The information contained in this ICSI Health Care Guideline is intended primarily for health
profes-sionals and the following expert audiences:
• physicians, nurses, and other health care professional and provider organizations;
• health plans, health systems, health care organizations, hospitals and integrated health care
delivery systems;
• medical specialty and professional societies;
• researchers;
• federal, state and local government health care policy makers and specialists; and
• employee benefit managers.
This ICSI Health Care Guideline should not be construed as medical advice or medical opinion
related to any specific facts or circumstances. If you are not one of the expert audiences listed
above you are urged to consult a health care professional regarding your own situation and any
specific medical questions you may have. In addition, you should seek assistance from a health
care professional in interpreting this ICSI Health Care Guideline and applying it in your individual
case.
This ICSI Health Care Guideline is designed to assist clinicians by providing an analytical framework
for the evaluation and treatment of patients, and is not intended either to replace a clinician’s
judgment or to establish a protocol for all patients with a particular condition. An ICSI Health Care
Guideline rarely will establish the only approach to a problem.
Copies of this ICSI Health Care Guideline may be distributed by any organization to the
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• copies may be provided to patients and the clinicians who manage their care, if the ICSI Health
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Health Care Guideline
I
CS
I
INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL
Management of Labor
These clinical guidelines are designed to assist clinicians by providing an analytical framework for the evalua-tion and treatment of patients, and are not intended either to replace a clinician's judgment or to establish a protocol for all patients with a particular condition. A guideline will
Second Edition
March 2007
www.icsi.org
I I
CS
INSTITUTEFORCLINICAL
SYSTEMS IMPROVEMENT A = Annotation
Work Group Leader
John Jefferies, MD
OB/Gyn, Mayo Clinic Work Group Members Family Medicine
Leslie Atwood, MD
Allina Medical Clinic
Lori Bates, MD
Mayo Clinic
Brendon Cullinan, MD
Hennepin County Medical Center
Mark Matthias, MD
Mankato Clinic Nurse Midwife
Amy Knox, CNM
Park Nicollet Health Services
Cherida McCall, CNM
HealthPartners Medical Group
Brielle Stoyke, CNM
CentraCare
Ruth Wingeier, CNM
CentraCare Nursing
Jenny Senti, APRN
Altru Health System OB/Gyn
Dale Akkerman, MD
Park Nicollet Health Services Perinatal Medicine
Leslie Pratt, MD
Park Nicollet Health Services
Peter VanEerden, MD
Sioux Valley Hospitals Implementation Advisor
Nancy Jaeckels
ICSI Facilitator
Linda Setterlund, MA, CPHQ
ICSI
Pregnant patient > 20 weeks with symptoms
of labor
1
Triage for symptoms of labor 2 A < 37 weeks? 3 See Management of Signs/Symptoms of Preterm Labor algorithm and annotations 4 yes Is patient in labor? 5 A no
• Patient education for reassurance
• Observe and re-evaluate • Consider labor induction if appropriate 6 no Previous uterine incision? 9 yes Subsequent labor? 7 yes Intrapartum care • Cervical exam • Supportive care • Adequate pain relief • Perform amniotomy if needed unless contraindicated • Monitoring of fetal heart rate • Nurse ausculatory monitoring or continuous EFM-ext no
See VBAC algorithm and annotations 10 yes 1 1 A Any concerns or complications? 1 2 A Management of third stage of labor no
See Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Management algorithm and annotations See Failure to Progress
in Obstetrical Labor algorithm and annotations 18 Other • Out of guideline yes no Out of guideline 8 Normal vaginal delivery 13 14 A
Is fetal heart rate a concern? 16 no 17 Is labor not progressing? no 1 5 19 yes yes
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Management of Signs/Symptoms of Preterm Labor (PTL) Algorithm
This algorithm applies to singleton pregnancies only.
