"Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers"

"Attracting, Developing and

Retaining Effective Teachers"

OECD ACTIVITY

（Analytical Review）

Japanese Country Background Report

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,

Science and Technology (MEXT)

"Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers"

Japanese Country Background Report

＜

Content＞

Preface………..………..4

Executive Summary……….6

Chapter 1:

Social background for school education in Japan……11

1.1 Teacher Policy in Japan: Principal Measures and Their Progress

…………

11

1.2 Data on Teacher Policies in Japan

……….

15

1.3 Social status of schools and teachers

………...

18

Chapter 2:

The Japanese school system and the present

condition of teacher………..………..21

2.1 Structure of school education

……..…………...……….

21

2.2 Personnel concerned with school education

………

35

Chapter 3:

Methods of Appointing Able Person as Teacher…..…41

3.1 Trends in Those Aiming to the Teacher Profession

………...

41

3.2 Legal Position of Teachers in Terms of Status

………

42

3.3 Teacher Training Courses in the Universities

……….

43

3.4 Systems Regarding Personnel Matters Such As Hiring and Salary

………

45

Chapter 4: Pre-service Teacher Training, Teacher certificate

System, and In-service Teacher Training………….…51

4.1 Pre-service Teacher Training

………...

51

4.2 Teacher certificate system

……….

57

4.3 In-service Teacher Training

……….

66

Chapter 5: Appointment of Teachers……….……….73

5.1 Structure of Teacher Appointment

…..………

73

5.2 Data on Selection Methods

……….

76

5.3 Issues Concerning the Appointment Selection

……….

85

Chapter 6: Measures to Keep Capable Teachers at School …..…87

6.1 The Current Situation in Japan

……….

87

6.2 Institutional Strategies for the Educational Personnel Certificate System

………..………

88

6.3 Personnel Management of Public School Teachers

………

90

6.4 Appropriate Personnel Allocation

……….

92

6.5 Social Experience Training Program for Teachers

………...

95

Chapter 7: Features and Theme of National Teacher Policy

………..…100

7.1 Features of National Teacher Policy

………...…

100

Terms

……….……… 105

Bibliography

……….………...…….108

PREFACE

This report has been drawn up by authoriz ed persons at the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)—the government body in charge of administering education in Japan--as a background report concerning teacher policy in Japan, to serve as a link in participating in “Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers” (2002-2004), an Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) undertaking.

Japan accepts that the main objective of this enterprise is to deal with the circumstances and undertakings in each country related to the so-called lack of teachers—a problem of international dimensions (particularly in the EU nations)—and to grope for solutions. However, the circumstances in Japan are different, as there are more people aspiring to become teachers than the instructor hiring quota. Moreover, the number of those who quit midway after taking up the teaching professor is comparatively low. Therefore, in participating in this enterprise, we plan to deal with it by introducing our stance to other countries on factors being worked on in Japan like maintaining and improving the security and qualities of teachers.

Thus, of the two ways of participating in this enterprise, we adopted the “analytical method.” In drawing up this report, too, we didn’t have it written by research institutions concerned with educational policy in Japan but by government institutions that are in charge of educational policy in this country. In order to guarantee the report’s objectivity, we sought the opinions of outside researchers, learned members of deliberation committees, people connected to the actual school sites, and so on.

The composition of this report has taken the following form.

Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 describe matters, with teacher policy in the backdrop, like recent trends in reforming education, the set-up of the school system in Japan, and the present situation of teachers.

In respect to raising the qualities and abilities of teachers in Japan, since the cultivation, hiring, and training of teachers are carried out systematically at each stage, Chapter 4 describes teacher training, the licensing system and in -service training. Chapter 5 introduces the teacher hiring system and contrivances in the selection methods.

Moreover, factors that are believed to contribute 「to securing capable teachers and maintaining such competent teachers at the school site are introduced in Chapters 3 and 6.

The closing Chapter 7, recapitulates the entirety and presents characteristics of and issues for teacher policy in Japan.

We will be pleased if this report can serve as even some reference to teacher policy in other countries.

Noriyuki Takeshita, National Coordinator Director, Educational Personnel Division, Elementary and Secondary Education Bu reau,

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

Kazumitsu Fujita, person in charge of the writing the report Director for In-service Teacher Training,

Educational Personnel Division,

E l e m e n t a r y and Secondary Education Bureau,

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation of Teachers in Japan

Japan is not suffering from a so-called “teacher shortage.” If anything, it is in a state of a supply surfeit in which the number of those who have teacher certificates and aspire to become teachers is higher than the number scheduled to be hired as teachers. The situation in Japan would seem to be one in which a considerable number of those who aspire to become teachers is not hired.

Teachers in Japan are positioned legally as “servants of the whole community.” In particular, teachers at public schools, which account for the vast majority of elementary and secondary education in Japan, are granted the status of civil servants. By adequately carrying out guarantees of status and financial measures related to wages, etc., the evaluation of a teacher’s social status is esteemed relatively high, and the number of Japanese aspiring to become teachers is considerable. Moreover, we are trying to secure outstanding teachers and improve their dispositions and capacities throughout their lifetime, with a substantial teacher education system and in-service training, as well as through contrivances in the hiring selection process. Under such circumstances, it is common for teachers in Japan to continue with the teaching profession until they reach the mandatory retirement age. At the present juncture, the problem of many competent teachers transferring to other types of jobs has not arisen.

In the meanwhile, we have been grappling to raise the specialized knowledge of individual teachers, in order to try to improve guidance responding to needs at the school site all the more.

Educating and Securing Outstanding Teachers

Given the fact that Japan is going through a great changeover in its economy and society, and the role of school education is becoming increasingly important, this country, too, has been advancing reforms in education to make youngsters definitely acquire the basics and fundamentals, to foster their strength to learn and think on their own, and to try to improve both sound scholastic abilities and emotional education. Moreover, in order to futher the creation of schools that can be trusted, we are in the process of working to bring in school evaluations and offer information positively.

Amid all this, improvements in the guidance abilities of teachers are increasingly needed. In order to have them acquire more specialized knowledge and a

greater social consciousness, measures are being advanced systematically in each stage of teacher training, appointing, and in-service training. Furthermore, in order to guarantee their suitability, we have been trying to improve their quality and abilities by promoting measures for appropriately carrying out evaluations of teachers and personnel management.

