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Master thesis

Inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings

Author: Advisors:

J.J. Blok prof. dr. ir. J.L.M Hensen

0651289 dr. ir. M.G.L.C. Loomans

ir. ing. G. Boxem

Department of the Built Environment

Masterprogram Architecture Building and Planning October 2013

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SUMMARY

1.Renovation to passive houses - Investigation of the air quality and thermal comfort in a case study in the Netherlands

Renovation of the older housing stock to passive houses is a way to reduce the energy use for space heating. However, the goal of reducing energy should not adversely affect the health and comfort of the people in a dwelling.

Therefore the research question for this paper is: How perform inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings on thermal comfort and indoor air quality, while the investigated dwellings were given extra attention with respect to the mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR)-system to avoid known causes of malfunctioning?

For this research ten inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings in Roosendaal were monitored. In this paper the monitoring results of the January-May period were used. The monitored dwellings consist of two types, type 505 and type 506. Five houses of each type were monitored. The indoor air quality was assessed using the performance indicator CO2

-concentration with target value <1200ppm. The thermal comfort was assessed on: percentage people dissatisfied in the adaptable temperature graph for residential buildings with target value PPD < 10%, relative humidity with target value 30 to 60%, mechanical ventilation air supply temperature with target value >17°C.

The results show that the CO2-concentration is regularly above 1200ppm in the living room and the two largest bedrooms.

This indicates that other substances can also accumulate in the indoor environment. The indoor air temperature in the living room was most of the time within the comfort boundaries of 10% PPD, but in the two largest bedrooms the air temperature was often above the upper boundary of 10% PPD. Also several occupants complained about too high temperatures in their bedroom and a dry throat when they slept. The relative humidity as measured was often low in the dwellings in the period January-April. The higher temperatures in the bedrooms after renovation caused lower relative humidity’s. In the dwellings of type 505 the mechanical ventilation supply air temperature was often below 17°C. Because the air heater on the ventilation supply air, was not on by default, when the central heating was on. Besides this, in the type 505 houses it was found that the frost heater to prevent ice formation on the heat recovery part, was not entered into the ventilation unit.

2.Verifying simulation with measured values of actual inhabited terraced passive dwelling -Sensitivity of building and user parameters on energy use

The residential building sector has large potential for saving energy on space heating. Especially on the older, less insulated residential buildings. A way to reduce the energy use, is renovation to passive houses. In this study was investigated the sensitivity of building and user parameters on the energy use for space heating in a passive house renovated terraced dwelling. For this purpose were measurement results compared with simulation results. This was done for checking to what extend it is possible to predict an actual inhabited dwelling by simulation. The comparison was done on energy use for space heating and indoor air temperatures. This was done for three dwellings. Besides this, there were hand calculation performed to gain an insight into the size of the different heat flows in a terraced passive house. Finally, a rough sensitivity analyses was carried out on several building and user parameters.

The inaccuracy in the measurement result showed that a comparison between measured and simulation results was limited, certainly when also the deviations and simplifications of the model were taken into account. Because of this, was only checked whether tendencies were the same. This meant that the sensitivity analysis could also only give an indication of what parameters were relatively sensitive.

Before the simulations were performed hand calculation were carried out to have an indication of the size of several heat flows. The hand calculations and the help of a heat balance showed that the following heat loss items were relatively large: Infiltration, ventilation via openable parts, glazing and frame, ventilation due to an unbalanced ventilation system. Besides these items, the heat loss or heat gain via the partition walls could be large.

The measured and simulated energy use for space heating in dwelling H0300 and H0700 had the same tendency in the several months, but the deviation between the simulated and measured energy use for space heating in H0500 was large. The measured air temperatures and simulated air and surface temperatures showed a reasonable agreement for the ground floors, but the deviations on the first floors were larger.

The sensitivity analyses showed that the user parameters window use, thermostat set point, and set point of the ventilation system could have a large influence on the energy use for space heating. Of less importance were electricity use and infiltration, but their influence was still relatively large.

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CONTENT

Renovation to passive houses

Investigation of the air quality and thermal comfort in a case study in the Netherlands

Page ABSTRACT 1. 1. INTRODUCTION 1. 2. METHODOLOGY 2. 2.1 Preparation 2. 2.2 Measuring 3. 2.3 Analysis 4.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.

3.1 Indoor air quality 5.

3.2 Thermal comfort 8.

4. OVERALL DISCUSSION 11.

5. CONCLUSIONS 12.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS 12.

8. REFERENCES 13.

APPENDIX A - Overview case study and floor plans 14.

APPENDIX B - Schemes systems and measurement schemes monitored dwellings 24. APPENDIX C - Accuracy, calibration and control accuracy measurement tools 31.

APPENDIX D - Measurement results 42.

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Verifying simulation with measured values of actual inhabited terraced passive dwelling Sensitivity of building and user parameters on energy use

Page

ABSTRACT 1.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.

2. METHODOLOGY 2.

2.1 Part 1: Preparation 2 .

2.2 Part 2: Comparison measurement and simulation results 3.

2.3 Part 3: Sensitivity analysis 4.

3. RESULTS 4.

3.1 Comparison measurement and simulation results 5.

3.2 Sensitivity analysis 8.

4. DISCUSSION 8.

4.1 Comparison measurement and simulation results 8.

4.2 Sensitivity analysis 9.

5. CONCLUSIONS 9.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS 9.

7. REFERENCES 10.

APPENDIX A - Model H0300 11.

APPENDIX B - Model information and results of H0500 and H0700 23.

APPENDIX C - Hand calculations 39.

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Renovation to passive houses

Investigation of the air quality and thermal comfort in a case study in the Netherlands

J.J. Blok

Building Physics and Services, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Renovation of the older housing stock to passive houses is a way to reduce the energy use for space heating. However, the goal of reducing energy should not adversely affect the health and comfort of the people in a dwelling.

Therefore the research question for this paper is: How perform inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings on thermal comfort and indoor air quality, while the investigated dwellings were given extra attention with respect to the mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR)-system to avoid known causes of malfunctioning?

For this research ten inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings in Roosendaal were monitored. In this paper the monitoring results of the January-May period were used. The monitored dwellings consist of two types, type 505 and type 506. Five houses of each type were monitored. The indoor air quality was assessed using the performance indicator CO2-concentration with target value <1200ppm. The thermal comfort was assessed on: percentage people dissatisfied in the adaptable temperature graph for residential buildings with target value PPD < 10%, relative humidity with target value 30 to 60%, mechanical ventilation air supply temperature with target value >17°C.

The results show that the CO2-concentration is regularly above 1200ppm in the living room and the two largest bedrooms. This indicates that other substances can also accumulate in the indoor environment. The indoor air temperature in the living room was most of the time within the comfort boundaries of 10% PPD, but in the two largest bedrooms the air temperature was often above the upper boundary of 10% PPD. Also several occupants complained about too high temperatures in their bedroom and a dry throat when they slept. The relative humidity as measured was often low in the dwellings in the period January-April. The higher temperatures in the bedrooms after renovation caused lower relative humidity’s. In the dwellings of type 505 the mechanical ventilation supply air temperature was often below 17°C. Because the air heater on the ventilation supply air, was not on by default, when the central heating was on. Besides this, in the type 505 houses it was found that the frost heater to prevent ice formation on the heat recovery part, was not entered into the ventilation unit.

