43 Journal of Sport Management, 2005, 19, 43-57
© 2005 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.
Anticipated Career Satisfaction,
Affective Occupational Commitment,
and Intentions to Enter the Sport
Management Profession
George B. Cunningham and Michael Sagas Texas A&M University
Marlene Dixon
University of Texas at Austin Aubrey Kent
Florida State University Brian A. Turner The Ohio State University
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of internships on stu-dents’ career-related affect and intentions. Data were gathered from 138 upper-level undergraduate sport management students (71 interns, 67 noninterns). A doubly multivariate repeated measures model indicated that, although they did not differ at the beginning of the internship, interns had less positive atti-tudes toward the profession than did noninterns at the end of the internship. Structural equation modeling indicated that affective occupational commit-ment fully mediated the relationship between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the profession. The results contribute to the extant lit-erature by demonstrating that internships can influence career-related affect and intentions.
Research related to internships has suggested that three parties—the univer-sity, the organization, and the student—all accrue benefits (Verner, Keyser, & Morrow, 2001). Internships allow the university or sport management program to gain exposure to developments in the “real world,” cultivate contacts within the
Cunningham and Sagas are with Texas A&M University, Department of Health and Kinesiology, College Station, TX 77843-4243; Dixon is with the University of Texas at Austin, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, Austin, TX 78712; Kent is with Florida State University, Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management & Physical Education, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4280; Turner is with The Ohio State University, Sport & Exercise Management Program, Columbus, OH 43210.
industry, and improve teaching methods and curriculum by remaining cognizant of industry developments (see Verner et al.). For the organization, interns can be seen as potential future employees (Pianko, 1996; Watson, 1995), and internships provide organizations with a presence on college and university campuses during otherwise dormant periods, such as periods of economic downturns and other times of limited hiring (Gault, Redington, & Schlager, 2000). Finally, students are a part of the experiential learning process seen as critical to their ultimate career success (Cuneen & Sidwell, 1994; Mintzberg & Lampel, 2001; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002); are able to merge sport management theory with practical experience (Cuneen & Sidwell; Sutton, 1989); and are likely to accrue greater self-efficacy (Ladany, Ellis, & Friedlander, 1999) and self-crystallization (Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995). Gault et al. found that professionals who took part in an internship as an undergraduate had greater career success (e.g., salary, job satisfaction) than did professionals who did not participate in an internship.
As this literature suggests, many academics have pointed to the positive na-ture of the internship process. There are also, however, possible negative effects. For example, Verner and her colleagues (2001) noted several benefits of the in-ternship to the sponsoring organization, including a viable labor pool of inexpen-sive labor and a labor source that can perform simple tasks while allowing profes-sionals to focus on higher-order tasks. Indeed, the organization is likely to benefit from such an arrangement, but at what price to the intern? That is, if interns are viewed as a cheap and exploitable source of labor and are required to perform simple tasks such as answering phones or stuffing envelopes, then the value of the internship (pedagogically, affectively, and professionally) should be questioned (also see Leland, 2003). Indeed, if interns are subjected to negative internship experiences, then it is possible that their attitudes toward the profession might also be diminished. Thus, whereas there is considerable literature pointing to the posi-tive attributes of internships (see Cuneen & Sidwell, 1994; Gault et al., 2000; Verner et al.), a critical look at the process reveals that internships might have a damaging impact on the interns who complete them.
Given this perspective, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of internships on the interns completing them. Specifically, we examined (a) the effects of the internship on the interns’ anticipated career satisfaction, occupa-tional commitment, and intentions to enter the sport management profession and (b) the relationships among the three aforementioned concepts.1 Such an analysis represents a contribution to the understanding of internships because few studies (see Gault et al., 2000, for an exception) have examined the impact of internships on the career-related concepts of students, especially in the sport industry. The conceptual framework and study hypotheses are presented in the following sections.
Conceptual Framework
The internship is likely to impact career-related affect and intentions for persons completing them. Consider, for example, that the internship is the last field experience and final professional preparation for students before they decide
whether or not to enter the sport management profession (Cuneen & Sidwell, 1994; Sutton, 1989; Verner et al., 2001). Given this proximity, any positive or negative experiences during an internship can possibly have an impact on the interns’ sub-sequent career-related affect and behaviors. Such reasoning is consistent with Lee, Carswell, and Allen’s (2000) meta-analytic findings that organizational work ex-periences (in this case, the internship) influence occupation-related affect and be-havior. Thus, experiences during an internship are likely to influence interns’ ex-pectations of a potential career in the sport management profession.