In the teacher training stage, we have them acquire the qualities and abilities necessary for practicing the profession of instructing courses and pupils by making them take well-balanced subjects related to the teaching profession. They may also take the curriculum of a program accredited by the national government under the principle of teacher education at a university, which is an institution of higher education. They also acquire the necessary qualities and skills by taking charge of grades and subjects from the time they are first hired.

In the appointing stage, on the premise that the applicants possess teacher certificates, the board of education of each prefecture in Japan principally secures outstanding teachers in accordance with the needs of their own locality, not through competitive examinations but through a contrived screening process. Reforms are being advanced in the selection process in the direction of giving weight to personal evaluations, such as implementing practical exercise, with an emphasis on interviews, instead of deliberating on fragmentary amounts of knowledge. Moreover, there are strong demands for the principal, as the person responsible for operating the school, to possess ideas and insights about education, to manifest leadership accurately grasping the circumstances and issues of both the locality and the school, and to carry out an organized and efficient operation of the school. In order to secure such a broadly capable human resource, from FY2000, schools are now allowed, through the judgment of those so authorized, to hire as principals people who do not possess a teacher cerificate nor have any experience in a teaching related profession, such as persons who worked for the private companies.

In addition, in order to make active use in school education of working people who do not possess a teacher certificate through education in college but who have outstanding knowledge, experience, and/or skills, we are setting up a system to bestow certificates on such people. We are also establishing a system whereby, in response to the needs of each school, such people can be allowed to teach a partial sphere of the curriculum independently as long as the prefectural board of education is notified. Moreover, the budget measures necessary for making use of such people at the school site are being implemented. Furthermore, we have been advancing undertakings that university students who aspire to the teaching profession can guide the students

at the school site in cooperation with teachers.

Maintaining/Raising the Qualities and Abilities of In-Service Teachers

Public school teachers, who account for the great majority of the profession in Japan, have their status guaranteed as local public servant. The circumstances under which they can be subject to limitations on their status or punishments such as dismissal or pay cuts are restricted by law.

In respect to the wages at public schools, the standards for the type and amount of remuneration for teachers at national schools, who are national civil servants, are fixed by ordinances of public entities in each region. Great disparities by region are not found, and a certain standard is guaranteed. In particular, in consideration of the duties of the teaching profession and the special nature of their working situation, a system exists, not to give overtime allowances but to pay an adjusted amount corresponding to 4% of the regular salary evaluated inclusively regardless of the time spent on or off the job. Moreover, in regard to the payment for elementary and lower secondary schools, which comprise compulsory education, this is partially borne by the prefectures, whose scales of financial administration are large and comparatively stable. And since the national government covers half, securing the necessary teachers is guaranteed.

On the other hand, in order for the skills, accomplishments, etc. of each and every teacher to be evaluated accurately, and for that to be linked to their assignments, treatment, training, and so on, attempts have begun by some boards of education to review the employment ratings used so far, and to bring a new evaluation system

Moreover, surveys and research are being advanced to construct a personnel management system to obtain an accurate grasp of the teachers lacking in instruction skills, though their number is small in comparison with total number of teachers, this system is also supposed to carry out continuous guidance and training aimed at recovering their qualities and abilities, and to implement appropriate measures, including dismissals, in accordance with necessity, for those deemed difficult to restore to a teaching position.

Furthermore, in respect to the posting of personnel, the prefectural boards of education, which have the authority to make such assignments, in accordance with their respective circumstances, establish fundamental policies concerning the standard period of employment at one school and the job location; transfers of personnel are conducted in line with these. By carrying out the wide-ranging postings of personnel at the prefectural unit, the boards of education try to raise the qualities and abilities of

teachers through having them experience diversity such as large-scale schools in the urban areas, small-scale schools in remote areas, schools where it is difficult to teach, etc. A posting in response to the local needs and circumstances is possible by having unofficial reports from the municipal boards of education and detailed opinions from the

principal reflected when the prefectural board of education is making the appointment. In the teacher in-service training stage, their specialized knowledge and

instruction skills are being raised through training that is advanced systematically by the each board of education in response to the individual teacher’s life stage. Especially during the first year after being hired, their stage of university education and the practical training at the school site are linked through the compulsory implementation of one-year “induction training for beginning teachers.” This may foster in them a sense of mission as teachers and the practical instruction skills to be unfolded in their autonomous educational activities in the future. Moreover, from 2003, in-service training has become compulsory for teachers who have reached ten years on the job. This training for teachers with ten years of experience is implemented in accordance with the abilities and suitability of the individual teachers. It is meant as an attempt not only to ensure that veteran teachers have the basic qualities and abilities needed for subjects teaching and students guidance but also to create subjects in which each teacher excels and to expand their individuality, as well. Furthermore, in order for teachers to broaden their perspectives as members of society, Japanese schools have been actively implementing “Social Experience Training” allowing teachers to build up diverse experiences in organizations beyond the schools, such as in private companies and social welfare facilities. This is meant as a move to improve their personal social skills.

In addition, so that the results of an in-service teacher’s hard studies are reflected in the certificate, we have established a framework of ranking the certificates (advanced, first-class, second-class) in accordance with the level provided and allowing them to obtain a higher level certificate, if they have taken the credits in college. Moreover, we have set up measures to impose obligatory efforts to acquire a first-class certificate to those who possess a second-class certificate and to lower the number of required credits in response to the number of years on the job in order to treat their efforts favorably.

Future Issues concerned with Teacher Policy in Japan

As has been explained so far, in Japan policies are being advanced to train and secure outstanding teachers, to improve their qualities and abilities throughout their

lifetime while building up in-service experience in stable positions, and to see that such results are appropriately rewarded.

We believe the main issues in teacher policy in Japan to be dealt with in the future consist, for example, of those listed below.

* Teacher evaluations and personnel management in order to promote construction of schools that can be trusted

We have been advancing studies and research these past several years aimed at building a system for the appropriate personnel management and evaluations of teachers. In order to advance “construction of schools that can be trusted”—something demanded in recent years by households and localities, it will be necessary to promote this even further in regard to teachers who play a great part in the success or failure of education.

* Raising the qualities and abilities of teachers in accordance with their individual skills and suitability, etc.