KEYWORDS: passive house renovation, monitoring, indoor air quality, thermal comfort

1. INTRODUCTION

After the second world war, a large number of terraced dwellings were built in the Netherlands, which have a high energy consumption for space heating, especially because of the poor insulated building shell. At this moment there still exists 650.000 terraced dwellings from the period 1966-1976 [1].

A possible method to decrease the heat loss of such dwellings is renovation to passive houses. The philosophy behind the passive house concept is: decreasing the heat loss and optimizing the heat gains by passive measures. The main differences between passive houses and traditional

renovations are better air tightness of around n50 ≤ 1.0 h-1 and a well insulated building shell of

±Rc=10m2K/W. The Dutch building code (2003) requires an insulation value of the building shell of Rc>2.5 m2K/W and an n50 value of about 8 for dwellings and advices an n50 value of 2-3 for dwellings with mechanical air supply in NEN 2687[2]. However, the air tightness of the building shell in a passive house desires a reliable and robust ventilation system, which provides a good indoor air quality and maintains this on the long term. In the Netherlands some skepticism exist about the performance of the MVHR-systems, because several studies [3,4,5,6,7,8] showed that the inlet and outlet flows of the ventilation system are often too low in comparison to the minimum ventilation

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capacity requirements of the Dutch building code. The mentioned studies showed that in the investigated dwellings, with a balanced ventilation system, in 31 to 85% of the cases the supply flow in the highest set point of the ventilation system, in one or more rooms does not satisfy the

minimum ventilation capacity requirements of the Dutch building code. In 42 to 85% this is the case for the exhaust flow capacities.

Besides this, another concern in passive houses is the thermal comfort, because the central heat recovery on the ventilation air decreases the differences in air temperature between rooms. In this way an acceptable air temperature in the living room can cause higher temperatures in the

bedrooms than before renovation. The very well insulated building shell also gives a larger risk of overheating in summer, but this is outside the scope of this study.

The information above leads to the following research question: How perform inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings on thermal comfort and indoor air quality, while the

investigated dwellings were given extra attention with respect to the mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR)-system to avoid known causes of malfunctioning. The case study for this research consists of ten dwellings, which were spread over the district Kroeven in Roosendaal. In this district were 248 terraced dwellings renovated to passive houses in 2010-2011. The houses were renovated in two different ways. The differences were in the building shell, and heating system and ventilation system. Of each renovation type, five houses are monitored. This research covered a measurement period of January till May.

2. METHODOLOGY

The procedure for the investigation of the indoor air quality and thermal comfort is described in a flowchart (Figure 1) and consists of three parts: preparation, measuring, and analyzing. In the preparation phase the performance indicators, target values, and assessment methods were chosen for indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort. In the measuring phase data was collected in the case study by measurements and a short structured interview. In the analyzing phase the gathered data was compared with the earlier stated target values. When a target value was met, no further research was done, but when a target value was not met, the possible causes were investigated. Possible causes were obtained from literature and experience gained during the case study visits.

Figure 1 - Flowchart of the investigation procedure.

2.1 Preparation: Performance indicators, target values and measured influencing parameters The CO2-concentration was chosen as a performance indicator for IAQ. The CO2-concentration is a useful indicator for the IAQ when people are the main air pollution source in the assessed room[9]. When the CO2-concentration is high, then other substances can also accumulate in the indoor environment.The health based guideline value for concentration in dwellings is a

CO2-concentration between 800 and 1200ppm [10]. Based on this information, the target value for this study was a CO2-concentration below 1200ppm for an acceptable IAQ.

For the thermal comfort was used the adaptable temperature limits (ATG-graph) for residential building of Peeters et al. [11] with the performance indicator percentage people dissatisfied (PPD) and a target value of 10%. A requirement of the passive house institute for thermal comfort is that the indoor air temperature has to be <10% per year >25°C, but this requirement is not used for the colder period of January-May which was investigated in this study.

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The relative humidity is closely related to the indoor air temperature and was therefore also used as a performance indicator. Higher indoor air temperatures decreases the relative humidity. For this study the acceptable indoor relative humidity range was 30 to 60%, based on literature [12,13,14]. Finally the thermal comfort was assessed on the performance indicator air supply temperature of the ventilation system. The target value for the supply air temperature must be above 17°C. This is a requirement of the Passive House Institute.

2.2 Measuring: Case study

In the case study several parameters were measured. The investigated parameters, which influence the IAQ were: use of the set points of the ventilation system, supply and exhaust flows in each set point of the ventilation system, window/door use, air tightness, designed ventilation flows and minimum ventilation capacity requirements of the Dutch building code. The use of the ventilations system’s set points was determined from the measured electricity use of the ventilation unit. The measurement scheme in Table 1 shows where windows/doors were monitored and where the CO2-concentration was measured in the dwellings.

Besides the parameters stated above, the extra measured parameters in the period January-May for the thermal comfort were: air temperature and relative humidity. The measurement scheme in Table 1, also shows where the air temperature and relative humidity were measured. All the output of the sensors was logged every 3 minutes. Further a weather station logged the temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and solar radiation every 10 minutes on a roof of an apartment building in the district Kroeven. Additional information about the building shell, ventilation system and heating system is also included in Table 1. A whole overview of the monitored dwellings and floor plans can be found in Appendix A. A scheme of the systems and measurement schemes of the monitored dwellings can be found in Appendix B.

Table 1 – Characteristics of the two types of dwellings in Roosendaal giving information about the building shell, ventilation system, boiler, place radiators/convectors.

Type 505 Type 506

ID numbers monitored dwellings

H0100,H0200,H0400,H0600,H01000 H0300,H0500,H0700,H0800,H0900

Building shell Rc façade and roof ±10 m2K/W (Leijzer,M., 2010)

Rc façade and roof nearly 9 m2K/W, Rc opaque windows 9,33-9,61 m2K/W

(Leijzer,M., 2010) Triple glazing

Ventilation system

Renovent HR medium, Brink Climate systems

WHR 930 luxe, J.E. StorkAir

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100% bypass

Electronic frost protection for heat recovery part

Metal main duct with branches Radial duct system (own duct from every inlet/ outlet in

room to air distribution box)

Round metal ducts: diameter 160mm Round flexible ducts: diameter 80mm

Ventilation rate adjustment at the inlet/outlet valves

Ventilation rate adjustment with straws in air distribution box

Fresh air is supplied in the living room, the bedrooms and the attic. Air is extracted from the kitchen, toilet, bathroom and attic.

Boiler Intergas Kompakt Solo HRE 12 Intergas Kombi Kompact HRE 24/18

Convector/ radiators

-One radiator in living room -One radiator in each bedroom

-One radiator in living room -One radiator in each bedroom -One radiator in the bathroom

Air heating Occupants can choose through a button

on the thermostat if they want also air heating besides heating by radiators. Air is heated before it is distributed through the house. When air heating is on, the supply air temperature is between 20 and 45°C.

Always air heating besides heating by radiators when central heating is on. Air is heated before it is distributed through the house. When air heating is on, the supply air temperature is between 25 and 45°C.

Besides the measurements, a short structured interview was also done with the residents of the investigated dwellings. This interview was done to get more information about the household besides what was measured, and to check the measured data with the information given by the occupants. The interview can be found in Appendix E.

2.3 Analysis

To know whether the target value for the CO2-concentration was exceeded in the living room and in the two largest bedrooms in every house, the average hours per day that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm was determined for the period of January-May. When it was shown that the CO2-concentration was not always below 1200 ppm, the possible causes such as supply flow, number of people in the room, air tightness, average window use in that room, persons sleeping in bedrooms, were placed besides the average hours per day that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm. The average supply flow in the room per month was derived from the use of the three set points of the mechanical ventilation system, and the measured flows in each set point in the rooms.