Patient and fetus both medically stable? Is there a critical event? 21 23 no yes Cervix 2-5 cm dilated, < 80% effaced, contractions 4/20 or 6/60? 2 5 Cervix 30%-70% effaced, < 2 cm dilated, 0-station, Contractions > 6/60, fFn positive? 27 no yes no yes no Obstetric/medical consultation as indicated; treat per standard emergency
medical and obstetric procedures
22
See Management of Critical Event algorithm
24
See Prodromal Preterm Labor algorithm
28
Assessment of patient with signs/symptoms of possible PTL
20
A
Assessment includes:
• Fetal fibronectin testing • Pelvic exam
• Sterile speculum exam • Determine contraction pattern
• Determine fetal well-being • Cervical length • Lab tests 20 Go to box #40 26 yes
See ICSI Routine Prenatal Care guideline 2 9 Critical events: • Cervix 5+ cm dilated • pPROM • Vaginal bleeding • Chorioamnionitis suspected 23
www.icsi.org A = Annotation
Management of Critical Event Algorithm
Possibly initiate tocolytics, betamethasone and antibiotic group B strep (GBS) prophylaxis Cervix 5+ cm
dilated? Patient has critical
event 31
A
Initial dose betamethasone STAT and plan for delivery yes 32 A Safe to transfer or transport mother before birth? 3 3
Prepare for preterm delivery/neonatal transport 34 no Chorioamnionitis suspected? 36 no Broad spectrum antibiotics yes 37 Plan for delivery 3 8 yes • Stabilize on MgSO4 (tocolytics) • Transfer mother to appropriate level of care if possible 39 Bethamethasone 23-34 weeks 40 A Sonogram for:
• Amniotic fluid index (AFI) • Presentation/placentation • Follow-up level II as indicated
41 Sonogram detects gross anomaly? 42 Fetal anomaly compatible with life? 4 3 no 45 ROM? 46
Vaginal pool + amnio at 32+ weeks for fetal lung
maturity (FLM) yes 4 7 Vaginal bleeding? 48 no Management of preterm labor with bleeding yes
49 A Consider amniocentesis at 34 weeks for FLM 5 1 no
Fetal lung maturity (FLM) study positive? 52 no Preterm delivery 54 yes A A 30 • Stabilize on MgSO4 (tocolytics) • Transfer mother to appropriate level of care if possible
35
A
yes no Await spontaneous labor 44 yes Deliver for: • Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) • FLM • Fetal distress • Nonreassuring FHT • Significant bleeding 50 A Deliver for: • Eventual FLM • Fetal distress • Chorioamnionitis • Active labor • 37 weeks no PROM • 37 weeks PROM • Other obstetrical indicators
A 5 3
no
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Monitoring and Management of Prodromal Preterm Labor Algorithm
A = Annotation Continue intensive (at least weekly)
follow-up until 34 weeks plus 6 days • Consider betamethasone (23-34 weeks) Cervical
change? 56
yes
Bedrest and pelvic rest for 48 hours and administer betamethasone if high risk for
preterm delivery and 23-34 weeks no
58
A Consider transvaginal sonogram
(if available) for cervical length 59
A
Fetal fibronectin (fFN) positive and/or cervical
length < 25 mm? 60 6 1 Cervical change? 62 no yes Continue monitoring fFN no 6 5 A Persistent signs/symptoms of prodromal labor? 6 7 yes Cervical change? 6 6 no yes yes no A Cervix less than 70% effaced, less than
2 cm dilated, 0 station contractions greater than or equal to 6 per hour
55 A See Management of Critical Event algorithm 57 At 36+ weeks, preterm or at term delivery 63 See Management Critical Event algorithm 64
See ICSI Routine Prenatal guideline 68 See Management of Critical Event algorithm 69
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Vaginal Birth After Caesarean Algorithm
A = Annotation
Patient in active labor
with previous uterine
incision
70Special considerations of
labor management
71A
Vaginal birth
appropriate?
7 2Repeat Caesarean
delivery
no
Normal labor?