Up to now, particularly in the teacher training stage, simultaneous training in lecture form in accordance to the experience as a teacher tended to be conducted in a uniform way by the boards of education. From the standpoint of the need to carry out effective training in order to advance the instruction skills of individual teachers further, there are demands to get an accurate grasp of the skills and suitability of each and every teacher and conduct diverse and effective training accordingly. The introduction of training for teachers with ten years on the job has led to expectations that each board of education will promote such undertakings even more.

* Effectively raising the disposition of teachers through cooperative moves between boards of educations and universities

In respect to improving the qualities and abilities of teachers, up to now the universities mainly dealt with this issue in the teacher training stage, and the boards of education grappled with it principally in the appointing and in-service training stages. However, we believe that if the universities and boards of education were to understand mutually what kind of teachers are being sought and what kind of efforts are being made and carried out positive attempts at cooperation, not only would cooperation in education, hiring and training become smooth but also moves to raise the qualities and abilities of teachers could be worked on more effectively. We have expectations that such undertakings will be advanced in this way by both parties.

CHAPTER 1: SOCIAL BACKGROUND FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION IN JAPAN

1.1. Teacher Policy in Japan: Principal Measures and Their Progress The direction of educational reform in Japan and the roles of schools

1. After World War II, education in Japan which improved the educational standards of the people and realized the concept of equal opportunity for all, has achieved certain results as a driving force for the development of the nation’s economy and society. In this process, the Japanese teacher policy has promoted the set-up of conditions for ensuring well-qualified teachers and improving the quality of teachers through the fo llowing: guaranteeing the status of schoolteachers as public servants; the National Treasury’s Share of Compulsory Education Expenditure System which has eliminated regional gaps in educational standards due to the different financial conditions of local governments and has realized the equal educational opportunities; improvement teachers’ salaries under the Human Resources Recruitment Law; reform of the educational personnel certificate system; improvements in the in-service training system and so on.

2. Along with achieving a high rate of economic growth, Japan began to play an important role economically in the world, and the people came to enjoy material affluence, too. However, afterwards Japanese society is now facing a major turning point because of the escalation of various kinds of global competition and the stagnation and recession of the domestic economy following the bubble economy’s collapse.

3. Amidst this turning point, the role of education, especially that of school education, which is the basis of social existence, become increasingly important in order for Japan to continuously develop.

4. Under such circumstances, the National Commission on Educational Reform was established under the Prime Minister in March 2000, and it submitted a report about educational reforms in December of the same year. In the report, the commission made concrete recommendations such as fostering Japanese people with a rich sense of humanity; developing the talent of every individual and fostering creative people; and creating new schools for the new age. Regarding teachers, based on the recognition that the most important

factor in school education is each teacher, the commission proposed the improvement of the quality of teachers by evaluating them properly and promoting teachers’ expertise and social standing. On the basis of the aforementioned recommendations, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) developed the Education Reform Plan for the 21st Century in January 2001, which presents the whole picture of the educational reform agenda to be undertaken from now on. Concrete measures concerning teachers were included in the plan such as introducing a commendation system and special increases in the salaries of excellent and effective teachers; taking appropriate measures for teachers who lack teaching abilities; and establishing a system that requires teachers to undertake a Social Experience Training Program. Most of these measures are being tackled by the Ministry.

5. In Japanese educational reforms, the basic directions of school education are to consider its role in a lifelong learning society, to regard individual students and pupils as important, and to promote education responding to changes in society such as globalization and increasing access to information. In Japan, the Courses of Study are fixed as the standard for education curricula. In accordance with aforementioned direction of educational reform in Japan, the Courses of Study were revised in 1998, and education based on the new Courses of Study began at elementary schools and lower secondary schools in the 2002 academic year, and at upper secondary schools in the 2003 academic year. Under the new Courses of Study, “the Period for Integrated Study” has been introduced to cultivate the problem-solving abilities of students and pupils through learning activities throughout elementary, lower secondary and upper secondary school, with each school devising interdisciplinary and comprehensive topics. Furthermore, by meticulously selecting the subjects to be taught, the new Courses of Study are designed to produce a time leeway so that children are not merely crammed with knowledge but definitely acquire the basic and fundame ntal content through supplementary and repeated teaching. They also provide advanced learning to children with a more mature level of understanding, as well as experiments and practices to enhance students’ comprehension.

concrete school curricula, teachers are being required to understand the both needs of the regional society and of each child to a greater degree than ever and carry out effective educational activities. In other words, in the past, the general effects of teaching and learning through rather uniform instruction were mainly considered. By contrast, under the educational reforms now in process, more than ever, teachers are being required to make children acquire truely necessary basics and fundamentals. They are also expected to teach advanced levels of knowledge to children who have mastered the basics and make children solve problems better by themselves and help deepen their thinking and ways of viewing things. In other words, teachers must improve their abilities as specialists and their practical skills in order to answer the needs of the nation. Moreover, it is necessary to raise such abilities and skills at schools, too.

7. In addition, teachers are required to have diverse abilities and each teacher must have required skills and knowledge about the mentioned before. Yet, it is unrealistic to expect that all teachers will uniformly acquire diverse abilities and answer all the needs. Preferably, when the diverse problems confronting schools are considered, it would be more realistic for each teacher to display his/her special talent or knowledge in the organization known as a school and for the school comes to tackle various issues through combining the diverse abilities of the entire organization. In this sense as well, it is important to elevate the quality of teachers for improving their social abilities.

Abilities required of teachers and how to improve them

8. Generally speaking, the work of teachers who directly undertake school education concerns the development of children’s minds and bodies, and greatly affects the building of children’s characters, too. In view of the responsibility of teachers’ work as specialists, the qualities and abilities required of teachers in every age are a sense of duty as an educator; deep understanding of human growth and development; educational affection for school children; expert knowledge of the subjects they teach; wide-ranging, abundant culture; and the practical teaching abilities to guide children based on such qualities and abilities.

to cultivate children with the ability to learn and think on their own and with a well-rounded character. From this point of view, teachers hereafter will be required to develop a broad vision in response to the age of internationalization and make use of that in educational activities. The teaching profession itself demands one to have a lofty character and considerable insight. For example, teachers are required to have qualities and abilities that members of society who live in this age of change must have, such as task-solving abilities, communication skills, and information literacy.