Three concepts, principally, are relevant to the discussion of the effect of internships on subsequent career-related affect and behavior—anticipated career satisfaction, occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the sport manage-ment profession. Consistent with previous definitions of satisfaction (Chelladurai & Ogasawara, 2003; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998), anticipated career satisfaction is defined herein as an anticipated affective state resulting from positive experi-ences and processes associated with the sport management profession. Further, in following Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990), anticipated career satis-faction includes the satissatis-faction persons anticipate deriving from the sport man-agement profession with respect to (a) the success they will achieve, (b) the progress they will make toward achieving career goals, (c) the income they will earn, (d) the advancement opportunities they will have, and (e) the opportunities they will have to develop new skills. There is empirical evidence that career satisfaction is influenced by organizational factors, such as positive job characteristics (Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1994), organizational fairness (Herriot, Gibbons, Pemberton, & Jackson, 1994), supervisor support (Aryee et al.; Jiang & Klein, 1999-2000), and the utility of the present job (Aryee et al.). In a similar way, it is possible that the experiences students have during an internship will also influence their antici-pated career satisfaction.
Occupational commitment, the second concept possibly related to one’s in-ternship experience, is defined as “the psychological link between a person and his or her occupation that is based on an affective reaction to that occupation” (Lee et al., 2000, p. 800). Lee et al. also note that persons with a strong commitment to their occupation will strongly identify with and experience positive emotions to-ward that occupation. As with career satisfaction, there is also evidence that orga-nizational structures, processes, and experiences can influence one’s commitment to the occupation. Specifically, Lee et al.’s meta-analysis indicates that job in-volvement, role stress, support from coworkers and supervisors, and autonomy are all at least moderately associated with occupational commitment. Skill develop-ment and expected job utility are also related to occupational commitdevelop-ment (Aryee et al., 1994). These findings are pertinent to the current discussion of interns be-cause it is likely that students’ experiences during their internships will influence their commitment not only to the specific internship sites (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002) but also to the sport management profession as a whole (Aryee et al.; Lee et al.).
Intention to enter the sport management profession, defined herein as one’s plan to enter the sport industry and make a career as a sport manager, represents
the final concept possibly influenced by a student’s internship experiences. Con-sidering career intentions is important given the theoretical and empirical linkage between intentions and behaviors. For instance, the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) both posit that intentions are the most proximal antecedent of actual behavior, such that if one intends to perform a behavior, he or she is likely to do so. Meta-analytic find-ings (Albarracin, Johnson, Fishbein, & Muellerleile, 2001; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002) support this position. It is also reasonable to expect, given that the literature outlined above demonstrates the linkage between positive work experi-ences and career affect (e.g., Lee et al., 2000), that experiexperi-ences at work can influ-ence intentions and behaviors directed toward the occupation. Therefore, in this discussion of interns, a significant association between positive experiences dur-ing the internship and intentions to enter the sport management profession would be expected.
Hypotheses
Thus far we have discussed three concepts—anticipated career satisfaction, occupational commitment, and intention to enter the sport management profession— thought to be influenced by a student’s internship experiences. It was previously argued that, whereas the internship provides students with several benefits (Brooks et al., 1995; Cuneen & Sidwell, 1994; Mintzberg & Lampel, 2001; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002; Sutton, 1989), several negative outcomes of the internship process are also possible. From this perspective, sport management internships might lack peda-gogical value, exploit students as a source of cheap labor, and be detrimental to the overall professional development of the students completing them. Leland (2003) has expressed similar concerns. Further, if internships provide negative experi-ences, then it is possible that participating students’ affect and behaviors toward the sport management profession as a whole will also be negative. Because expe-riences during internships provide students with expectations about work as a sport manager, poor internship experiences are thought to relate to pessimistic affect toward a career as a sport manager. Therefore, it is expected that students who have completed their internships will have lower anticipated career satisfaction, lower occupational commitment, and fewer intentions to enter the sport manage-ment profession relative to those yet to complete their internships. In order to examine these relationships, we formulated the first three of our four hypotheses. H1. Students who have completed their internship will have lower anticipated career satisfaction than will students who have yet to complete their intern-ship.
H2. Students who have completed their internship will have lower occupational commitment than will students who have yet to complete their internship. H3. Students who have completed their internship will have fewer intentions to
enter the sport management profession than will students who have yet to complete their internship.