7 6 73yes
Complicated labor
management (also see
Main algorithm box #12,
"Any concerns or
complications?")
no
74A
Vaginal birth
yes
75www.icsi.org
Treatment of Failure to Progress in Labor Algorithm
A = Annotation
Failure to progress in labor diagnosis
77
Stage I labor Stage II labor
78 83 < 1 cm descent per hour? 84 A Normal vaginal delivery 8 5 no < 1 cm dilation x2 consecutive hours? 79 Management of arrest disorders 8 0 A Adequate contractions and dilation? 81 yes Caesarean delivery 8 2 A yes Management of protraction disorders 8 6 A yes Has progress been made? 87 yes Operative vaginal delivery contraindicated? 8 8 A no yes Operative vaginal delivery no 89 no no A
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Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Management Algorithm
A = Annotation Assessment and remedial techniques Further fetal assessment reassuring? FHR pattern is reassuring? 93 95 no Reassuring fetal heart rate (FHR) pattern now? 96 Vaginal delivery imminent? no 97 no 99 A A A Expedited vaginal delivery yes 98
Consider amnioinfusion for oligohydramnios
92
Continuous EFM-ext or EFM-int (if needed)
91
Concern for fetal heart rate 90 See algorithm #12, "Any concerns or complications?" yes Emergent delivery 100 A 94 yes yes A
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Algorithms and Annotations
...1-32Algorithm (Main) ...1
Algorithm (Management of Signs/Symptoms of Preterm Labor [PTL])...2
Algorithm (Management of Critical Event) ...3
Algorithm (Monitoring and Management of Prodromal Preterm Labor) ...4
Algorithm (Vaginal Birth After Caesarean) ...5
Algorithm (Treatment of Failure to Progress in Labor) ...6
Algorithm (Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Management) ...7
Foreword Scope and Target Population ...9
Clinical Highlights and Recommendations ...9
Priority Aims ...10
Related ICSI Scientific Documents ...10
Brief Description of Evidence Grading ...10
Disclosure of Potential Conflict of Interest ...10
Annotations ...11-32 Annotations (Main) ...11-14 Annotations (Management of Signs/Symptoms of Preterm Labor [PTL]) ...15-17 Annotations (Management of Critical Event) ...17-21 Annotations (Monitoring and Management of Prodromal Preterm Labor) ...21-22 Annotations (Vaginal Birth After Caesarean) ...22-24 Annotations (Treatment of Failure to Progress in Labor) ...24-26 Annotations (Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring) ...26-29 Appendices ...30-32 Appendix A – Abbreviations Used in This Guideline ...30
Appendix B – Patient Education Handout ...31-32
Supporting Evidence
...33-62 Evidence Grading System ...34-35 References ...36-42 Conclusion Grading Worksheets ...43-62 Conclusion Grading Worksheet A – Annotation #20 (Bacterial Vaginosis) ...43-46 Conclusion Grading Worksheet B – Annotation #37 (Broad Spectrum Antibiotics) ...47-49 Conclusion Grading Worksheet C – Annotation #80 (Management of Arrest Disorders) ...50-57 Conclusion Grading Worksheet D – Annotation #99 (Further Fetal Assessment Reassuring) ...58-62Support for Implementation
...63-72 Priority Aims and Suggested Measures ...64Measurement Specifications ...65-69 Knowledge Products and Resources ...70 Other Resources Available ...71-72
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Foreword
Scope and Target Population
All patients who present in labor.