Thereafter was checked whether the supply flow in combination with the number of people in a room could predict the real occurring equilibrium CO2-concentration. When a homogeneous air distribution is assumed, windows and doors are closed, a known number of people is in the room and the air change rate of that room is constant, this will result in an equilibrium concentration, which can be written with the following formula [15]:

C= ∙ 10 + C (Equation 1) Where:

Cin = CO2 production rate[m3/h] Qv = Ventilation flow rate [m3/h] Cb= Background concentration [ppm]

The measured equilibrium CO2-concentration in the rooms was determined in the period 14-26 January when windows were closed.

Finally it was checked to see whether dirty filters decreased the ventilation flow as a possible cause for lower supply flows than designed. For this investigation seven polluted filter sets were used.

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These polluted filters were given by a maintenance company of the district Kroeven in Roosendaal. It is not known how long these filters were in the ventilation units. Besides this, two new filter sets were used as a reference. The measurement set up is given in Figure 1 in Appendix D. In this test setup, one duct was for the total air supply into the house and one for the total exhaust air out of the house. When another filter set was placed, both valves were measured three times and these three values were averaged.

As mentioned earlier, the thermal comfort was assessed with the ATG-graph for residential buildings where the indoor air temperature of a room is placed against the mean outdoor temperature. The mean outdoor temperature is determined with the formula[11]:

T,=

( . .!" .#$ )

#.! (Equation 2)

To know whether the target value of 10% PPD for the thermal comfort was exceeded in the living room and in the two largest bedrooms in every house, the hours that the temperature was below and above the comfort boundaries were counted every month.

The same was done for the RH boundaries of 30 and 60 percent. For this purpose the hours that the relative humidity was below 30% or above 60% were counted.

For the supply air temperature of the mechanical ventilation system, how many hours the air temperature was below 17°C in every month was counted. This temperature was measured after the air heater.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this part the results of the analysis for IAQ and thermal comfort are shown. The results are provided with a discussion. The inaccuracy of the presented values are presented in Appendix C. First is described whether the target value for IAQ was met, when this was not the case, also the possible causes for not meeting the target values are described. The same was done for the thermal comfort. First is determined whether a target value was met, when this was not the case the possible causes are described.

3.1 Indoor air quality

The average hours per day that the CO2-concentration was above 1200ppm in the period January-May is given in the stacked bars in Figure 2 and 3 for the living rooms and the used bedrooms in the ten dwellings.

Figure 2- Hours that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm per month in the living room. The hours that the CO2 -concentration was above 1200 ppm is devided in smaller intervals to know more about the occurring ppm values.

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Figure 3- Hours that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm per month in the used bedrooms. The hours that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm is devided in smaller intervals to know more about the occurring ppm values. The CO2-concentration came above 1200 ppm, as shown in the Figures 2 and 3. For example, in house H0400 the CO2-concentration in the living room in the month January was averaged more than 6 hours per day above 1200 ppm, with 0.27 hour in the range 3000-3500 ppm.

In Figure 4 arebesides the average hours per day that the CO2-concentration exceeds 1200 ppm, are also several related parameters shown. The resulting CO2-concentration was influenced by several parameters at the same time and it turns out there is no clear correlation visible in this figure between the resulting CO2-concentration and a chosen parameter, as for example air tightness. However, in Figure 4 is shown that the minimum ventilation capacity requirement of the Dutch building code for a residential room, see Table 2, is often not met in the living room and only one time in the used bedrooms.

Table 2 - Minimum ventilation capacity requirements of the Dutch building code [dm³/s per m²]

Residential area 0.9

Residential room 0.7

Exhaust flow toilet 7

Exhaust flow kitchen 21

Exhaust flow bathroom 14

This may happen because the ventilation system is designed to meet the Dutch building code in set point 2 or 3. When occupants use for example set point 1, or the ventilation capacity decreases due to pollution of the ventilation system, the minimum ventilation capacity requirement of the Dutch building code is no longer met. Also the designed ventilation flows were often not met. Also this can be caused by pollution of the system or/and the use of set point 1 instead of the designed set point 2. Finally it was investigated in how many houses the supply flow in the highest set point of the ventilation system in one or more rooms did not satisfy the minimum ventilation capacity

requirements of the Dutch building code. This happened in 8 of the 10 dwellings. For the exhaust flows this was the case in 7 of the 10 dwellings, see Table 1 in Appendix D.

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Figure 4 - Hours that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm per month in the living room (above) and in the used bedrooms (below). The hours that the CO2-concentration was above 1200 ppm is devided in smaller intervals to know more about the occurring ppm values. Below in this figures are shown the monitored dwellings with in brackets the occupancy level and abbreviated the five months. The average mechanical supply flows are presented in orange bars. The average door/window use per month is also given in small green lines, while 0 means window always closed and 1 window always open. The air tightness of the dwellings is presented with dots in the figures. Finally, the minimum ventilation capacity requirement of the Dutch building code is shown with a dashed line and the designed ventilation flow is shown in violet lines over the five months. In the living room (above) is the ventilation requirement of the Dutch building code the same as the designed ventilation flow.

So it is important to know how the occupants use the set points of the ventilation system.

The occupants were given the instructions to use set point 1 when they are not at home, to use set point 2 when they are at home and to use set point 3 when they are cooking, taking a shower or when many people are in the house. Table 3 shows what part of the time each set point was used in each house by the occupants in the period January-May. The most used set point is shaded gray. Table 3 - Use of the set points of the mechanical ventilation system in percentages of the total time over the period January-May

H0100 H0200 H0300 H0400 H0500 H0600 H0700 H0800 H0900 H1000 Use set point 1 [%] 75 84 87 90 100 70 99 64 93 1

Use set point 2 [%] 20 12 10 9 0 27 1 35 2 98

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The results show that set point 1 was by far the most used set point in the dwellings. Reasons given by the residents for the use of set point 1 instead of set point 2/3 were: noise nuisance, draught and saving electricity.

To know whether the mechanical supply flow was the main cause for a good or bad IAQ, the ventilation flow of the mechanical ventilation system was further investigated by comparing the calculated (Equation 1) and measured equilibrium CO2-concentration, see Figure 5 and 6. This figure shows that the ventilation rate together with the number of people in the room is a good predictor of the measured equilibrium CO2-concentration, this means that the mechanical

ventilation flow seems to be the most important cause for a good or poor IAQ, especially when all windows are closed. The best prediction of the equilibrium CO2-concentration was possible for the bedrooms, because in that case the conditions to use equation 1 were best met.

Figure 5 - Calculated and measured equilibrium CO2 -concentration for the living rooms.

Figure 6 - Calculated and measured equilibrium CO2 -concentration for the used bedrooms.

After this it was checked to see whether dirty filters decreased the ventilation flow significantly, because the total supply and total exhaust flows were often less than the designed flows, as can be seen in Table 2 in Appendix D. The results of the investigation of the influence of dirty filters on the ventilation capacity can be found in the Table 3 in Appendix D. The results show that the decrease in air supply was in the accuracy of the measurements and there was a little decrease in air exhaust in case of some polluted filter sets. Therefore, for these dwellings, polluted filters are not expected to be of significant influence on the ventilation capacity.