10. Thus, teachers are required to possess diverse abilities. But teachers’ qualities and abilities develop throughout each stage of their career from pre-service at university to recruitment and in-service training. The Japanese government attaches importance to this fact in its policies concerning teachers. We position in each stage; the teacher-training system at university, appointment and in-service training, in the following way.

11. The stage of training at university is a process whereby future teachers develop qualities and skills, enabling them to carry out the work of managing and teaching classes and giving learning guidance and student guidance from the beginning of their professional careers through the acquisition of credits in courses in their major academic area and those necessary for the teacher certificate. In this stage, the national government has been working on reforms of education personnel certificate system, such as newly requiring future teachers newly to acquire subjects that respond to the needs of the era.

12. The stage of recruitment is a process whereby persons who have especially superior qualities and abilities as teachers are screened on the assumption that there are diverse holders of teachers certificates at many colleges and universities. In this stage, the national government promotes selective procedure based not on fragmentary amounts of knowledge but which places importance on character evaluations.

13. The stage of in-service training is a process whereby each teacher is expected to improve his or her professional qualities and abilities as instructors through diverse courses of training that match each individual teacher’s stage in life. The period of being a novice, for example, is an important stage that

links the pre-service training at a university with on-site practice at a school. For instance, the induction training for beginning teachers is being implemented to awaken them to their professional mission and to build the base for developing independent educational activities. Thus, the National government is trying to improve the qualities and abilities of teachers through the enrichment of various types of training.

1.2. Data on Teacher Policies in Japan

Trends in fiscal measures for school education

14. The net expenditure by the national and local public bodies (the total educational outlays) on school education, social education and education administration in the FY 2000 was 24,296 billion yen. It accounted for 4.74% of the gross national expenditure and 6.39% of the national income (380,506.6 billion yen). And this total educational outlay accounted for 15.93% of all annual expenditure by national and local administration bodies. This total educational outlay by each field of education amounted to 18,134.7 billion yen in total expenditures on school education. Expenditures for elementary and secondary education (kindergartens, elementary schools, lower and upper secondary schools), which are the areas targeted in this report, accounted for about 80% of the total expenditures for school education.

15. Next, we discuss the national budget. The general account budget of the Ministry in FY 2002 amounted to 6,579.8 billion yen. Out of that, the sum of 3,056.4 billion yen is the National Treasury share toward compulsory education expenditure so that the national government covers 50% of the cost of paying teachers’ salaries at public compulsory education schools. It accounted for 46.5% of the total budget for the Ministry. In addition are expenditures to purchase textbooks (41.9 billion yen) for free distribution at compulsory education schools and subsidies for the construction, expansion and remodeling of public school facilities (140.2 billion yen).

Various data about school education and teachers

16. The two major trends surrounding school education in Japan are the declining birthrate and the rising rate of children advancing to universities or junior colleges.

enrollment in compulsory education in recent years was about 11.92 million children in elementary schools in 1978 and about 6.11 million children in lower secondary schools in 1986. Thereafter, the enrollment continued to decline. By 2002, the enrollment dropped to 7.24 million children in elementary schools and 3.86 million in lower secondary schools.

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 50 65 80 95 1950 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 11,925 Elementary Schools 6,106 Lower Secondary Schools Upper Secondary Schools Kindergartens Universities Junior Colleges 7,239 3,929 3,863 2,786 1,769 267 （1,000 students）

Figure 1.1 Transition in the Numbers of Students （

Total at National, Public and

Private Schools）

Resource: MEXT ‘

School Basic Survey’

18. Figure 1.2 shows the changes in the rising rate of children proceeding to higher level schools. In particular , the percentage of children advancing to universities or junior colleges has been on a continuous rise and reached about 49% in recent years.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 1976 80 85 90 95   2000 （％） Universities (Undergraduate）・ Junior Colleges （Regular Courses） Universities （Undergraduate） Junior Colleges （Regular Courses） Graduate School 48.6 40.5 10.6 8.1

Figure 1.2 Advancement Rate

Resource: MEXT ‘

School Basic Survey’

19. Table 1.1 shows the changes in the breakdown of teachers by age. The table reveals an increasing percentage of older teachers, due to the fact that the number of newly

hired teachers has decreased as a result of the declining birthrate.

Table １．1 Age Component of Teachers in Elementary Schools

（Unit：％） 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Under 20 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21 ∼ 23 3.8 2.4 2.1 2.2 1.4 0.7 0.5 24 ∼ 26 12.2 8.6 7.2 6.9 5.4 3.8 2.4 27 ∼ 29 13.2 12.8 9.7 8.5 7.6 6.1 4.8 30 ∼ 32 10.6 13.2 12.8 9.8 8.8 7.7 6.3 33 ∼ 35 9.2 10.7 13.1 12.6 9.9 8.9 7.9 36 ∼ 38 6.0 9.3 10.7 12.9 12.7 10.0 9.0 39 ∼ 41 4.8 6.1 9.3 10.5 13.0 13.0 10.2 42 ∼ 44 3.9 4.9 6.2 9.3 10.6 13.2 13.2 45 ∼ 47 5.6 4.0 5.0 6.2 9.4 11.0 13.5 48 ∼ 50 7.0 5.8 4.2 5.1 6.3 9.8 11.1 51 ∼ 53 9.4 6.8 5.8 4.1 5.1 6.5 9.7 54 ∼ 56 8.7 8.2 6.5 5.5 4.0 5.1 6.2 57 ∼ 59 5.0 6.4 6.6 5.6 4.9 3.7 4.6 60 And Over 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.6 Resource : MEXT ‘School Teacher Survey’

* Composition ratio of the number of teachers in public elementary schools as of Oct. 1 in each year

1.3. Social status of schools and teachers

The school education system and citizens’ awareness

20. In the reforms of the educational system right after World War II, Japan realized equal educational opportunities, gender equality, a school system with a single track format, a 6-3 system of free compulsory education, etc. In the prewar period, Japan had a double-track school system, under which students, after finishing six years of compulsory education at ‘Jinjo’ elementary schools

had to choose to proceed on to middle schools, advanced girl’s schools, vocational schools or higher elementary schools. After the war, an education system consisting of six years of elementary school, three years of lower secondary school, three years of upper secondary school and four years of university or college was adopted, and the period of compulsory education was extended to nine years. Basically, a single track school system was prepared for all children. As a result, opportunities to advance to higher education have been widely opened to all citizens.