Clinical Highlights and Recommendations
• Start appropriate treatment for the type of preterm labor involved as soon as possible after preterm labor
is identified. Treatment should be based on specific symptoms, as well as gestational age and condition
of the mother and fetus. (Annotation #20)
• Women with preterm labor at appropriate gestational age should receive a single course of antepartum steroids to promote fetal lung maturity. (Annotations #32, 40, 45)
• Confirm active labor before admitting to facility evidenced by:
- Spontaneous contractions at least 2 per 15 minutes, and two or more of the following:
• Complete effacement of cervix
• Cervical dilation greater than or equal to 3 cm • Spontaneous rupturing of membranes (SROM)
(Annotation #5)
• Perform amniotomy early in labor if indicated as discussed in the guideline. (Annotation #11)
• Conduct frequent cervical checks (cervical checks afford best opportunity to detect labor progress and prevent failure to progress). (Annotation #11)
• Patient's level of risk should be assessed on presentation of active labor. - Oligohydramnios
- Chronic and acute medical conditions of mother and/or fetus
(Annotation #12)
• Augment with oxytocin to achieve adequate labor for two to four hours. (Annotation #80)
• If patient is in Stage II labor and is not making progress, initiate management of protraction disorders
(positioning, fluid balance, oxytocin augmentation, OB/surgical consult). (Annotation #86)
• Assure fetal well-being with either intermittent auscultation or continuous electronic fetal heart rate monitoring. (Annotation #11)
• When necessary, initiate remedial techniques such as maternal position, IV fluid bolus and infusion,
oxygen administration, discontinuing oxytocics, amnioinfusion and subcutaneous terbutaline. (Annota-tion #95)
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Priority Aims
1. Increase the percentage of women with PTL and/or PTB who receive betamethasone appropriately. 2. Prevent unnecessary protracted labor with use of Treatment of Failure to Progress in Labor algorithm
and annotations and its methods (e.g., timely monitoring).
3. Increase the use of procedures that assist in progress to vaginal birth.
4. Increase the percentage of women who are assessed for risk status on entry to labor and delivery. 5. Increase the use of remedial techniques that resolve temporary non-reassuring heart tracing in labor. 6. Perform an appropriate evaluation for persistent non-reassuring heart rate tracing in labor before
Caesarean section.
Related ICSI Scientific Documents
Related Guidelines• Routine Prenatal Care
Technology Assessment Reports
• Home Uterine Activity Monitoring for the Detection of Preterm Labor (#43, 2002) • Fetal Fibronectin for the Prediction of Preterm Labor (#47, 1999)
• Tocolytic Therapy for Preterm Labor (#49, 2000)
• Ultrasound Cervical Length for the Prediction of Preterm Labor (#74, 2003)
Patients and Families
• Routine Prenatal Care for Patients and Families
Evidence Grading
Individual research reports are assigned a letter indicating the class of report based on design type: A, B,
C, D, M, R, X.
Key conclusions are assigned a conclusion grade: I, II, III, or Grade Not Assignable.
A full explanation of these designators is found in the Supporting Evidence section of the guideline.
Disclosure of Potential Conflict of Interest
In the interest of full disclosure, ICSI has adopted the policy of revealing relationships work group members have with companies that sell products or services that are relevant to this guideline topic. The reader should
not assume that these financial interests will have an adverse impact on the content of the guideline, but they
are noted here to fully inform readers. Readers of the guideline may assume that only work group members
listed below have potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
No work group members have potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
ICSI's conflict of interest policy and procedures are available for review on ICSI's Web site at
www.icsi.org
Algorithm Annotations
The recommendations in this guideline are supported by large controlled studies. The guideline work group would prefer to refer to double-blind studies, but it is not feasible to blind a woman to whether she is having labor or delivery. It is unsafe to blind care providers to whether a woman has had a previous Caesarean delivery or not or previous labor and delivery complications. It is also unsafe to blind providers to whether persistent non-reassuring heart rate tracings have occurred. Given these limitations, the work
group feels confident of the literature support for the recommendations within this guideline. Furthermore,
these recommendations are consistent with the latest practice patterns published by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.
Management of Labor Main Algorithm Annotations
2. Triage for Symptoms of Labor
Hospital and/or clinic triage for the labor patient will include these questions. Triage staff will assess general questions from OB experience. Some questions may require more details for assessment. Generally, the patient is encouraged to remain home as long as possible. The caregiver will manage any/all medical concerns according to accepted standards.
General Questions:
• Are you having contractions?
• Is this your first baby?
• Was your cervix dilated at least 2-3 cm on your last office visit?
• Did you have medical complications during your pregnancy? Get specifics.