Anticipated career satisfaction, occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the profession have been discussed as mutually exclusive concepts thought to be influenced by the internship process; the three concepts, however, are likely related to one another. Breaugh’s (1983) self-section hypothesis suggests that per-sons who do not perceive a job as meeting their needs will generally not be in-clined to accept or pursue the job (see also Suszko & Breaugh, 1986). This ratio-nale can also be applied to the current discussion of sport management students. Specifically, if students do not foresee the sport management profession as meet-ing their needs (i.e., they anticipate low career satisfaction), then the likelihood that these students will pursue and enter a career in the profession will also be low. A positive association between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the sport management profession is expected.
It is also possible that the aforementioned positive correlation between an-ticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the sport management profes-sion is mediated by occupational commitment. That is, if students anticipate satis-faction as a sport manager with respect to the success they will achieve, progress they will make toward career goals, income they will earn, opportunities for ad-vancement, and opportunities for skill development (c.f. Greenhaus et al., 1990), then it is likely they will also form an affective attachment to that profession. Previous research supports the linkage between satisfaction and affective commit-ment (Aryee et al., 1994; Lee et al., 2000; Meyer et al., 2002).
Further, as a result of this commitment to the sport management profession, individuals should be more likely to enter the profession. This reasoning is consis-tent with previous theories (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and empirical research (Albarracin et al., 2001; Hagger et al., 2002) suggesting that positive attitudes toward an activity or behavior will result in intentions to perform that behavior. Indeed, if a person strongly identifies with and has an emotional attach-ment to a profession, it is likely that he or she will make efforts to and will actually join that profession. Given this rationale, it is expected that anticipated career sat-isfaction will lead to affective occupational commitment, which will, in turn, re-sult in intentions to enter the profession. This rere-sulted in the formulation of the fourth hypothesis:
H4. Occupational commitment will mediate the positive relationship between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the profession.
Method
Participants
Participants for the study were 138 upper-level undergraduate sport man-agement students from four universities (71 interns and 67 students yet to com-plete their internship, or noninterns). The entire sample comprised 55.8% males, 91.3% whites, and the mean age was 21.83 years (SD = 1.73). The interns in the sample were mostly female (53.5%) and white (91.5%) with a mean age of 22.59 years (SD = 1.54). Their previous experience in the sport industry ranged from 0 to
8 years (M = 1.24, SD = 1.65). The noninterns represented upper-level under-graduates currently enrolled in sport management classes. They were mostly male (65.7%) and white (91%) with a mean age of 21.03 years (SD = 1.55). The noninterns’ previous experience in the sport industry ranged from 0 to 6 years (M = 0.98, SD = 1.48).
Measures
All participants completed a questionnaire that requested them to provide their age, race, sex, and previous work experience and to respond to items related to their anticipated career satisfaction, occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the sport management profession. All items were measured using a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Anticipated career satisfaction. Anticipated career satisfaction was mea-sured with five items adapted from the career satisfaction questionnaire developed by Greenhaus et al. (1990). Whereas Greenhaus and associates measured current career satisfaction, items on the questionnaire we used were adapted to measure anticipated career satisfaction. For example, one item from the original scale read, “I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career.” We adapted this item to read, “I am satisfied with the success I will likely achieve in my career as a sport manager.” All items were adapted in a similar fashion. The measure had high reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) for both Time 1 (α = .88 for interns,
α = .89 for noninterns) and Time 2 (α = .90 for interns, α = .91 for noninterns) of the data collection process.
Affective occupational commitment. Three items from Meyer, Allen, and Smith’s (1993) scale were used to measure affective occupational commitment. Previous research has demonstrated the efficacy of using a 3-item measure (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Iverson, & Buttigieg, 1999). A sample item is “I dislike being in the sport management profession” (reverse coded). Reliabil-ity estimates were high during Time 1 (α = .78 for interns, α = .77 for noninterns) and Time 2 (α = .92 for interns, α = .83 for noninterns) of the data collection process.
Intentions to enter the profession. We developed three items to measure intentions to enter the sport management profession: “Following graduation, I plan to enter the sport management profession,” “I plan on making a career as a sport manager,” and “It is unlikely that I will take a position as a sport manager follow-ing graduation” (reverse coded). The measure had high reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) for both Time 1 (α = .92 for interns, α = .81 for noninterns) and Time 2 (α = .91 for interns, α = .81 for noninterns).