3.2 Thermal comfort

The ATG-graphs for the living room and bedroom 3 of house H0600 over the period January-May are shown in Figure 7and8. In these figures the 10% PPD boundaries of the comfort model are drawn in blue and the measured hourly values in black dots. These figures show that in the living room the temperature during the five months was nearly always within the comfort boundaries of 10% PPD, but that the indoor air temperature was regularly too high in the bedroom. So the target value of PPD <10% was often not met, especially in the bedrooms.

Figure 7- ATG-graph of the living room in dwelling H0600 with 10% PPD boundaries over the period January-May.

Figure 8- ATG-graph of bedroom 3 in dwelling H0600 with 10% PPD boundaries over the period January-May.

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The same tendency was found in most of the other dwellings, as can be found in Figure 9: in the living room the air temperature was usually within the comfort boundaries (Occupants in house H0400 and H0800 “do not like high temperatures” and seldom use central heating.) In the bedrooms the temperature was often too high, see Figure 10. The comfort model seemed to correspond with the reality, because several occupants complained about temperatures being too high in their bedroom after renovation, at least in the dwellings H0400 to H0900. The high temperatures in the bedrooms are mainly caused by the very well insulated building shell, and the central heat recovery, which collects all the mechanical exhaust air and heats up the incoming fresh air during the cooler period. In type 506 dwellings, the fresh air is also always directly heated after the ventilation unit, besides heating by a few radiators when the central heating is on. The result is a more uniform temperature in the whole house (higher temperatures in bedrooms) than before renovation, especially when the windows are closed. The requirement of the passive house institute concerning thermal comfort is that the indoor air temperature has to be <10% per year >25°C, as mentioned before. In the measurement period January-May a temperature above 25°C in the dwellings rarely occurs. However, several people complained about the temperature being too high in their bedroom. So this requirement seems to be too static for the whole year for all residential rooms.

Figure 9 - Overheating hours (hours above comfort boundary) and ‘undercooling’ hours (hours below comfort boundary) in the living rooms of the ten monitored dwellings in the five months over 24h per day.

Figure 10 - Overheating hours (hours above comfort boundary) and ‘undercooling’ hours (hours below comfort boundary) in the used bedrooms of the ten monitored dwellings in the five months over 24h per day.

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Besides overheating some (older) people (H0200,H0300,H0500) said they did not get the same temperature in the living room and kitchen as before renovation, this feeling was likely caused by the fact that before renovation only radiators heated the house (radiation) and now this was mainly done by air heating by the heat recovery and air heater. So they possibly miss the heat source in the rooms.

The higher temperatures in the bedroom also resulted in lower relative humidities. The hours below RH 30% and higher then RH 60% were counted per month. It seemed that the hours below 10% and higher than 60% were negligible in the period of January-May, so only the hours that the RH was between 10 and 30% RH are given in Table 4 of bedroom 1/3 in the ten dwellings. The results show that the RH is often below 30%. This means that the target value for RH: 30 to 60% was not met. The low relative humidities can explain why the occupants complained about a dry throat when they are in their bedroom.

Table 4 – Monthly hours in which the RH in the bedrooms 1/3 was between 10-30% and also the average indoor air temperature, average outdoor air temperature and average outdoor relative humidity is given.

Hours relative humidity in bedroom1/3 between 10-30%

Month H0100 H0200 H0300 H0400 H0500 H0600 H0700 H0800 H0900 H1000 Te,avg[°C]/ RHe,avg [%] J 10<RH<20 0 0 1 0 Nan 0 0 0 1 0 1,7/89 20<RH<30 362 0 70 213 Nan 195 352 164 223 187 Ti,avg [°C] 19,4 19,4 19,9 19,5 Nan 20,2 21,6 19,5 20,6 21,8 F 10<RH<20 27 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1,5/85 20<RH<30 463 6 39 95 268 205 404 140 198 171 Ti,avg [°C] 20,9 18,9 19,8 20,0 21,1 20,8 21,6 19,5 20,2 21,8 M 10<RH<20 164 0 0 82 12 0 0 0 32 5 2,6/72 20<RH<30 508 38 141 241 334 383 638 274 285 280 Ti,avg [°C] 21,2 19,4 20,4 20,1 21,1 20,7 21,8 19,5 19,9 21,5 A 10<RH<20 101 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 3 1 8,8/68 20<RH<30 103 35 105 137 159 170 231 154 162 126 Ti,avg [°C] 21 20 21 21 21 22 21 21 21 22 M 10<RH<20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11,7/76 20<RH<30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ti,avg [°C] 21,9 20,9 21,1 21,4 21,3 22,3 20,7 21,8 21,5 22,4

The last mentioned performance indicator for the thermal comfort was the supply air temperature with the target value >17°C , according to the Passive House requirements. Figure 11 shows the percentage of time per month that the supply air temperature after the air heater was below 17°C. In some of the 505 dwellings (H0100,H0200,H0400,H0600 and H1000) the air temperature after the air heater was often below 17°C as visible in this figure which means the target value was not met.

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Figure 11 - Percentage of time that the temperature was below 17°C after the air heater in the mechanical ventilation system per month in the monitored dwellings.

Several occupants (at least, H0400,H0500 and H0900), also complained about draught in their living room. In the dwellings of type 505 a possible cause was found, because in these houses a frost heater was added to the heat recovery, but the frost heater was not logged on the ventilation unit (factory default setting) and this means it did not do its function: preventing ice formation on the heat recovery part. In periods that the outside air temperature was below 0°C the supply air temperatures after the air heater in the mechanical ventilation system sometimes became about 9°C in these dwellings. This possibly was the case in all 136 dwellings of type 505 in the district Kroeven. This means that the supply air temperature in the rooms was sometimes very low, because in the 505 dwellings the air heating also was not standard as can be read in Table 1. The extra button for air heating was added for a short warm-up time of the house and to avoid draught complaints. However, most occupants did not know what the function of the extra button for air heating on the thermostat was, and they did not use it, while they got instructions about it on DVD and in a folder. 4. OVERALL DISCUSSION

The CO2-concentration, as performance indicator for the IAQ, was often too high in the measured rooms. The comparison of the measured and calculated equilibrium CO2-concentration showed that the mechanical ventilation seemed to be the main reason for a good or poor IAQ.

It is remarkable that the ventilation flows in the case study were not sufficient, because in these renovated dwellings extra attention was given to prevent known causes of malfunction, such as insufficient ventilation. Several literature studies showed that the supply flow (31-85%) and exhaust flow (42-85%) in the highest set point of the ventilation system in one or more rooms did not satisfy the minimum ventilation capacity requirements of the Dutch building code. These results were compared to the percentage of dwellings in the case study in which the supply and exhaust flows in set point 3 of the ventilation system did not satisfy the minimum ventilation capacity requirements of the Dutch building code. It showed that this was the case in 80% and 70% respectively. It seems that the results of the case study are in the upper range of the literature values. This means that the extra attention seems to have had negligible to no result on the adjustment of the supply and exhaust flows in the ten investigated dwellings. The main causes for too little ventilation seems to be: ventilation flow disordered or not well adjusted upon building completion, occupants mainly used set point 1 instead of the designed set point 2 and the measured openable parts in the dwellings where often closed in the measured period. So, it can be learned from this project that more attention has to be given to the ventilation system. For example, adjustment of the supply and exhaust flows is very important upon building completion, but also after some years.

