2005).
朝鮮戦争勃発（一九五〇年）以後、アジアの国際関係には柔軟性が 失われ、米ソ対決、ついで米中対決の枠ができていったという事実 こそ、戦後日本の外交にとってもっとも重大なできごとであった。 Put your translation in quotation marks, and indicate that it is your translation:
As Iriye Akira wrote (1966/2005, p. 154; my translation), “the most important event for postwar Japanese diplomacy was the loss of flexibility in international relations in Asia after the outbreak of the Korean War (1950) and the formation of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. and U.S.-China confrontational frameworks.”
The comment “my translation” does not need to be repeated if you quote again later from the same source.
If, when writing in English, you translate a Japanese passage that contains a quotation that was itself translated from English, then you may use quotation marks in English only if you are able to find the exact words that had been used originally in English. For example, the same book by Iriye Akira includes the following passage on page 162:
「国際共産主義は一つのものだ」というダレス国務長官の考えをア ジアにもあてはめた結果、ヨーロッパにおいて米ソ勢力圏がほぼ安 定しているのと同じように、アジアにおいても反共体制を固め、軍 事協定を通じて共産国家の膨張を防ぎ、しかも同時に、共産陣営に
属する国を攻めることもせず、これとなんらかの形で妥結すること もしなかった。
If you cannot find the words originally spoken or written by John Foster Dulles corresponding to 「国際共産主義は一つのものだ」, then you cannot quote that passage in quotation marks as, for example, “International communism is a single entity,” because Dulles might actually have said or written “International communism is monolithic” or “There is only one form of international communism” or something else. You must therefore use a paraphrase, without quotation marks:
As noted by Iriye Akira (1966/2005, p. 162), the application to Asia of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles’ monolithic view of international communism resulted in...
References
You must indicate the sources of quotations and information using a standard and consistent reference style.
The formatting of references is varied and complex. Some systems use in-text citations with a list of references at the end of the paper, while other systems give all references in footnotes or endnotes. The choice of system depends on the field, journal, publisher, and sometimes the author’s personal preferences. Some of the major systems used in English-language academic papers are those of the Modern Language Association, the American Psychological Association, the Chicago Manual of Style, and the Council of Biology Editors.
Plagiarism
If you use another person’s words or ideas without the proper use of quotation marks and references, then you are guilty of plagiarism.
People in universities, publishing, and society at large regard plagiarism as intellectual theft and plagiarists as thieves.
At the University of Tokyo, the College of Arts and Sciences has a clear policy about plagiarism. The student handbook (『履修の手引き』平成18 年度, p. 24 in the printed version, p. 18 in the online PDF version) reads as follows: (3) レポート 科目によっては、学生が提出したレポートに基づいて成績の評価 を行うことがある。その際、教員から特別な指示がない限り、レポ ートは学生個人が自己の責任において作成するものである。 レポートで他の文章やデータを引用する場合は、引用符などで引 用箇所を明示し、出典を明記しなければならない。これに反する不 正行為が認められた場合には、当該レポートが無効と判定されるだ
けではなく、試験の際の不正行為と同様、その学期の全科目の得点 を無効とされ、追試験を受ける資格を失う。また、レポート提出者 のみならず、不正なレポート作成に協力した者も、同様に取り扱わ れる。なお、第３学期において不正行為の認められた者は、その学 期末に行われる進学振分けにおいて、進学志望資格および内定を取 り消される。
Unofficial English translation:
(3) Reports
In some courses, achievement is evaluated based on reports submitted by students. Unless otherwise instructed by the teacher, each individual student is responsible for preparing his or her reports.
When quoting other texts or data in a report, you must clearly indicate the quotations by means of quotation marks or a similar method and you must clearly indicate the source. If any violation of this rule is found, not only will the report in question be declared unacceptable but, as in the case of improper behavior on exams, all of the student’s credits for courses in the current semester will be nullified and the student will be barred from taking any make-up tests. Any student who cooperated with the preparation of the improper report will be subject to the same measures. If a student is found to have committed an improper act during his or her third semester, then the student’s qualification to request promotion to a particular upper-class department at the end of that semester and any preliminary decisions regarding such promotion will be nullified.
Accidental plagiarism
Often plagiarism is unintentional: A writer reads and remembers many books, articles, and Web pages about a particular topic and then, without realizing it, includes original information or phrases from those sources in a paper. To avoid committing plagiarism unintentionally, you should get into the habit of keeping lists of what you read and noting the exact source whenever you find information or text that you might use later. Be sure to record all of the information required by the particular reference system that you use.
Copying texts in foreign language classes
In foreign language classes, an important purpose of writing assignments is for students to practice and improve their language skills. If you copy phrases or sentences from another source, then you will learn very little and your teacher will be able neither to praise your skills nor to correct your mistakes. Unless the instructor has specifically asked you to imitate an existing text, you should always write in your own words.
For Further Reading
The following sources contain more information about the issues discussed in these guidelines:
Drew University, “Plagiarism—and how to avoid it!,” http://www.depts.drew.edu/ composition/Avoiding_Plagiarism.htm
Gordon Harvey, “Writing with sources,” (1998: Hackett Publishing Company), downloadable in RTF format from http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/ index.cgi?section=resources
Michael Harvey, “The nuts and bolts of college writing,” http://nutsandbolts. washcoll.edu/nb-home.html
Purdue OWL, “Avoiding Plagiarism,” http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ 上村妙子、大井恭子『英語論文・レポートの書き方』 (2004：研究社).
阪田せい子、ロイ・ラーク＋黎明出版編集部『だれも教えなかった論文・レポー トの書き方』 (1998：総合法令出版).
メアリ=クレア・ヴァンルーネン (渡部昇一、永盛一共訳) 『英語論文の書き方ハ ンド ブッ ク』 (1985：南雲 堂) [Translation of A Handbook for Scholars by Mary-Claire van Leunen, 1978].
吉田健正『大学生と大学院生のためのレポート・論文の書き方 第2版』 (2004： ナカニシヤ出版).
References
The following sources provided useful ideas and perspectives during the preparation of these guidelines and are also recommended for further reading:
Pat Currie, “Staying out of trouble: Apparent plagiarism and academic survival,” Journal of Second Language Writing, 7 (1), 1‒18 (1998).
Glenn D. Deckert, “Perspectives on plagiarism from ESL students in Hong Kong,”
Journal of Second Language Writing, 2 (2), 131‒148 (1993).
Ranald Macdonald and Jude Carroll, “Plagiarism—a complex issue requiring a holistic institutional approach,” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 31 (2), 233‒ 245 (April 2006).
Chris Park, “In other (people’s) words: Plagiarism by university students—literature and lessons,”Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28 (5), 471‒488 (October 2003).
Alastair Pennycook, “The complex contexts of plagiarism: A reply to Deckert,” Journal of Second Language Writing, 3 (3), 277‒284 (1994).
Kyoko Yamada, “What prevents ESL/EFL writers from avoiding plagiarism?: Analyses of 10 North-American college websites,” System 31, 247‒258 (2003).
The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, “Acknowledging, paraphrasing, and quoting sources,” retrieved June 21, 2006, from http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/Acknowledging_Sources.pdf
ジョゼフ・ジバルディ（原田敬一監修、樋口昌幸訳編）、『MLA英語論文の手引
第６版』（2005：北星堂書店, pp. 82‒89） [Translation of MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers by Joseph Gibaldi, 6th edition, 2003].
Copyright © 2006 by the Critical Writing Program, Komaba Organization for Educational Development, and by the Department of English, The University of Tokyo, Komaba
Revised October 6, 2006
