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Chapter 2

Table of Contents

Page 25

Chapter 2

Construction Procedures

2.1 Clearing 26 Bush Clearing 26 Boulder Removal 26 Topsoil Removal 27 Reporting 27 2.2 Earthworks 28 Cut to Level 28

The Fill Side 34

Camber and Side Drain Construction 35

Super-elevation 36

Reporting 37

2.3 Embankment Construction 38

Earthwork Volume Calculations 38

Site Level Planning and Work Force Organisation 42

2.4 Ditching, Sloping and Camber Formation 44

2.5 Off-road Drainage 48

Mitre Drains 48

Angle of Mitre Drains 50

Scour Checks 51

Cut-off Drains 52

2.6 Compaction 53

Optimal Moisture Content 53

Compaction Methods 53 Quality Standards 55 Compaction Procedure 55 2.7 Culverts 56 2.8 Drifts 59 2.9 Gravelling 63 Standards 63 Gravel Source 63 Gravel Quality 64 Water 64 Work Plan 65 Work Procedure 65 Control of Works 67 Reporting 67 2.10 Erosion Protection 68

Clearing

Page 26

Chapter 2

Construction Procedures

2

Construction Procedures

2.1

Clearing

Bush Clearing

eavy bush clearing involves cutting down and removing trees, the clearing of dense bush and scrub and the digging up and removing root systems to prevent regrowth.

Heavy bush clearing and the unnecessary cutting down of trees should be avoided wherever possible by careful selection of the centre line.

Work should be organised on a task work basis, allocating work by the area or by specific job task (such as the removal of one or two large trees), depending on the type and difficulty of the work.

Before felling a tree, make sure it is absolutely necessary to cut it down. Maybe, it is possible to adjust the alignment so that the tree felling can be avoided. If a tree needs to be cut, use experienced workers and keep everyone else well away. After felling, cut the tree in pieces and remove them from the road side. Once the tree is cut, dig up and remove the roots. Holes after root extraction needs to be filled and compacted properly using hand rammers.

Heavy grass cover should be cleared. Light grass cover can be incorporated in the construction earthworks without too much of a problem, and afterwards regrows, forming protection against erosion on the shoulders. Heavy grass tufts can be used to line side slopes in cross cut conditions or on embankments, and should be separated from the soil to be used for road construction.

This work is carried out by task work per area, and the area set will depend on the difficulty of the work.

Boulder Removal

Boulder removal can involve hand carrying small boulders, rolling clear, breaking or digging and burying large boulders. This work is often time consuming and expensive and should be avoided if possible when selecting the alignment. Where there is excessive boulders in the soil, which creates problems for drain excavation, the possibility of lifting the road levels should be considered.

Clearing

Page 27

Task work on a group or specific job basis should be used to organise the labour force.

Topsoil Removal

Topsoil removal is usually only needed where the topsoil is deep (10-15cm), very organic and obviously much lower in strength than the soil below. Unnecessary topsoil removal has very little effect on the strength of the road. Topsoil removal is most likely to be needed in river valleys and flood areas that build up silt. Most agricultural land and open areas are eroded, with a very thin topsoil layer which can be mixed in with the earthworks for the road construction.

Topsoil removal is executed using task work on an area basis, the area being determined by the thickness of the topsoil.

Reporting

Clearing works can be reported under a single cover-all activity, or by individual activities covering heavy bush, heavy grass cover, boulders and topsoil removal. The project management will decide on the reporting procedures depending on the scale of the clearing works. Unless there is extensive work expected under the individual activities, there is little advantage to be gained from over-detailed reporting. Usually, a cover-all clearing activity will give sufficient management control.

Earthworks

Page 28

Chapter 2

Construction Procedures

2.2

Earthworks

asically, road construction earthworks involves digging drains and using the material to build up the camber, excavating cut to fill to form the road and building up the road on embankments in flat areas with poor drainage. Let us first consider the situation where the road is built on land that is level, or nearly level, between drains - that is, with very little cross slope.

The earthworks is then simply to excavate the side drains and use this material to form the camber. You will see that the material from the side drains is slightly more than what is needed to form the camber. This is good, as usually more material is needed than indicated, either because of low spots in the ground or because of unsuitable soil or because the land is never consistently level.