21. Moreover, the opening of opportunities for higher education temporarily produced an unwelcome result, causing people to believe that studies at school are all-important and degrees from well-known universities promise a high social esteem. This thinking led to social problems like the excessive competition in entrance examinations. At present, however, this problem has eased along with the declining birthrate and the new establishment or expansion of universities.

Social status of teachers

22. In Japan, teachers’ social status seems to be esteemed relatively high because of several factors.

23. According to a survey conducted by a sociologist in 1995, the evaluation of the social status of elementary schools’ teachers (the social prestige) placed 17th on a list of 56 vocations. In a similar survey conducted 20 years ago, the social status of elementary schools’ teachers placed 18th on the list of 82 professions. This indicates that there was little change in the public appraisal o f their social status with the passing of time (*1). A survey conducted by a private research institute through questionnaires carried out on lower secondary school students about the profession they aspire to has revealed that 3.2% (the third largest group) of boys replied “teacher” and 10.3% (the top group) of girls said “kindergarten teacher” and “nursery school teacher”(*2).

24. The relatively high public appraisal of teachers’ social status seems to be due to the following factors: First of all, in Japan, a country with few natural resources, a certain level of importance and significance is recognized for the teaching profession that cultivate the human resources who will shoulder the

next generation. Secondly, teachers’ job consists of teaching knowledge and skills necessary for every citizen to live as a member of society.

25. Moreover, the following factors can be given in view of the system. Teachers in public schools have the status guaranteed as education officials. From the perspective of securing human resources, teachers are paid a good salaries compared to ordinary public officials. With the reforms of the teacher training system after World War II, teacher training has in principle been implemented in higher education institutions like universities.

26. As already mentioned in this chapter, citizens’ demands for school education in Japan have been increasing in recent years. There has been a trend to attach importance to each teacher’s expertise in order to improve the quality of school education even more. It is hoped that teachers will not remain content with their present social esteem and go on to raise their sense of mission as well as their qualities and abilities all the more.

*1: Kazuharu Tsuzuki, ed., Structure of Vocational Appraisal and the Scores on Vocations’ Prestige, SSM Research Group,1995

*2: The Third Investigation into the Basics of Learning, an analytical report, Benesse Educational Research Institute

(The above English titles are for reference only and do not mean that English versions are available.)

CHAPTER 2: THE JAPANESE SCHOOL SYSTEM AND THE PRESENT CONDITION OF TEACHERS

2.1. Structure of school education

The elementary and secondary educational system and the management of schools 27. The school system in Japan was made based upon the Fundamental Law of

Education and the School Education Law in 1947. The “6-3-3 system” of six years of elementary school, three years of lower secondary school and another three years of upper secondary school was introduced to achieve the equal opportunities to receive school education.

28. Article 1 of the Fundamental Law of Education defines the types of schools in Japan. In the elementary and secondary education stage, there are elementary schools, lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools, secondary schools, schools for the blind, schools for the deaf, schools for the other disabled and kindergartens.

・Compulsory education

The law requires children’s guardians to have children receive nine years of school education. The law also requires municipalities and prefectures to build schools that provide compulsory education.

Elementary schools are meant to provide six years of education to children aged 6 to 12 years old, and lower secondary schools to provide three years of education to children aged 12 to 15 years old, in ways that fit each stage of their mental and physical development.

The national government, local government and school corporations can open schools. Municipalities are obligated to build elementary schools and lower secondary schools that are necessary for giving school education to school-age children in their respective jurisdictions. Schools are required to be built in accordance with the School Education Law and Standard for the Establishment concerning organization, staff, facilities, equipment, curriculum, and so on. (in the same applies to upper secondary education).

・Upper secondary school education

Upper secondary schools are educational institutions for the higher stage of secondary education that provide general education and specialized education to persons who have completed their compulsory education.

Upper secondary schools offer two types of educational courses. One is a general education course, and the other is a specialized education course, i.e. agriculture, industry, commerce, fishery, domestic science, nursing, science and mathematics, and English. As a part of upper secondary school reforms, “an integrated course” has been introduced since April 1994 to make it possible for students to choose subjects from both the curriculum for general education and that for technical education.

There are also a part-time course (night course) and a correspondence course in upper secondary schools to enable working youths to take upper secondary school education.

Upper secondary schools are established by the national government, local governments and school corporations.

When a municipalities wants to open an upper secondary school, it must obtain the approval of the prefectural board of education. When a school corporation wants to open a school, it must obtain the approval of the prefectural governor.

・Special Support Education

Children with physical or mental handicaps are given specially and carefully designed education under special support at institutions like schools for the blind, schools for the deaf and schools for the other disabled, as well as special classes for such children at elementary schools and lower secondary schools in various forms and in a way that best suits the type and extent of each person’s handicap. The purpose of such education is to foster each child to reach his or her maximum potential and enable them to develop the strength for becoming independent and taking part in society.

The prefectural boards of education are obligated to establish the schools for the blind, schools for the deaf, and schools for the other disabled that are

necessary to provide education to school-age children within their locality who have a certain degree of physical or mental impediments such as being visually, hearing, mentally, or physically impaired, or constitutionally weak.

These are supposed to provide education equivalent to that in kindergartens, elementary schools, lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools. They also extend special guidance to enable handicapped children to overcome diverse problems that arise as a result of their physical or mental handicaps.

Special classes are provided in elementary schools and lower secondary schools for children whose disabilities are relatively light. Whether or not to provide special classes for such children is left to each municipality’s discretion. Municipalities, which establish elementary and lower secondary schools, can provide such classes when organizing classes at the schools that they operate.

Special support service for disabled children is given to children whose disabilities are light. This is the instruction which gives the guidance at a special spot according to respective disabilities along with the lessons for each subject at ordinary classes.

・Kindergarten education

Kindergarten is a school for children from three years old to the age of elementary school enrollment. Its objective is to aid children’s physical and mental growth by giving them a suitable environment.

Kindergartens are established by the national government, local public bodies, school juridical persons, etc. A license is required for establishing a kindergarten in order to ensure the public character of school education as well as maintain and raise the educational level.

・Principle of school management

Article 5 of the School Education Law says that “those who build a school shall manage the school set up”. This passage embodies the principle of requiring the person who builds a school to manage the school thus set up. As a result, national schools are managed by the national government, other public

schools are managed by the local government concerned, and private schools are run by the school corporations.