Procedure
Data were collected from students enrolled in sport management programs at four universities. Participation was voluntary and all participants consented to participate. During the first week of the internship, a faculty member at each uni-versity collected data both from the students completing their internships that
semester and from a group of students who had yet to complete their internships. This represented Time 1 of the data collection process. At the end of the internship, the faculty member then distributed the same questionnaire to all persons (both interns and students yet to complete their internships) who had completed the ques-tionnaire during Time 1 of the data collection process. This represented Time 2 of the data collection process. Thus, data were collected twice from students completing their internships (i.e., the experimental group) and a separate group of students who had yet to complete their internships (i.e., the comparison group).
Data Analysis
Preliminary analyses were conducted to check for variables (i.e., university attended, semester of data collection, participant age, sex, and race) that could possibly confound the results (see Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Results indicated no differences among the groups for anticipated career satisfaction, occupational com-mitment, or intentions to enter the sport management profession; therefore, the variables were not used as controls. Hypotheses 1–3 predicted that interns, relative to students who had yet to complete their internships, would have less satisfaction, less commitment, and fewer intentions to enter the sport management profession. These hypotheses were tested using a doubly multivariate repeated measures model. Because the dependent variables are conceptually and statistically related to one another, a multivariate design was justified. We followed up a significant multi-variate effect with unimulti-variate repeated measures analyses (see Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). The a priori alpha for the tests was set at .05.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that occupational commitment would mediate the relationship between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the sport management profession. This hypothesis was tested through structural equation modeling (SEM) using LISREL 8.52 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 2002). In testing the hypothesis, we followed Kelloway (1998) and compared competing models. More specifically, we tested a fully mediated model (in which the effects of anticipated career satisfaction on intentions to enter the sport management profession are seen only through occupational commitment) and a partially mediated model (in which the effects of anticipated career satisfaction on intentions to enter the sport man-agement profession are seen both independently and through occupational com-mitment). Because the models are nested, we used the chi-square difference test to statistically compare which model provided a better fit to the data (see Kelloway). Finally, in following Kelloway, we reported absolute (standardized root mean square residual; SRMSR), comparative (comparative fit index; CFI), and parsimonious (parsimonious normed fit index; PNFI) fit indexes. According to Hu and Bentler (1999), CFI values of .95 or higher, PNFI values over .60, and SRMSR values less than .08 are representative of a close fit to the data. Because the hypothesis was concerned with the data collected after the internship, these analyses (i.e., the SEM) were run with data collected after the internship (i.e., Time 2) using data from interns and noninterns.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations are presented in Table 1. There are several points worth noting here. First, anticipated career satisfaction, affective occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the profession are sig-nificantly and positively correlated with one another at both times of measure-ment. Second, the items means are all relatively high (≥ 4.82), thereby demonstrat-ing the general positive affect toward the profession on the part of the participants. Hypothesis Testing
Hypotheses 1–3 examined possible differences in anticipated career satis-faction, occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the sport management profession among persons who had completed their internship and those who had yet to complete the process. Means and standard deviations are presented in Table 2. Results of the doubly repeated measures multivariate model showed a signifi-cant multivariate effect for time, Wilks’ Λ = .91, F (3, 131) = 4.60, p < .01, and the Time ⫻ Intern interaction, Wilks’ Λ = .93, F (3, 131) = 3.33, p < .05. Because the significant interaction supercedes the main effects, we interpreted these results as indicated in the following section.
Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations at Both
Stages of Measurement Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. intern .— 2. occupational commitmenta .06 .— 3. career satisfactiona .08 .59** .— 4. intentionsa .08 .58** .57** .— 5. occupational commitmentb .23* .59** .50** .38** .— 6. career satisfactionb .29** .48** .61** .37** .78** .— 7. intentionsb .26* .51** .44** .56** .66** .63** .— Mean 1.49 5.85 4.84 5.00 5.46 4.61 4.82 Standard deviation 0.50 1.13 1.20 1.56 1.40 1.33 1.56
Note. 1 = interns, 2 = noninterns.
Univariate analyses demonstrated significant effects for anticipated career satisfaction, F (1, 133) = 8.54, p < .01; occupational commitment, F (1,133) = 5.89, p < .05; and intentions to enter the sport management profession, F (1, 133) = 4.01, p < .05. As seen in Table 2 and Figure 1, whereas the interns and noninterns did not differ for any of the above-mentioned variables in Time 1, there were sig-nificant differences in Time 2. Further, the effect size for the differences was mod-erate for all variables (anticipated career satisfaction: d = .50; occupational com-mitment: d = .46; intentions to enter the sport management profession: d = .53). Thus, hypotheses 1–3 were supported.