• Are you at term? (What is your estimated date of conception?) Specific Questions:
• Is your baby moving as usual? - If no, advise go to hospital. • Has your water broken?
- If yes, advise go to hospital. • Are you bleeding?
- If yes, advise go to hospital.
• Are you having unbearable contractions? - If yes, advise go to hospital.
When a patient presents to hospital and assessment shows the patient is NOT in labor: Patient education
will include signs to look for, changes to assess, and reassurance that she can come back to the hospital when changes occur. When the caregiver prefers to hold and observe the patient, a reassessment must be conducted prior to release from the hospital.
www.icsi.org
5. Is Patient in Labor?
Labor is defined as:
Spontaneous contractions at least 2 per 15 minutes and at least two of the following:
• Complete effacement of cervix
• Cervical dilation 3 cm or greater (cervical exam #1) • Spontaneous rupturing of membrane (SROM)
Only patients who meet this definition of labor should be admitted for careful management of labor. Careful assessment of presenting patients is critical.
Patients who are not in labor should receive education that includes signs to look for, changes to assess, and reassurance that they can come back to the hospital when changes occur. (See Appendix B, "Patient Educa-tion Handout.") A patient may be placed on "hold" status for observaEduca-tion. Hold patients require medical reassessment before leaving the hospital.
If the patient's cervix is dilated less than 3 cm and oxytocin is started, this should be considered induction of labor, NOT augmentation of labor (ACOG Practice Bulletin, 2003).
Supporting evidence is of class: R
11. Intrapartum Care
See ICSI Admission for Routine Labor Order Set.
Characteristics of care for a patient at time of admission to labor and delivery include:
• Chart evaluation • Cervical exam #2
• Appropriate supportive care/comfort measures as per individual provider. May include, but are not
limited to PO fluids, fluid balance maintenance, position changes, back rubs, music, ambulation,
and tub bath/shower. Management of labor using patient care measures and comfort measures is supported. Documentation of progress of labor using a graphic medium is helpful to patient and staff (McNiven, 1992; Radin, 1993).
• Adequate pain relief. This includes parenteral analgesics, e.g., nalbuphine hydrochloride (such as Nubain), butorphanol tartrate (such as Stadol) or hydroxyzine hydrochloride (such as Vistaril) or epidural or intrathecal narcotics for patients in active progressing labor (continued dilation of the cervix) (Clark, 1998; Halpern, 1998; Rogers, 1999; Sheen, 1987).
• Documentation of progress of labor using a graphic medium (partogram) is started on admission. • Monitoring of fetal heart rate. (See Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Management algorithm and
anno-tations).
• Amniotomy unless contraindicated.
Amniotomy should be done early in labor unless spontaneous rupture has occurred or contraindica-tions are present. Early amniotomy has been shown to be associated with a decrease in duration of labor and is part of the failure to progress protocol (Brisson-Carroll, 1996; Fraser, 1993; Fraser, 2000; Garite, 1993).
www.icsi.org Contraindications for amniotomy include:
• Presentation unknown, floating or unstable
• Cervix dilated less than 3 cm • Patient refuses
Nurse Auscultory Monitoring or Continuous EFM-ext
Nurse auscultory monitoring consists of auscultating with a DeLee stethoscope or a Doppler ultrasound device during a contraction and for 30 seconds after the contraction every 30 minutes during active stage of labor and every 15 minutes during second stage of labor for low-risk patient.
Seven randomized controlled studies have compared EFM to auscultation in both high- and low-risk patients and have shown no difference in intrapartum fetal death. Each study, except Leveno et al., had dedicated on-one nurses assigned to each patient. The intrapartum death rate in the auscultated patients with one-on-one nursing was 0.4/1,000. Most studies indicate a higher Caesarean delivery rate in those patients having
EFM. The most recently published randomized controlled trial did show a significant reduction in perinatal
deaths due to asphyxia in the electronically monitored group. It is not yet clear why this study differs from the others. Careful nurse monitoring can achieve high quality outcomes. Close nurse monitoring with a high nurse-to-patient ratio provides personalized high-quality obstetrical care. Each labor and delivery unit must staff itself to achieve the level of nurse staff to provide appropriate fetal monitoring. Where ausculta-tion cannot be performed to the ACOG standards, EFM is reasonable and preferable. However, EFM is not a replacement for well trained, motivated and caring nurses. The presence of a supportive and caring
nurse adds quality to the obstetrical process and improves outcomes. Appropriate nurse staffing is outlined
in the Guidelines For Perinatal Care article cited below (ACOG, 2002; Boylan, 1989; Haverkamp, 1979; Haverkamp, 1976; Kelso, 1978; Klaus, 1986; Leveno, 1986; MacDonald, 1985).