The organizational structure of education administration and boards of education 29. In Japan, most of schools at the elementary and secondary education levels

are established by local education bodies. (Public schools account for following ratios [as of 2002]: elementary schools 99%, lower secondary schools 93%, upper secondary schools 76%, schools for the blind, for the deaf and for the handicapped 94%, kindergartens 41%). Elementary schools, lower secondary schools and kindergartens are mainly established by the municipalities; and upper secondary schools, schools for the blind, for the deaf and for the handicapped are mainly established by the prefectures. Among these local government authorities, the board of education is the executive body in charge of work related to the establishment, management and abolition of schools. 30. Thus, the executive authorities for school education at the elementary and

lower secondary school level in Japan are the boards of education in prefectures, and municipalities. And, the national government and boards of education of prefectures and municipalities cooperate with each other and fulfill their own responsibilities and roles in educational administration.

31. The National government (the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology), from the standpoint of achieving equal opportunity in education and both maintaining and improving the national level of education, fulfills following roles;

(1) Setting up the basic framework of the school education system and national standards (standards for the establishment of schools, standards for curricula, standards for the teacher certificate, legal standards for class sizes, and staffing levels of teacher and other personnel, etc.)

(2) Financial support measures for local governments (Financial support for the salaries of teachers and other personnel as well as for school construction, free textbooks for schoolchildren, etc.)

educational contents and school management In addition, each prefectural board of education,

(1) appoints teachers and other personnel (including bearing their salaries) for elementary and lower secondary schools established by municipalities and, (2) executes guidance and advice to municipalities on educational contents and school management, and thereby, supports the undertakings of local boards of education by setting up several branch offices and sending staff to them within their own district.

32. In making policy-decisions, the Ministry holds meetings of learned people, such as members of the Central Council for Education and hears their opinions about important matters. The Ministry assembles a wide range of learned people such as educational administration staff from local boards of education, principals, P.T.A. members, academics, and so on. When it receives a report from such a council, the Ministry will use it for reference in policy-making. Philosophy, organization and operation of the boards of education system

33. Boards of Education are executive organization that are established in all prefectures and municipalities. In executing educational administration, boards of education guarantee neutrality from the influence of specific political and religious groups. And, in order to guarantee continuity and stability, boards of education are endowed with the char acter of organizations independent of governors and mayors, who are chosen in elections.

(1) Number of Boards of Education: prefectur al 47, municipal 3,219

Range of administration: matters concerning school education, social education, culture, sports, etc.

(2) Boards of Education comprised of five part-time committee members who in principle are laymen.

(3) Through consultations by these members, basic policies on local educational administration are decided. Receiving these, the superintendent of board of education, who is an expert in educational administration, as directs and supervises the secretariat (formed of the Divisions for School Education, Social

Education, Teacher Training and so on.) and executes daily.

(4) The members are appointed from among persons of noble character who have knowledge about education, academia, and culture by the Governor or Mayor after securing the approval of local assembly. The term of appointment is 4 years.

(5) The members are appointed from a wide range of occupations such as expert professionals who are working as university professors or doctors, and also private company executives, as well as employees in the field of agriculture, forestry and fisheries. The members are mostly in their 50’s and 60’s.

Relations between Boards of Education and public schools

34. Boards of education are responsible for managing established public schools properly. In concrete, the board supports the management of schools through budget distribution, personnel affairs and in-service training, curriculum guidance and teaching, maintenance of school facilities, and so on. Supervisors who are knowledgeable about school education (mainly persons with teaching experience) are posted in the secretariat in boards of education. And they execute expert guidance and advice on curricula and teaching plans to principals and teachers at public schools.

35. However, boards of education don’t manage directly all school affairs matters. Basic management matters are fixed by rules (Boards of education indicate standards for school management and stipulate the contents of matters requiring approval or notification.). And schools are managed under the discretion and responsibility of the school principals with regard to daily and concrete matters in accordance with rules made by the boards of education and legal standards fixed by the national government.

Relations among the principal, head teacher and teachers

36. The School Education Law says that a school shall have a principal, vice principal and an adequate number of teachers. The principal has the ultimate responsibility and powers for managing the school. The principal administers all affairs related to school management and supervises all staff including the and teachers who work at the school. (Regarding the types of teachers at a

school and their jobs, refer to 2.2.1.)

37. The general way to become principal or vice principal is for teachers to pass the examination for promotion to an administrative position having experience working at several schools under regular personnel transfers. The concrete steps for selection and appointment to the principal and vice principal posts are determined by the decision of each prefectural board of education. Basic data about schools

The number of schools (Table 2.1)

38. In FY 2002, there were 23,808 elementary schools, 11,159 lower secondary schools, 5,472 upper secondary schools (not including correspondence course schools, the same applies below), 9 six-year secondary schools, 71 schools for the blind, 106 schools for the deaf, 816 schools for the other disabled children and 14,279 kindergartens. All the numbers except that for six-year secondary schools tended to decrease from the previous year.

Enrollment (Table 2.2)

39. In the FY 2002, the enrollment was 7,239,000 children at elementary schools, 3,863,000 at lower secondary schools, 3,929,000 at upper secondary schools, 3,000 at six-year secondary schools, 4,000 at schools for the blind, 7,000 at schools for the deaf, 84,000 at schools for the other disabled children, and 1,769,000 at kindergartens. The enrollment figure showed a tendency to decline at elementary schools, lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools.

The number of full-time teachers (Table 2.3)

40. In the FY 2002, the number of full-time teachers was 411,000 at elementary schools, 254,000 at lower secondary schools, 262,000 at upper secondary schools, 257 at six-year secondary schools, 3,000 at schools for the blind, 5,000 at schools for the deaf, 51,000 at schools for the other disabled children, and 108,000 at kindergartens.

The mechanism of the national and the local budget for school education

41. In regard to Japanese compulsory education, municipalities are obligated to establish elementary schools and lower secondary schools, and prefectures must establish schools for the blind, schools for the deaf, and schools for the other disabled children.

42. With regard to bearing the expenses for these schools, in principle those who establish a school must cover them except in case especially settled in laws. (Principle of founders’ burden)

43. Other laws that stipulate special rules include the Local Finance Law, which determines the way for the national and local public bodies to share expenses for the execution of administrative affairs between themselves. There is also the National Treasury Share toward Compulsory Education Law, which requires the national government to bear 50% of teachers’ salaries at public schools giving compulsory education.