The structural equation models also provided support for our predictions. The fully mediated model was a close fit to the data: χ2 (df = 42, n = 137) = 166.70,
p < .001; SRMSR = .059; CFI = .95; PNFI = .72. Results indicate that the partially mediated model also fit the data well: χ2 (df = 41, n = 137) = 165.57, p < .001; SRMSR = .061; CFI = .95; PNFI = .70. The chi-square difference test indicated no differences between the two models: ∆χ2 (1) = 1.13, p > .05. Thus, as the fully mediated model is the more parsimonious of the two, we interpreted that model.
Figure 2 provides an illustrative summary of the findings for the fully medi-ated structural equations model. Results indicmedi-ated that occupational commitment mediated the relationship between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the profession. Further, the variance explained in both occupational commit-ment (81%) and intentions to enter the sport managecommit-ment profession (43%) were large. Thus, hypothesis 4 was supported.
Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations of Anticipated Career Satisfaction,
Occupational Commitment, and Intentions to Enter the Sport Management Profession for Interns and Noninterns
Interns Noninterns (n = 71) (n = 67)
Variable M SD M SD
Anticipated career satisfactiona 4.74 1.21 4.94 1.21
Anticipated career satisfactionb 4.26 1.37 5.00 1.58
Occupational commitmenta 5.76 1.16 5.90 1.11
Occupational commitmentb 5.19 1.53 5.79 1.10
Intentionsa 4.84 1.67 5.12 1.45
Intentionsb 4.47 1.67 5.25 1.28
Discussion
Drawing from the perspective that the internship is likely to influence the interns’ career-related affect and behaviors, this study examined the effects of the internship process on anticipated career satisfaction, occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the sport management profession, as well as the relation-ships among these career-related concepts. The first three hypotheses predicted that interns, relative to students who had yet to complete their internships, would have lower anticipated career satisfaction (H1), lower occupational commitment Figure 2 — Illustrative summary of structural-equation model testing the fully medi-ating effects of occupational commitment on the relationship between anticipated ca-reer satisfaction and intentions to enter the sport management profession.
Note. Standardized parameter estimates shown between latent variables. Data from
both interns and noninterns. Model fit: χ2 (df = 42, n = 137) = 166.70, p < .05; SRMSR
= .059; CFI = .95; PNFI = .72. *p < .001.
Figure 1 — Differences in anticipated career satisfaction, occupational commitment, and intentions to enter the sport management profession over the internship.
(H2), and fewer intentions to enter the sport management profession (H3). All three hypotheses were supported because, though there were no differences before the internship, there were significant differences between interns and noninterns for all three concepts after the internship. These findings are particularly relevant given the sunk costs (i.e., irreversible incurred costs) students have with respect to their academic investment by the time they reach the intern phase. Consider, for example, that by the time a typical student becomes an intern, he or she has com-pleted approximately 4 years of coursework, has devoted energy and time to pro-fessional preparation, and has developed hopes and expectations about entering the sport industry. It is particularly telling that differences in career-related affect and intentions existed between interns and noninterns after the internship.
There are two relevant points pertaining to these findings. First, it is not known exactly why the interns’ affect and intentions decreased relative to the noninterns. Two possibilities are presented. First, we argued previously that some internships might be negative experiences lacking pedagogical value in which in-terns are exploited and viewed as cheap labor to complete lower-level work (Leland, 2003). If this is the case, then it is not unreasonable to expect that interns’ impres-sions of the sport management profession as a whole would also be diminished. Alternatively, it is possible that the internships were not negative experiences per se, but that some interns simply learned, after spending time working in the sport industry, that a career as a sport manager was not something they wanted. Such a view is consistent with the view of the National Commission for Cooperative Edu-cation (2003), in that such experiences can help students to confirm that sport management is their correct career choice or learn that a career in the sport indus-try is not one they would enjoy, and thus, their career choices should be directed elsewhere. From the latter perspective, the internship was not negative because, even though there was an investment of education and time spent, the students were able to develop a clearer picture of what they want (and do not want) in a career. Further, even if some persons choose not to enter the sport industry, it is possible that they will have knowledge, skills, and abilities that are transferable to other contexts.2
A second point worthy of consideration is that, even though interns’ and noninterns’ career-related affect and intentions differed after the internship, the overall mean scores for the former group were still relatively high. Thus, even though the scores decreased over the course of the internship, interns’ attitudes toward the sport management profession were still generally positive.