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12

There were little complaints by the occupants heard about the air temperature, as performance indicator for thermal comfort, in the living room. More complaints were heard about air

temperatures being too high in their bedrooms and a dry throat when they woke up. This was in accordance with the measurement results that the RH was below 30% for too many hours in the period January-April.

That occupants complained about air temperatures being too high in the bedrooms also met the used comfort model, because many hours the measured air temperature exceeded the upper boundary in the bedrooms.

The higher temperatures in the bedrooms after the renovation caused also a lower relative humidity. That can be the explanation for the feeling of a dry throat. The high temperatures in the bedrooms were mainly caused by the very well insulated building shell, central heat recovery, and in case of the type 506 dwellings, also the air heater, that heats all the fresh incoming air when the central heating is on.

A possible reason for the draught complaints in the type 505 dwellings was found in the not logged on frost heater on the ventilation unit.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The following question was stated in the introduction: How perform inhabited passive house renovated terraced dwellings on thermal comfort and indoor air quality, while the investigated dwellings were given extra attention with respect to the mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR)-system to avoid known causes of malfunctioning? The results show that the

CO2-concentration was often above 1200ppm in the investigated dwellings. CO2-CO2-concentrations being too high means that also other substances can accumulate in the indoor environment, and the

ventilation was not sufficient in these rooms.

Besides the IAQ, often the target values for the thermal comfort were not met. In most of the dwellings, the air temperature in the living room usually was within the comfort boundaries of 10% PPD in the ATG-graph of Peeters et al. [11], but in the bedrooms the temperature was regularly too high.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

A few suggestions are given which could be a part of a solution for the existing IAQ and thermal comfort problems in the case study, but these ideas have to be investigated in future work before they are applied on a large scale.

IAQ: It is necessary to make people aware of their influence on the indoor air quality, because currently people often have no idea how good or poor their IAQ is. A solution can be to give them CO2-meters to use in the living room and bedroom(s) with an indication of the indoor air quality, so people can increase the set point of the ventilation system or open a window when the IAQ is poor. Thermal comfort: The high air temperatures and low relative humidities could possibly partialy be solved by giving the ground floor area and the rest of the dwelling a separate heat recovery and that only the ground floor always has air heating when the central heating is on.

Finally, a good instruction and explanation of the mechanical ventilation system and heating system is important. After the renovation in the district Kroeven in Roosendaal the occupants received a DVD and folder, but in spite of this, it is difficult for people to understand the system.

In future monitoring projects it would be helpful to monitor some of the same unrenovated dwellings in the same district to have a reference for comparison.

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13

When window use is monitored, it would be better to monitor all the openable parts because when only some windows are monitored, an unmonitored window can be opened and cause a good IAQ without it is being known for sure why that happens in the measurements.

7. REFERENCES

[1] DO IT, 2009. Add on Passiefhuis renovatie grondgebonden rijwoning uit periode 1958-1966. Retrieved November 30,2012,

http://www.depw.nl/pages/publicaties/pdf/Do-It%202009/Add%20on,%20Passiefhuis%20renovatie,%20Eindrapport%20.pdf

[2] de Gids, W., Borsboom,W.,2012. Philosophy and approaches for airtightness requirements in the Netherlands. Retrieved September 27,2013, http://tightvent.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Proceedings.pdf

[3] Meijer, G., Duijm, F., 2002. Zuinig warm en schoon; balansventilatie en binnenmilieu, metingen in 28 woningen. GGD Groningen.

[4] Duijm, F., Hady, M., Van Ginkel, J., Ten Bolscher, G.H., 2007. Gezondheid en ventilatie in woningen in Vathorst; onderzoek naar de relatie tussen gezondheidsklachten, binnenmilieukwaliteit en

woningkenmerken. GGD Eemland, Amersfoort.

[5] Slot, B.J.M., Op ’t Veld, P.J.M., 2005. Onderzoek handhaving bouwregelgeving: gezondheid in nieuwbouwwoningen. Cauberg-Huygen Raadgevende Ingenieurs B.V. Zwolle.

[6] Kuindersma, P., Ruiter C.J.W., 2007. Woonkwaliteit binnenmilieu in nieuwbouwwoningen; eindresultaten van 78 projecten / 154 woningen. Consultancy Nieman B.V., Utrecht.

[7] Mlecnik, E., Hasselaar, E., Loon, S.,2008. Indoor climate systems in passive houses. Advanced building ventilation and environmental technology for adressing climate change issues. Proceedings Volume 3 (pp. 119-124). Kyoto, Japan: AIVC. [8] van Dijken, F., Boerstra, A.C., 2011. Onderzoek naar de kwaliteit van ventilatiesystemen in nieuwbouw

eengezinswoningen. Dutch ministery of infrastructure and evironment_Consultancy BBA binnenmilieu, Rotterdam. [9] Knottnerus, J.A., 2010. Binnenluchtkwaliteit in basisscholen en de waarde van kooldioxide als indicator voor luchtkwaliteit. Gezondheidsraad_Health council of the Netherlands.

[10] Dusseldorp, A., van Bruggen, M., Douwes, J., Janssen, P.J.C.M., Keflkens, G., 2004. Gezondheidkundige advieswaarden binnenmilieu. RIVM rapport 609021029.

[11]Peeters, L., Dear, R. de., Hensen, J.L.M, D'haeseleer, W. (2009). Thermal comfort in residential buildings: Comfort values and scales for building energy simulation. Applied energy , 86, 772-780.

[12] Loomans, M.G.L.C., Cox, C., 2002. Grenzen voor de relatieve vochtigheid van het binnenklimaat: een beoordeling op basis van een literatuurstudie. Afdeling Gezonde Gebouwen en Installaties, TNO Bouw, Delft.

[13] CIBSE, 2006. CIBSE guide A: Environmental design. (7 ed.). CIBSE.

[14] Fang, L., Clausen, G. and Fanger, P.O., 2000. Temperature and humidity: important factors for perception of air quality and for ventilation requirements, ASHRAE Transactions, 106, part 2, 503-510.

[15] Pluijm, W.M.P., 2010. The robustness and effectiveness of mechanical ventilation in airtight dwellings: A study to the residential application of mechanical ventilation with heat recovery in the Netherlands. Eindhoven University of Technology.

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14 APPENDIX A – Overview case study and floor plans

In this appendix first an overview of the ten monitored dwelling of the case study is shown. Besides this, the several type of floor plans for the type 505 and 506 dwellings are given.

An overview of the ten monitored dwellings is shown in Figure A.1 below.

F ig u re A. 1 - O v e rv ie w o f th e t e n m o n it o re d d w e llin g s in t h e t e n m o n it o re d d w e llin g s

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15 Floor plans 505 type B

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16

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17 Figure A.4 – Second floor plan dwelling type 505 type B

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18 Floor plans 506 type S1

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19

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20 Figure A.7 – Second floor plan dwelling type 506 type S1

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21 Floor plans 506 type S2 (Only H0800)

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22 Figure A.9 – First floor plan dwelling type 506 type S2

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23

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APPENDIX B – Schemes systems and measurement schemes monitored dwellings In this appendix the schemes of the systems of the type 505 and 506 dwellings and the

measurement schemes of the ten monitored dwellings are given. The system schemes are shown in Figure B.1 to Figure B.2. The measurement schemes of the monitored dwellings are given in Figure B.3 to B.13.