44. On the basis of these laws, the national government bears a portion of specific expenses to ensure the smooth implementation of compulsory education.

45. There are two modes by which the state bears portion of local public bodies’ expenses. One is in the form of the Treasury’s share, and the other is in subsidy form. In the first case, the national government bears either all or some of the expenses on the basis of expenditure-sharing rules. In the second case, the national government furnishes national subsidies as a bounty or a subsidy to cover all or some part of the expenses that local public bodies expend on promoting specific measures.

46. Aside from these, the Local Allocation Tax System (the system whereby national government collects national taxes for local government use, and allots these financial resources back to the local public bodies according to the financial condition of those local public bodies) ensures resources for local public bodies to cover general expenses that cannot be covered by their tax revenues only.

Teachers’ salary structure and the system of National Treasury Share toward Compulsory Education

47. As an exception to the Fundamental Principle of Founders’ Burden, prefectures bear the salaries of teachers at elementary schools, lower secondary schools (including the lower secondary school portion of six-year integrated secondary schools) and the compulsory education part of special education schools. (The system of having prefectures school staff ’s salaries.) The purpose of this system is to make financially stable prefectures bear the personnel expenses of schools for compulsory education managed by a municipality, which are a heavy burden on the local public finances. This thereby ensures a certain level of education that is unaffected by the different financial capacities of municipalities.

48. Moreover, out of the personnel expenses of schools borne by the prefectures, 50% of a fixed amount is to be shared by the national government under the law.

49. Under this system, the national government maintains and improves the level of compulsory education throughout the country by guaranteeing 50% of the cost of the national minimum.

50. The power to appoint and dismiss teachers at schools belongs to the board of education of the prefecture concerned, all to ensure that exchanges of personnel transcending the borders between municipalities.

51. In addition, concerning teachers’ salaries, it is required under law to take the necessary steps to pay better salaries rather to teachers than to general public servants in order to guarantee excellent human resources for compulsory education. (A special measures law to secure teachers for compulsory education in order to maintain and improve the quality of school education.)

Systems relating to staffing levels of teacher and other personnel

52. Regarding the number of teachers and other personnel posted at public schools for compulsory education, the standard number of teacher and other personnel in total is determined, prefecture by prefecture, by a certain method

of calculation under the law concerning the standards for class organization and the number of teachers and other personnel at public schools for compulsory education.

53. The afore-mentioned system of the National Treasury bearing part of the teachers’ salaries is applicable until the number of teachers reaches the standard number. As a result, all prefectures station the standard number of teachers or even more at schools.

54. Under these teachers’ salary structure and the system of the National Treasury share toward the teachers’ salaries, all public schools throughout Japan can secure a sufficient number of teachers, and there is no imbalance among prefectures in the number of teachers per school and the level of their salaries. Thus, equal opportunity in education is guaranteed and the level of education is being maintained and improved throughout country.

Systems relating to the status of teachers

55. In Japan, teachers in national schools are national public servants, and teachers in local public schools are local public servants. Therefore, with regard to the treatment of these teachers, the National Government Officials Act is applicable to teachers in national schools and the Local Government Officials Act applies to teachers in local public schools. On the other hand, teachers in private schools are private citizens (employees under an employment contract based on private law.). Laws concerning other workers, including the Labor Standards Law, applies to them just like to employees of private companies. 56. However, basically concerning the status and treatment of teachers in

national schools and local public schools, several exceptions are provided under the Law for Special Regulations Concerning Educational Personnel, which is a special law against the Government Officials Act and the Local Government Officials Act.

57. An outline of the status and treatment of teachers in national schools and local public schools based on the Government Officials Act, the Local Government Officials Act and the Law for Special Regulations Concerning Educational Personnel is as follows:

･The person with appointive power

58. Under the public service personnel system in Japan, the person with appointive power has the authority to hire, promote, demote, transfer, suspend, and dismiss public servants and also determine their salaries.

59. The person with appointive power for teachers in national schools is the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Scienc e and Technology. The person with appointive power for teachers in local public schools is the head of board of education in the local public body to which the school belongs.

60. However, salaries for teachers of public elementary schools, lower secondary schools, the first half of six-year secondary schools, schools for the blind, schools for the deaf, and schools for the other disabled children are paid by the prefectures concerned. And power to appoint them belongs in principle to the prefectural board of education. The prefectural board of education exercises its power to appoint teachers after receiving recommendations from the board of education of the municipality concerned.

･Selective procedure for hiring and promotion

61. The hiring and promotion of teachers at national schools and local public schools are based on the results of screening. The screening is conducted by the president of the university or college in the case of a school attached to a university or college; by the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in the case of national schools not attached to universities or colleges; and by the superintendent of the board of education in the case of local public schools not attached to universities or colleges.

The period of probation

62. In Japan as a rule, all public servants are hired conditionally. Later they are formally hired if they perform their jobs satisfactorily during the period of probation.

63. As a rule, the period of probation for general public servants is six months. However, the period of probation is one year for the teachers in national schools and local public schools (not including principals and vice principals).

･ The guarantee of status

64. The status of national public servants and local public servants including the teachers in national schools and local public schools is guaranteed under the Government Officials Act in the case of the former and the Local Government Officials Act in the case of the latter. The law provides cases for treatments limiting authority (demotion, dismissal, suspension), and disciplinary measures (dismissal, suspension, pay-cut, warning). In cases other than the above, treatments to limit authority and disciplinary measures may not be against the will of the person concerned.

Efficiency ratings

65. In Japan, the performance of each public servant must be evaluated at regular intervals, and steps based on the results of the rating must be taken into account. The efficiency rating for teachers in national schools is conducted by the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, who supervises such schools. The efficiency rating for teachers in local public schools is carried out by the board of education, which has the authority to appoint teachers at such schools. The efficiency rating for teachers whose salaries are covered by the prefectural board of education is conducted by the board of education of the municipality concerned under the prefectural board of education’s plan.

･ Salaries

66. The salaries of teachers in national schools, like the salaries of general national public servants, are determined under the law concerning the salaries of regular government officials. Meanwhile, the salaries of teachers in local public schools, just like the salaries of other local public servants, are determined under the regulations of the local public body concerned. The classifications and amounts of their salaries are determined with the types and amounts of salaries of teachers in national schools taken as the standard.