Cut to Level

The problems start when the road is built on cross sloping ground. The steeper the cross slope, the more excavation is needed to build the road. Always avoid steep cross slopes where possible. Locate the road on ridges where possible - this will reduce earthworks as well as reducing drainage works.

Earthworks

Page 29

• the high side drain will have to be dug deep,

• the low side drain is normally not needed, and

• the road will have to be built on a fill on the low side. The best way to do this is to split the work into two separate stages.

Stage 1 Excavate the high side and build up the low side and form the side slope on the low side.

Stage 2 Excavate the high side drain and form the camber.

The advantages of this method of working in stages are:

• the excavation approximately balances the amount of fill needed,

• the fill material can be obtained as close as possible to where it is needed -reducing the need for longitudinal haulage,

• by levelling the formation only as far as the edge of the road and then sloping down to the natural ground, reduce the excavation and, in most cases avoid the need for a side drain on the low side.

The excavation and fill are balanced each side of the centre line, but the width of the excavation has to give sufficient room for the side drain to be dug. This fixes the setting out dimensions for excavation on the high side.

Earthworks

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Chapter 2

Construction Procedures

As indicated in the figure above, it is necessary to level to 4.25m back from the centre line to provide enough room to dig and back slope the side drain. The width of the back slope to the excavation should be sufficient to achieve a slope of 1:1, similar to the back slope of the side drain.

On steeper cross slopes, there is too much excavation for a practically sized gang to finish in one day. In these cases, the excavation is divided into two or three days work. By calculating the volumes involved, we know that the following setting out dimensions will give roughly equal amounts of work for the days involved.

When the centre line profiles are set out at 1m above ground level, we can measure the height of the high side profile to tell us:

! how steep the slope is,

! how deep we will have to dig, and ! the volume we will have to dig.

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We can calculate the volumes to be excavated for the most common profile heights to be found in practice. These volumes can be given to the supervisor in table form and can be used to work out the workdays needed to carry out the excavation and are used to report the volume of completed works.

When there is little cross slope (the average height of the high side profile is 90 or 95cm), it is possible to dig the high side drain without levelling first. However, there are advantages in levelling in these conditions. Setting out the side drain is easier on a levelled surface and the side drain easier to build to the correct shape. The supervisor will usually level these minor cross slopes.

The setting out in these cases will be different as there is no advantage in levelling right through to the centre line. The levelling will be done from 2.75m to 4.25m, measured out from the centre line.

Please note that the above levelling practice only applies for new construction. When rehabilitating an existing road, levelling works should be kept to a minimum, leaving the existing road camber in place and only adding onto it where it has been worn down.

The slope of ground is not the same along the length of the road. To set out the work we have to find the average slope over a 20m section.

Earthworks

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Chapter 2

Construction Procedures

If the height of one high side profile is 43cm and the next high side profile is 59cm then the average profile height is:

To make calculations easier, we measure the heights to the nearest 10cm. Then, we calculate the average as follows:

Rounding off profile heights to the nearest 10cm is sensible because the ground is uneven, and over a number of calculations any slight difference are cancelled out and we get an accurate estimate of the work involved.

Once the average of the high side profiles is calculated, the volume of excavation needed can be estimated. In this example, we can read the volume against the 50cm average in the table, in this case 24.1m3.

EXCAVATION VOLUMES FOR 20m Volumes [m3_] Variation of Width1 Profile Height, H [cm] Depth of Cut, X [cm] Back Slope B