System schemes type 505 and 506 dwellings

Figure B.1 – System scheme type 505 dwellings

Figure B.2 - System scheme type 506 dwellings

All included in passive house cabinet

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25 Measurement schemes of the ten monitored dwellings

Figure B.3 - Measurement scheme monitored dwelling H0100

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Figure B.5 – Measurement scheme monitored dwelling H0300

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Figure B.7 – Measurement scheme monitored dwelling H0500

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Figure B.9 – Measurement scheme monitored dwelling H0700

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Figure B.11 - Measurement scheme monitored dwelling H0900

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Appendix C - Accuracy, calibration and control accuracy measurement tools

In this appendix first an overview is given of the accuracy of the measured values which are collected out of the measurements of the case study. Second, the calibration of the Eltek GD47 temperature sensors and control of the RH and CO2 accuracy is given. Last the results are given of how good the surface temperature sensors on the pipes represent the water temperature in the pipe.

Accuracy measured values

Below an overview is given of the accuracy of the measured values which are collected in the database. In figure C.1 is explained how the measured values are transported to the database.

Figure C.1 – Explanation how the measured values are transported to the database.

Accuracy Grant 2F16 and Squirrel 1000 series:

- Grant 2F16: ± 0.05% of reading, +0.025% range span

- Squirrel 1000 series: ±(0.1% of reading, ±0.2% of range span) ELTEK GD 47:

- Temperature: ±0,011˚C ± readings*0,0005(Grant 2040 series 2F16) ±0,09˚C ±0,001*readings (Squirrel 1000 series) ± 0.24˚C (Eltek GD47 calibrated)

Total accuracy: ± 0,341°C ± 0,0015*readings ≈ ±0,35°C

- Relative humidity:±0,025 ± readings*0,0005(Grant 2040 series 2F16) ± 0,2 ±0,001*readings (Squirrel 1000 series) ±2% (Eltek GD47)

Total accuracy: ± 2,225% ± 0,0015*readings ≈ ±2,5°C

- CO2-concentration: ±1,25ppm ± readings*0,0005 (Grant 2040 series 2F16) ±10ppm ± 0,001*readings (Squirrel 1000 series) ± 50ppm ±3 % of measured value (Eltek GD47)

Total accuracy: ± 61.25ppm ± 0,0015*readings ± 3% of measured value readings ≈ ±60ppm ± 3% of measured value

Temperature sensors:

- Grant surface temperature u-thermistor: ± 0,05˚C±readings*0,0005 (Grant 2040 series 2F16) ± 0,2˚C (thermistor) + accuracy connection on pipe.

Total accuracy: ± 0,25°C ± 0,0005*readings (± accuracy connection on pipe) ≈ ± 0,25°C - NTC-Thermistor type DC95 (air-temperature sensor): ±0,05˚C ± readings*0,0005(Grant 2040

series 2F16) ± 0,2˚C (air-temperature sensor)

Total accuracy: ± 0,25°C ± 0,0005*readings ≈ ± 0,25°C Flow meter:

- (1puls=0,1 liter): accuracy unknown kWh meters:

- (2000 pulsen/kWh1 pulse=0,0005kWh): ± 0,015 *reading (kWh meter) ± 0,0005*reading (Grant 2040 series 2F16)Total accuracy: ± 0,0155*readings ≈ ± 0,02 kWh

Grant 2F16 Eltek WSR Eltek GD47 T-sensor kWh-meter Flowmeter Database

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32

Calibration temperature sensors and control accuracy RH and CO2 of ELTEK GD47

In this part the calibration of the temperature sensors and control of the accuracy of the relative humidity and CO2-concentration of the Eltek GD47’s can be found. The calibration is done in the range 15-25°C and RH 30-80% the range for the most occurring indoor temperatures and relative humilities in dwellings. For the calibration the Michell Opti-Cal (ID1729) is used in combination with the program Opti-Soft, see Figure C.3. The control measurements of the CO2-sensors are given last. The CO2-sensors are only compared with each other, because no reference CO2-sensor was available.

Figure C.2 - The Eltek GD 47 and is technical specifications Figure C.3 - calibration with Michell Opti-cal

Method

Besides the calibration of the temperature also the relative humidity was controlled whether its accuracy is between ±2% in the range RH 10-90% as stated by the manufacturer. An overview of the specification of the measurement tool is given in Figure C.2.

The Eltek GD 47’s were placed in a couple of three in the Opti-Cal to control the accuracy of the RH and to determine the calibration formula for the temperature of each Eltek. For this purpose the schedule as shown in Table C.1 was made. This schedule was run by the Opti-Cal. During the

schedule the Opti-Cal logged the temperature and RH every 30 seconds and also did the three Elteks in the Opti-Cal.

When the schedule was completed. The measured reference temperature and RH (which were also corrected for the last calibration of the Opti-Cal) could then be compared with the temperatures and relative humilities measured by the Eltek GD 47’s. The calibration formula for the temperature sensors were determined by placing the corrected reference temperature on the y-axes and the temperature measured by the Eltek GD 47’s on the x-axes. Through the points a trend line was added and from the trend line the formula was determined. The results of these measurements are given under results.

Table C.1 - time schedule made in Opti-Soft for calibration of temperature and control of the accuracy of the relative humidity

Duration [hours] Temperature [°C] Relative humidity [%]

1 15 30 1 15 60 1 15 80 1 20 30 1 20 60 1 20 80 1 25 30 1 25 60 1 25 80

Input type and specification:

CO2

Accuracy at +20 ºC : 0-5000ppm < ± (50ppm + 3 % of measured value.) Temperature dependence: typically 2ppm CO2/ ºC over the range 0 to +50 ºC Operational temp range : RH 5 to 95% non condensing : -10 to +50 ºC (Functional at -20 ºC) Relative Humidity Range: 0-100% Resolution 0.1%, Accuracy RH: ± 2% (10 to 90% RH), ± 4% (0 to 100% RH), Temperature Accuracy: ± 1.0ºC (-20ºC to 65ºC ), ± 0.4ºC (-5ºC to 40ºC ) Power Supply 12 V

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33 Results

-The results showed that the accuracy of the Eltek GD47’s was between ±2% in the range RH 30-80%.

-The calibration formula’s for the domain 15-25°C are shown in Table C.2. Only the Eltek’s with ID-number 18730 and 18719 are not calibrated. For these is the standard formula used: y=8x+5. An example of how this formula is determined is given in Figure C.4, were the volt output of the temperature sensor of the Eltek with ID 18720 is compared with the corrected reference temperature of the Opti-Cal for the temperatures 15, 20 and 25°C in respectively 173,159,181 measurements points.

Figure C.4 - Calibration formula for the temperature sensor of Eltek GD 47 with ID 18720 Table C.2 - The calibration formulas of the temperatures of the Eltek GD 47’s in the domain 15-25°C.