2.2. Personnel concerned with school education

Teachers and other personnel

67. Article 7 of the School Education Law says that “a school shall have a principal and ad equate number of teachers”, regardless of whether it is a

national school or a local public school or a private school. The law states that the principal and teachers are indispensable to schools. At the same time, the law defines the types and jobs of teachers and other personnel, to be appointed at each school. In addition, it is possible for each school to appoint persons other than the following, when necessary:

･ The principal

68. A school must have a principal. It is stipulated that the principal manages school affairs and supervises the school’s staff. In other words, the principal manages all clerical affairs necessary for the management of the school and serves as a superior to all the staff who works at the school.

･ The vice principal

69. A school must have a vice principal. However elementary schools or a lower secondary schools with special circumstances, such as being small in scale, aren’t required to have a vice principal. The vice principal assists the principal with the handling of school affairs and, when necessary, teaches the children. In the event of an accident to the principal, the vice principal performs the principal’s duties as acting principal. When the post of the principal is vacant, the vice principal performs the principal’s duties.

･ Teachers

70. A school must have teachers. Teachers shall be in charge of teaching schoolchildren. The posts filled by teachers include chief teacher (senior teacher) of some subject. They are supervised by the principal and are in charge of coordinating, guiding and advising in regard to the affairs under their care. ･ Assistant teachers

71. Assistant teachers shall assist teachers in the performance of their duties. When there are special circumstances, assistant teachers can be appointed as alternatives to teachers.

･ Lecturers

72. Lecturers shall engage in duties similar to those of teachers or assistant teachers. When there are special circumstances, lecturers can be appointed as alternatives to teachers.

･ Nurse-teachers

73. Elementary schools, lower secondary schools, six-year secondary schools, schools for the blind, schools for the deaf, and schools for the other disabled children must have a nurse-teacher provided. However, elementary schools, lower secondary schools and six-year secondary schools may dispense with nurse-teachers for a certain period of time if there are special reasons such as a small scale. A nurse-teacher shall be in charge of nursing of children.

･ Assistant nurse-teachers

74. Assistant nurse-teachers shall assist nurse-teachers. In special circumstances, assistant nurse-teachers can be appointed as an alternative to nurse-teachers.

･ Clerical personnel

75. Schools must have clerical staff provided. However, elementary schools, lower secondary schools and six-year secondary schools may dispense with clerical staff if there are special reasons as a smallness of scale. Clerical personnel are to engage in clerical affairs.

･ School nutritionists

76. The school lunch program is implemented as a part of school education. Efforts for its smooth implementation are made through active participation by the entire staff of a school, with school nutritionists taking the lead. The school nutritionist is an employee in charge of specialized matters relating to the nutrition of school lunches.

･ Dormitory supervisors

77. Except when there are special circumstances, schools for the blind, schools for the deaf and schools for the other disabled children are required to have a dormitory. A school that has a dormitory must appoint a dormitory supervisor. The dormitory supervisor’s job is to take care of the school children, including very little children, and extend guidance to them in their daily life.

･ An assistant for practice

six-year secondary schools can hire. The job of an assistant for practice is to help a teacher with experiments and practice.

･ Technical employees

79. A technical employee is a person whom upper secondary schools, six-year secondary schools, schools for the blind and schools for the deaf can hire. The technical employee’s job is to maintain machine ry and apparatuses in good condition or take care of livestock mainly for vocational education courses. External human resources who back up school education

80. Aside from teachers and other personnel who constitute the organization known as a school, there are organizations and human resources who support school activities in the local community to which the school belongs. For example, almost all schools have a parent-teacher association (PTA), which supports school activities.

81. For the purpose of strengthening educational counseling, some schools appoint clinical psychiatrists as school counselors to respond to the mental anxieties of children and their parents. This endeavor has been showing effect in preventing and resolving children’s problem behavior and giving useful advice to parents and teachers about how to make contact with children. The national government extends financial assistance to schools to support this endeavor. (In the FY 2002, the number came to 5,500 schools.)

82. From the standpoint of improving the substance of lessons at school, outside human resources have come to be actively invited to educational activities in recent years. In the FY 2002, elementary schools and lower secondary schools began to use “the new Courses of Study” and, as part of this endeavor, introduced “Period for Integrated Study.” In classrooms aiming to encourage children to learn and think by themselves, outside human resources are being actively invited to raise the effects of education. There are also systems to utilize the services of outstanding working people in school education, such as a special certificate system and a special part-time teacher system, all aimed at systematically supporting such endeavors.

principals to hear opinions and suggestions on school management by asking local residents and parents. Utilizing this system, a school can obtain the opinions of parents and local residents concerning school management. One concrete example is, when a school compiles a curriculum based on school advisors’ opinions, it end up taking up a subject closely related to the local community. School advisors also serve as pipelines between the school and the members of the local community and obtain cooperation of volunteers for school events, etc. The school advisors can be posted in each school based on the school’s founders’ discretion, and this includes boards of education. The number of schools that have school advisors was tending to increase, as of August 2002, about 47% of public elementary schools, lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools and kindergartens had school advisors.

Teachers’ Organizations

84. Article 28 of the Japanese Constitution guarantees fundamental rights to workers, including the right to organize. Concrete examples of this right include organizations like a labor union based on the Labor Union Law in relation to employers and employees in the private sector, and an organization of personnel based on the Government Officials Act or the Local Government Officials Act in the case of teachers at public schools in Japan.

85. An organization of personnel is a group or a federation of bodies organized for the purpose of maintaining and improving working conditions. Its main role is to hold negotiations with the authorities (the employer) over employees’ salaries, working hours, and other working conditions and additionally with matters concerning to legal activities, including social or welfare-related activities.

86. There are about 1,050,000 teachers in public schools in Japan. As of October 1, 2002, there were five organizations composed of teachers at public schools. They were the Japan Teachers Union (Nikkyoso), the All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union (Zenkyo), the Japan Senior High School Teachers Union (Nikkokyo-Uha), the National Teachers Federation of Japan (Zennikkyoren) and the Japan Educational Administrators Association (Zenkankyo). Outlines of them are as follows:

･ The Japan Teachers Union, a group with about 327,000 members