[cm] Cut to_{Level Slope}Back Total _{- 1.0m +1.0m}

90 10 10 4.3 0.1 4.4 3.4 5.4 85 15 16 6.4 0.2 6.6 5.1 8.1 80 20 21 8.5 0.4 8.9 6.9 10.9 75 25 27 10.6 0.7 11.3 8.8 13.8 70 30 32 12.8 0.9 13.7 10.7 16.7 65 35 38 14.9 1.3 16.2 12.7 19.7 60 40 44 17.0 1.8 18.8 14.8 22.7 55 45 50 19.1 2.3 21.4 17.0 25.8 50 50 57 21.3 2.8 24.1 19.2 29.0 45 55 63 23.4 3.5 26.9 21.5 32.3 40 60 70 25.5 4.2 29.7 23.9 35.6 35 65 77 27.6 5.0 32.6 26.4 38.9 30 70 84 29.8 5.8 35.6 29.0 42.4 25 75 91 31.9 6.8 38.7 31.7 45.9 20 80 99 34.0 7.9 41.9 34.5 49.6 15 85 106 36.1 9.1 45.2 37.4 53.2 10 90 114 38.3 10.2 48.5 40.5 57.0 5 95 122 40.4 11.6 52.0 43.6 60.9 0 100 131 42.5 13.1 55.6 46.9 64.9

Notes: 1 including volume of back slope

2 The table above only applies for situations where the two centre profile heights are 1m above the existing terrain. For other situations where this is not the case, the volumes need to be calculated manually.

50cm = 2 40 + 60 51cm = 2 43 + 59

Earthworks

Page 33

We can calculate the number of workdays needed by dividing by the task rate that has been found to be fair. In this example, if the task rate is 2m3 per day, then the

workdays required can be estimated as:

The supervisor will then decide how to organise the work. 12 labourers working on a 20m section may not be practical. He may decide to do the work over 2 or 3 days. If the work is done in 2 days, he would assign 6 labourers each day - this would make sure the work is done at nearly the standard production rate. He/she would round the workday totals down to the nearest whole number.

The excavation width for the first day is then set out. The widths of excavation are calculated so that the work involved is roughly the same each day. The width for the first days work will be 2.85m measured from the centre line. The remaining 1.4m will be excavated on the second day. In this way, the same number of labourers are used each day to excavate the task length of 20m.

Once the excavation back to 4.25m has been completed, the supervisor has to decide whether it is necessary to extend the excavation back further to produce more material to form the fill and road camber.

If extra material is needed, he will set out a further width of 0.5 or 1.0m according to the amount of material needed. The volume table gives total volumes for extra

excavation widths. The volume of excavation of the extra width is found by taking the volume for the standard width from the total extended volume. In this example, for an extra width of 0.5m it would be 26.5m3 - 24.1m3 = 2.4m3. From this, the supervisor would work out that he needs approximately one workday extra to do the work. Once the excavation is finished, the levelled work is back sloped. The volume of the back sloping is included in the excavation totals to avoid difficult calculations on site by the supervisor when reporting completed works, but he also needs to assign labourers specifically for this task. The above table also shows the volume for the back slope. In the above mentioned example, the volume of the back slope is 2.8m3 for which he would need to assign 1 labourer per 20m.

If the depth of excavation is 25cm or less, it is easier to include the back sloping in the drain back slope.

workdays 12

= 2 24.1

Earthworks

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Chapter 2

Construction Procedures

To ensure that the cut is fully excavated, use a traveller to control that the excavated ground is level.

The Fill Side

It is also necessary to form the low side slope and level the formation. The number of labourers used to do this work can be estimated as roughly half the number of

labourers doing the excavation. The actual number used will depend on the carrying distance. If the work is simply levelling across the road then 3 labourers would be used. If the fill material needs to be carried from another 20m section, he would choose 4, or even 5, workers for the filling works.

If the depth of the fill on the low side road shoulder is greater than 0.3m, there is no need for any side drain on the low side of the road. Make sure that the slope of the fill has a slope of 1:2 as shown in the figure below.

Earthworks

Page 35

In order to produce a good quality fill on the low side, it is important that all soils are properly compacted. The fill is therefore built up in layers of 15cm which is properly compacted before a new layer is added. Also, make sure that the soils have the optimal moisture content when compacted. Compaction of the first layer may be necessary to do by using hand rammers.

Camber and Side Drain Construction

Once the excavation and fill have been completed, the road camber is constructed using soils from the side drains and back slope. Excavated soils from the drains should first be thrown to the centre of the road, from where it is levelled out towards each road shoulder to form the camber.

Side drain excavation is done in two stages. First the ditch is excavated, then the side slopes of the ditch is excavated. Normally, one or two days are allowed between each stage to allow sufficient working space for the workers. The side drain excavation is set out using string line and pegs, and controlled by using ditch templates.