House Eltek ID numbers per house

Formula out of calibration in domain 15-25°C H0100 - 18713 y = 8,0907x + 4,2839 - 18714 y = 7,9642x + 4,6898 - 18715 y = 7,9977x + 4,5436 H0200 - 18711 y = 8,0389x + 4,729 - 18712 y = 8,0369x + 4,6924 - 18716 y = 8,1267x + 4,0131 H0300 - 18730 --- - 18731 y = 8,2253x + 4,2227 - 18732 y = 8,0176x + 4,4014 H0400 - 18717 y = 8,094x + 4,6612 - 18718 y = 8,079x + 4,6788 - 18719 --- H0500 - 18721 y = 8,079x + 4,0646 - 18722 y = 8,0629x + 4,5528

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34 - 18723 y = 8,0615x + 4,8356 H0600 - 18724 y = 8,0514x + 4,6865 - 18725 y = 8,0756x + 4,0514 - 18726 y = 8,0599x + 4,4427 H0700 - 18727 y = 8,0289x + 4,5894 - 18728 y = 8,1522x + 3,8366 - 18729 y = 8,0762x + 4,7241 H0800 - 18733 y = 7,9722x + 4,9747 - 18734 y = 8,0349x + 4,8603 - 19154 y = 8,0568x + 4,6692 H0900 - 19155 y = 8,0408x + 4,2307 - 19156 y = 8,0766x + 4,1336 - 19157 y = 7,986x + 4,9245 H1000 - 18720 y = 8,097x + 4,4965 - 19158 y = 8,1086x + 4,4118 - 19159 y = 8,078x + 4,1001

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35 Control measurements CO2-sensors

In this part the control measurements of the CO2-sensors, which are in the Eltek GD47’s, are described. The intention was to calibrate the sensors, but this was not possible because the only reference CO2 sensor with a high accuracy proved defect.

Method

In a closed glazed box were the Eltek GD 47’s placed. The gas analyser was installed to take samples out of the box as reference CO2-sensor. Two fans mixed the air in the box. The 30 Elteks were measured in three parts, named round one, two and three. For the measurement set ups see figure C.5 to C.8.

In each round three different CO2-concentrations were measured in the domain 0-5000ppm. These were the background concentration, a concentration of about 1500ppm and a concentration of about 3000ppm. This was done in the following order:

- First was started with the background concentration

- Through breathing in the glazed box the concentration was brought to a CO2-concentraion of ±1500ppm

and was measured during more than one hour.

- Then through breathing in the glazed box the concentration was brought to a CO2-concentraion of ±3000ppm and was measured during more than one hour.

During the first round the gas analyser had several times a jam and during the second measurement and third measurement it did not longer take samples. Because of this the CO2 sensors are not calibrated to the gas analyser, because it did not function well also during the first measurement round. The CO2 sensors are only compared with each other, see results.

The place of the Eltek GD 47’s in the glazed box did not influence the measured results.

Figure C.5 - measurement set up ‘calibration’ CO2-sensors Eltek GD47’s

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Figure C.6 - Place Eltek GD 47’s in first measurement round.

Figure C.7 - Place Eltek GD 47’s in second measurement round.

Figure C.8 - Place Eltek GD 47’s in third measurement round.

Results

Only of the first round the measured CO2-concentrations are given in graphs, see Figure C.9 to C.11. Besides this the average CO2-concentrations are given for each round in Table C.3-C.5.

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Figure C.10 - CO2-concentration measurement around 1500 ppm round one.

Figure C.11 - CO2-concentration measurement around 4000 ppm round one.

Table C.3 - Average values during the first measurement round. ID 18710 ID 18711 ID 18712 ID 18713 ID 18714 ID 18715 ID 18716 ID 18717 ID 18718 ID 18719 B&K Multi-gas analyser Background concentration [ppm] 605 491 507 524 513 491 549 488 505 497 427 ±1500 ppm [ppm] 2079 1611 1727 1631 1689 1632 1775 1640 1662 1663 1380 ±4000 ppm [ppm] >5000 4088 4399 4083 4264 4178 4471 4172 4233 4225 3419

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Table C.4 - Average values during the second measurement round. ID 1872 1 ID 1872 2 ID 1872 3 ID 1872 4 ID 1872 5 ID 1872 6 ID 1872 7 ID 1872 8 ID 1872 9 ID 1873 3 ID 1873 4 ID 1915 4 Background concentratio n [ppm] 513 531 503 539 486 509 505 528 528 524 489 504 ±1500 ppm [ppm] 1219 1226 1190 1300 1212 1233 1220 1233 1205 1229 1206 1222 ±4000 ppm [ppm] 3650 3684 3637 3744 3634 3681 3662 3719 3685 3745 3629 3679

Table C.5 - Average values during the third measurement round. ID 18710 ID 18720 ID 18730 ID 18731 ID 18732 ID 19155 ID 19156 ID 19157 ID 19158 ID 19159 Background concentration [ppm] 716 636 586 603 611 692 606 663 640 608 ±1500 ppm [ppm] 1933 1619 1554 1577 1574 1686 1575 1649 1625 1591 ±4000 ppm [ppm] 3785 3123 3036 3060 3058 3215 3062 3156 3126 3086 Discussion

Out of the measurements can be concluded that the CO2-sensor with ID 18710 deviate much of the other ones and by that is not installed in a house (is not in the given accuracy range of the other Eltek GD 47’s). To control whether the other CO2-sensors are in the range of each other accuracy, Table C.6 is made. Out of this table can be concluded that the other sensors are in each other accuracy, because the sum of the accuracy of the minimum and maximum values is larger than the difference between the minimum and maximum values. Therefore in the further study the accuracy given by the manufacturer will be used. However, this can be wrong when all sensors give a too high or too low CO2-concentration. This can be the case when we look to the first round were the B&K gas analyser give a much lower value then the Eltek GD 47’s. This can be investigated when the sensor come back after a year measuring with a new CO2 reference meter.

Table C.6 - Control whether the CO2-sensors are in the range of each other accuracy.

Min-max value [ppm] Differe nce [ppm] Accuracy minimum value [ppm] Accuracy maximum value [ppm] Total accuracy of both [ppm] Total accuracy – difference [ppm] Round 1 ± 500 ppm 488-549 61 77 79 156 95 ± 1500 ppm 1611-1775 164 112 117 229 65 ± 4000 ppm 4083-4471 388 190 202 392 4 Round 2 ± 500 ppm 486-539 53 77 78 155 102 ± 1500 ppm 1190-1300 110 99 102 201 91 ±4000 ppm 3629-3745 116 176 197 373 257 Round 3 ± 500 ppm 586-692 106 80 83 163 57 ± 1500 ppm 1554-1686 132 110 114 224 92 ±4000 ppm 3036-3215 179 157 163 320 141

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39

Representation of the water temperature with the surface temperature on a copper pipe.

In the monitored houses are much surface temperature sensors placed on the copper pipes to know the temperature of the liquid in the pipe. By that it is important to know how good the surface temperature of the pipe represents the water temperature and how long it takes until the pipe has about the same temperature as the water in the pipe. Answers on these questions are find in the short study described below.

Method

For this study a Tamson TLC 3 recirculation chiller is used. Between the inlet and outlet a copper pipe is placed with two surface temperature sensors. These sensors are applied in the same way as in the monitored houses (taped with aluminum tape and insulated). In the water, what is brought to the right temperature and circulated through the copper pipe, are also placed two insulated surface temperature sensors. The temperature of the water is set on 20, 40, 60 and 70°C. In Figure C.12- C.14 images of the measurement set up are given. At the end also is checked how good the surface temperature sensors represent the water temperature when the insulation is removed.

Figure C.12, C.13 and C.14 - The measurement set up with the Tamson TLC 3, the copper pipe with insulated surface temperature sensors and the surface temperature sensors in the water bath.

Results

Table C.7 - The temperature measured in the water with two sensors and the surface temperature of the pipe also measured with two sensors, under different temperature set points of the Tamson TLC 3.