Pattern Is Clear and Reassuring Tracing?
When nurse auscultory monitoring yields an unclear fetal heart rate pattern, EFM is indicated. If the pattern remains unclear or if there are signs of persistent non-reassuring tracing, internal EFM may be necessary. If there is any question regarding possible decelerations on auscultation, do external fetal monitoring. If inconsistent tracing, do internal fetal monitoring.
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, C, M, R
12. Any Concerns or Complications?
Risk assessment should be performed on all patients in active labor and is the responsibility of all members of the health care team. This includes, but is not limited to nurses, midwives and physicians. Patient is in
active labor. (See Annotation #5, "Is Patient in Labor?" for specific definition.) Initial assessments on entry into labor and delivery area:
• 20-minute fetal heart rate (FHR) assessment • patient assessment
• prenatal risk review • risk in labor assessment
www.icsi.org
High-risk situations may include any of the following conditions:
• Abnormal fetal heart rate (see Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring algorithm and annota-tions)
- Situations that involve arrest or protraction disorders (see Failure to Progress algorithm and annotations)
• Bleeding
• Breech presentation • Dysfunctional labor
• Fetal congenital heart disease • Intrauterine growth retardation • Maternal congenital heart disease • Maternal diabetes or gestational diabetes • Maternal hypertension
• Maternal lupus • Multiple gestation • Oligohydramnios
• Other serious chronic and acute medical conditions of mother and/or fetus • Oxytocin use
• Postdate pregnancy (greater than or equal to 42 weeks, per physician discretion) • Thick meconium
For the evaluation of fetal heart rate in high-risk labor see (Haverkamp, 1976; Renou, 1976; Sosa, 1980; Vintzileos, 1993; Vintzileos, 1995; Wood, 1981).
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, M
14. Management of Third Stage of Labor
Active Management of the third stage of labor should be offered to women since it reduces the incidence of postpartum hemorrhage due to uterine atony. Active management of the third stage of labor consists of interventions designed to facilitate the delivery of the placenta by increasing uterine contractions and to
prevent PPH by averting uterine atony. The usual components include:
• administration of uterotonic agents, • controlled cord traction, and
• uterine massage after delivery of the placenta, as appropriate.
(Elbourne, 2003; International Confederation of Midwives [ICM], 2004) Supporting evidence is of classes: M, R
www.icsi.org
Management of Signs/Symptoms of Preterm Labor (PTL)
Algorithm Annotations
20. Assessment of Patient with Signs/Symptoms of Possible PTL
Be certain intervention is appropriate, including certainty of gestational age. A sonogram should be consid-ered if one has not been done.
A thorough medical evaluation should include the following:
• Fetal Fibronectin Testing
Fetal Fibronectin Testing
Testing for levels of fetal fibronectin has been proposed as a way to predict preterm labor. Based
on a review of the evidence, the ICSI Technology Assessment Committee (Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement, 1999) concluded that:
- Symptomatic at-risk patients with a negative test are highly unlikely to experience preterm delivery in the next seven days; it is necessary to retest these patients to determine whether negative status is maintained.
- Testing for fetal fibronectin is a safe procedure; the risks and limitations are related to
the false negative rate and the false positive rate.
- The clinical importance of a positive test remains unclear.
- Testing for fetal fibronectin is not recommended as a screening test for asymptomatic
patients, regardless of risk status.