In addition, our results indicated that affective occupational commitment completely mediated the relationship between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the profession, thereby supporting hypothesis 4. Further, there were large portions of variance explained in both occupational commitment (81%) and intentions to enter the sport management profession (43%), findings that point to the efficacy of the structural equations model. These results are consistent with previous literature that has documented the positive relationship between satisfac-tion and commitment, both at the organizasatisfac-tional (Meyer et al., 2002) and occupa-tional (Aryee et al., 1994; Lee et al., 2000) levels. Our study, however, makes a
significant contribution to the literature in that anticipated satisfaction was related to identification with and emotional attachment to the profession. Clearly, then, if students expect to be satisfied with such aspects as pay and opportunities for ad-vancement while working as a sport manager, they are likely to form an affective attachment to the sport management profession.
Moreover, according to the results of the study, occupational commitment was a salient antecedent of intentions to enter the sport management profession. These results are consistent with the argument made by Lee et al. (2000) that “a person with a strong occupational commitment will more strongly identify with, and experience more positive feelings about, the occupation than will one with a weak occupational commitment” (p. 800). Indeed, their meta-analytic findings indicated that occupational commitment was significantly associated with occu-pational turnover intentions, organizational turnover and turnover intentions, and burnout. Our study contributes to these findings in that occupational commitment holds a significant association with one’s plan to enter the sport industry and em-bark on a career as a sport manager.
Limitations and Future Directions
This study was limited in several areas. First, reliance on self-report data opens the possibility of common method variance and inflation variance. Thus, some of the relationships among variables collected at the same time might be higher than in actuality. Of course, we collected data at two points, both in the second week of the internship and after the internship was over. Therefore, rela-tionships among the variables collected at the two separate times are not prone to common method variance. Second, we only measured intentions to enter the sport management profession. Theory (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and em-pirical evidence (e.g., Hagger et al., 2002) suggest that intentions are the most proximal antecedent of behavior, and therefore, we could expect that those who intend to enter the profession will actually do so. Because we did not measure that specific behavior, however, this relationship remains speculative. Future research should consider extending the longitudinal design such that actual behavior can be recorded. Another limitation is that students from only four schools were included in the study. Although these institutions were situated in various parts of the United States, caution should be used in generalizing the results to a large scale.
Furthermore, the fact that all students did not have the same internship serves as another limitation to the study (but see Gault et al., 2000, for a similar design). That is, the quality of internships might vary depending on the context (e.g., pro-fessional sport, university athletics, etc.), the site supervisor, the faculty supervi-sor, and the student’s background and previous experiences. Therefore, the experi-mental group in this study was relatively heterogeneous. Finally, as noted earlier, although career-related affect and intentions were lower in interns after the intern-ship relative to noninterns, we do not know, based on the data collected, why such differences exist.
Given the latter two limitations, future researchers might consider replicat-ing this study (or portions of it) while also collectreplicat-ing qualitative data. In this way
each intern could be queried as to the impact of the internship on his or her affect and intentions. Even though the internships would be heterogeneous in quality and nature, common themes from open-ended questions would likely result. Based on this information, steps to improve the internship process could be proposed.
In addition to the possibilities listed above, there are other opportunities for future inquiry. For example, are certain segments in the sport industry more favor-able to graduating students than others? For that matter, do internships in one sec-tor result in more negative attitudes toward the profession than do internships in another sector? These are questions that should be fleshed out in future research.
Recent research has indicated that fit with the organization is related to em-ployment quality after the job search (Saks & Ashforth, 2002). These findings could be extended to the occupational level in a study of interns. We would expect that the combination of the coursework and field experiences would provide stu-dents with expectations concerning their fit with the industry. Future researchers could examine how person–occupation fit is related to intentions to enter the pro-fession.
Finally, what are the work characteristics that interns experience during their internship? Do they receive support from the organization and from their supervi-sors? Is their work challenging? Do they experience role conflicts and ambiguity? Do they perceive a sense of procedural and distributive justice? Given that these characteristics have been shown to have a significant impact on affective forms of commitment to the organization (Meyer et al., 2002), it is also possible that such work characteristics could influence interns’ commitment to the profession as a whole. These are issues that need to be addressed in future research.
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Notes
1As with others in the organizational psychology literature, we use occupation,
pro-fession, and career interchangeably in this study, depending on the construct measured (see also Lee et al., 2000).