Temperature set point Tamson TLC 3 [˚C] Average temperature first T-sensor in water, ID 2443 [˚C]* Average temperature second T-sensor in water, ID 2451 [˚C]* Average temperature first T-sensor on copper pipe, ID 2447 [˚C]* Average temperature second T-sensor on copper pipe, ID 2448 [˚C]* 20 19,73 19,60 19,73 19,74 40 38,72 38,68 38,46 38,40 60 58,17 58,09 57,41 57,43 70 70,69 70,60 69,57 69,69 * accuracy: ± 0,25°C

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Figure C.15 - Overview of the whole measurement during the set points 20, 40,60 and 70°C.

Figure C.16 - Temperatures measured during the step 20°C to 40°C.

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Figure C.18 - Difference between the insulated and uninsulated as measured under same condition with the surface temperature sensors. From 12:18 without insulation around sensors on copper pipe.

Discussion

The temperatures measured with the surface temperatures on the copper pipe are slightly lower than the temperatures of the water in the Tamson TLC 3, see table C.7. This can be caused by the heat loss of the pipe, the accuracy of the sensors or temperature difference of the water measured at the top and the water circulated through the pipe. However, the temperature difference is very low only at higher temperatures the difference is bigger, as expected. The average temperature of both sensors in the water and at the surface of the pipe and the difference is shown in Table C.8.

Table C.8 - Average temperatures measured in the water and at the surface of the pipe under several temperatures.

Temperature set point water vessel [˚C]

Average temperature measured with sensors in water [˚C]*

Average temperatures measured on the surface of the pipe [˚C]* Difference [˚C] 20 19,66 19,73 0,07 40 38,70 38,43 0,27 60 58,13 57,42 0,71 70 70,64 69,63 1,02 * accuracy: ± 0,25°C

For this project the temperatures of the pipes are especially used to know whether a system is working or not. This can be seen very well, because the temperature measured on the surface follows the temperature of the water in the pipe quickly, see figure C.15-C.17.

In the case of the uninsulated surface temperature sensor, increases the temperature difference between the water in the pipe and the measured surface temperature with about 1°C around 70°C. Besides this the temperature fluctuates more as can be seen in figure C.18.

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42 APPENDIX D – Measurement results

In this appendix the results are shown of the comparison of the ventilation flows with the Dutch building code, see Table 1. The measured total supply and total exhaust flow of the ten dwellings is given in Table 2. Finally the Results of the investigation of the influence of polluted filters on the ventilation capacity are shown in Table 3.

Table D.1 - Comparison ventilation flows in set point 3 with requirements Building Code 2003.

when a requirement is met for a room the box is green with the word yes. When a requirement is not met the box is red and has the word no.

The requirements of the building code are:

1. A residential area has an air exchange of at least 0,9 dm³/s per m² floor area with a minimal of 7 dm³/s according to NEN 1087. (Not assessed)

2. A residential room has an air exchange of at least 0,7 dm³/s per m² floor area with a minimal of 7 dm³/s according to NEN 1087.

3. A residential area or residential room, with a cooking device as stated in article 4.38, has an air exchange of at least 21 dm3/s, determined in accordance with NEN 1087.

4. A toilet room has an air exchange capacity of at least 7 dm3/s, determined in accordance with NEN 1087.

5. A bathroom has an air exchange capacity of at least 14 dm3/s, determined in accordance with NEN 1087.

H0100 H0200 H0300 H0400 H0500 H0600 H0700 H0800 H0900 H1000

Requirement 2 met for living room

yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Requirement 2 met for bedroom 1

yes yes no no yes yes no yes yes yes

Requirement 2 met for bedroom 2

yes no no yes no yes no no no yes

Requirement 2 met for bedroom 3

yes yes no yes yes yes no no no yes

Requirement 2 met for bedroom 4 yes no x no x no x no x yes Requirement 3 met for kitchen

no yes yes no yes yes yes yes no no

Requirement 4 met for toilet

n.m.* yes no n.m.* n.m.* yes no yes yes yes

Requirement 5 met for bathroom

yes yes no yes yes yes no no no yes

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43

Table D.2 -Sum of designed supply and exhaust ventilation flows in set point 2 and sum of measured supply and exhaust flows.

Type/Dwelling

Supply flow [m3/h]

Exhaust flow

[m3/h] Remarks Total designed flows (set

point 2) Type 505 177 177

Sum of supply and exhaust flows in set point 2

H0100 172 119

Toilet exhaust flow not measurable (designed 25 m3/h)

H0200 127 213

Attic supply flow not measurable (designed 20m3/h)

H0400 162 145

Toilet exhaust flow not measurable (designed 25 m3/h)

H0600 160 185

H1000 172 138

Total designed flows (set

point 2) Type 506 157 157

Sum of supply and exhaust flows in set point 2

H0300 84 145

H0500 125 147

H0700 100 152

H0800 118 149

Attic exhaust flow not measurable (designed 20m3/h)

H0900 102 115

Figure D.1 - Measurement setup for the investigation of the influence of polluted filters on ventilation capacity Table D.3 - Results of the investigation of the influence of polluted filters on the ventilation capacity.

Average air supply

[m3/h] ±3% Average air exhaust [m3/h] ±3% Clean reference filterset 1 240 220

Clean reference filterset 2 239 220

Polluted filterset 1 237 207 Polluted filterset 2 239 214 Polluted filterset 3 238 207 Polluted filterset 4 238 218 Polluted filterset 5 239 219 Polluted filterset 6 239 209 Polluted filterset 7 239 220

(50)

44 APPENDIX E – Interview

Algemeen

Adres woning:______________________________________________________________________

Samenstelling huishouden

Uit hoeveel personen bestaat uw huishouden?____________________________________________ Waar slapen de leden van uw huishouden?

Lid van uw huishouden Grote slaapkamer

Een na grootste slaapkamer Kleinste slaapkamer

Welke leden van uw huishouden werken of gaan naar school?

__________________________________________________________________________________ Zijn er leden van uw huishouden die onregelmatig thuis zijn? Zo ja wie en hoe onregelmatig?

__________________________________________________________________________________ Zijn er wel eens logees bij u in huis zo ja, hoeveel en wat is de logeerkamer?

_________________________________________________________________________________ Zijn er leden van uw huishouden die (binnen) roken? Zo ja hoeveel?__________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Heeft u huisdieren? Zo ja welke________________________________________________________ Ventilatie

Hoe gebruikt u de ventilatiestanden van uw mechanisch ventilatiesysteem in uw woning? In welke ventilatiestand staat uw ventilatiesysteem het meest?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Gebruikt u een hogere ventilatiestand tijdens het koken? Zo ja welke?

__________________________________________________________________________________ Zet u het keukenluik open tijdens het koken?

___________________________________________________________________________

Gebruikt u een hogere ventilatiestand tijdens het douchen? Zo ja welke?

___________________________________________________________________________

Gebruikt u ramen en of deuren om te ventileren naast het mechanisch ventilatiesysteem? Zo ja zou u ongeveer aan kunnen geven op welke momenten u ramen/deuren gewoonlijk open zet?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

(51)

45

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Vervangt of reinigt u (of een ander lid van het huishouden) de filters van de ventilatie-unit? Zo ja wanneer is dit voor de laatste keer gebeurd?

___________________________________________________________________________

Verwarming

Wanneer u de centrale verwarming aan doet op welke temperatuur zet u dan de thermostaat overdag? En op welke temperatuur ’s nachts.

____________________________________________________________________________ Gebruikt u de lucht verwarmer (knop op thermostaat)? Zo ja, wanneer zet u deze normaal gesproken aan?

__________________________________________________________________________________ Overig

Heeft u verder opmerkingen over het functioneren van uw woning/installaties in uw woning?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

(52)

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