Patients with a negative test can expect pregnancy prolongation for the next 7 to 14 days without the need for expensive and uncomfortable intervention.
Check cervix and collect specimen for possible fFN if cervix appears less than 3 cm. • Pelvic exam (PE)
• Sterile speculum exam (SSE)
Digital cervical exam should not be performed to confirm presentation in the presence of preterm
rupture of membranes until imminent delivery is documented or required in the patient actively laboring (if a sonogram is unavailable). Delaying digital examination reduces infection.
Digital examination in the bleeding patient should be deferred until it is certain the patient does not have placenta previa.
Visualize cervix as well as possible to
• rule out previa, abruption and non-obstetrical causes of bleeding such as cervical cancer;
• estimate dilation and effacement and obtain samples for gonorrhea, chlamydia and GBS; and
www.icsi.org This examination should include assessment of nitrazine (pH), pooling, and "ferning" (N,P,F) on
an air-dried slide to check for amniotic fluid. This examination is also used to check for the
non-uterine etiology of vaginal bleeding (e.g., a cervical lesion). • Determine contraction pattern
• Determine fetal well-being (may include NST and/or biophysical profile) • Laboratory tests and possible treatment:
- Urinalysis/urine culture (UAUC)
- Consider culture swab of lower third of vagina and rectum for GBS - Drug screen, even if previously screened and treated
- Consider screening high-risk women with a history of at least one pre-term delivery for bacte-rial vaginosis. If positive, treatment should include oral metronidazole. Treatment of bactebacte-rial vaginosis infection in pregnant women at high risk for preterm delivery by traditional seven-day courses of therapy early in pregnancy appears to reduce preterm delivery. [Conclusion Grade II: See Conclusion Grading Worksheet A – Annotation #20 (Bacterial Vaginosis)] The evidence regarding treatment of low-risk, pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vagi-nosis is limited by use of inadequate therapy in the available studies. [Conclusion Grade Not Assignable: See Conclusion Grading Worksheet A – Annotation #20 (Bacterial Vaginosis)] (Carey, 2000; Leitich, 2003; McDonald, 1997; McGregor, 1995; Morales, 1994; Tebes, 2003)
- Consider cultures for gonorrhea and chlamydia (Andrews, 2000)
Consider nonintervention near term if gestational age is well documented. Do not inhibit labor where there is fetal or maternal jeopardy, fetal malformation or death.
Evidence indicates prophylaxis with progesterone may decrease the reoccurrence of preterm labor in women with a history of one or more preterm births (ACOG Committee Opinion, 2003; da Fonseca, 2003; Meis, 2003). See ICSI Routine Prenatal guideline.
Fish oil supplementation has not been found to be helpful in preventing preterm labor. One analysis of
six clinical trials found an increase in intracranial hemorrhage among infants whose mothers took fish oil
supplements during pregnancy compared to those who took olive oil (Olsen, 2000). Definition of Preterm Labor (PTL):
• Labor occurring after 20 and before 37 completed weeks plus
• Clinically documented uterine contractions (4/20 minutes or 6/60 minutes) plus
• Ruptured membranes or
• Intact membranes and cervical dilation greater than 2 cm or
• Intact membranes and cervical effacement greater than 80% or
• Intact membranes and cervical change during observation. These can be measured by changes in dilation or effacement, or by changes in cervical length measured clinically or by ultrasound.
www.icsi.org Change in Status?
A change in status may be indicated by any of the following signs:
• Documented uterine activity (contractions or "irritability") • Documented cervical changes
• Acute leakage of fluid from the vagina
• Sudden change in fundal height at prenatal visit
• Diagnosis of:
- Multiple gestation - Third trimester bleeding
- Infections (STIs, GBS, UTI, pyelonephritis, etc.) - Any other preterm risk condition
Patients who note warning signs should contact their health care provider for assessment as soon as possible. The patient should be seen by her provider within two hours of provider contact unless premature rupture of membrane (PROM) or bleeding is present in which case she should be seen as soon as is feasible. Although
there is not a specific literature reference, the guideline team felt that the two-hour time frame is not only
an acceptable goal, but an expected one.
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, C, R
Management of Critical Event Algorithm Annotations
31. Cervix 5+ cm Dilated?
If cervix is dilated 5+ cm, the following emergency resuscitation protocol should be followed to determine
whether transport is appropriate. In addition, the following protocol should be followed:
A. At 23-34 weeks administer first dose betamethasone STAT. Please refer to Annotation #45, "Possibly
Initiate Tocolytics, Betamethasone and Antibiotics Group B Strep (GBS) Prophylaxis" for informa-tion on dosing of betamethasone and other corticosteroids.
B. Delivery of less than 24 weeks as previable.
C. Initiate tocolysis if possible. Please refer to Annotation #45, "Possibly Initiate Tocolytics, Beta-methasone and Antibiotic Group B Strep (GBS) Prophylaxis," for more information on tocolysis. D. Screening sonogram to rule out (R/O) gross anomaly, check presentation and placental
abnor-mality.
32. Initial Dose Betamethasone STAT, and Plan for Delivery
Please refer to Annotation #45, "Possibly Initiate Tocolytics, Betamethasone and Antibiotics Group B Strep (GBS) Prophylaxis," for information on dosing of betamethasone and other corticosteroids.
www.icsi.org
35. Stabilize on Magnesium Sulfate (Tocolytics)/Transfer Mother to
Appropriate Level of Care if Possible
Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is generally given as a 4 gm IV bolus, then a 2 gm/hour IV infusion. If no IV access is available, magnesium sulfate can be given IM (5g IM in each buttock for a total of 10g) to stabilize a patient for transfer.
Patients with renal insufficiency require reduced dosages. If there is a clinical concern, magnesium levels
should be checked. Therapeutic levels are 5-8 mEq/L.
Patients should retain deep tendon reflexes throughout the course of therapy. Flushing, "warmth" and nausea
are common nuisance side effects.
Antiemetics are encouraged if nausea persists after the initiation of therapy.
Maternal transfer to prevent the need for premature neonatal transfer reduces preterm neonatal morbidity and mortality. Very low birthweight infants (less than 1,500 grams) inborn to Level III perinatal centers have lower mortality, reduced incidence of Grade III and Grade IV intraventricular hemorrhage, and lower sensorineural disability rates than outborn infants (Menard, 1998; Towers, 2000; Yeast, 1998).
Supporting evidence is of class: C
37. Broad Spectrum Antibiotics
Broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage appears to lengthen the latency from preterm premature rupture of membranes (pPROM) until delivery and/or chorioamnionitis. Antibiotic therapy reduces maternal and neonatal morbidity in women with pPROM. There is no consensus on the choice of antibiotic or dose. A combination of ampicillin and erythromycin appears promising. [Conclusion Grade II: See Conclusion Grading Worksheet B – Annotation #37 (Antibiotic Therapy)]
Tocolysis should be considered in selected patients remote from term to delay delivery until transfer to a higher level of care (Bar, 2000; Edwards, 2000; Kenyon, 2000; Locksmith, 1998; Mercer, 1997).
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, C, M, R
39. Stabilize on Magnesium Sulfate (Tocolytics)/Transfer Mother to
Appropriate Level of Care if Possible
See Annotation #35 for tocolytic dosages.
40. Betamethasone 23-34 Weeks
Please refer to annotation #45, "Possibly Initiate Tocolytics, Betamethasone and Antibiotic Group B Strep (GBS) Prophylaxis," for dosing of betamethasone and other corticosteroids.
45
. Possibly Initiate Tocolytics, Betamethasone and Antibiotic Group
B Strep (GBS) Prophylaxis
Agents to be considered for tocolytic therapy include magnesium sulfate, terbutaline sulfate (including pump), indomethacin and nifedipine. In February 1997, the FDA alerted practitioners to use caution in the continuous subcutaneous administration of terbutaline sulfate.
The ICSI Technology Assessment #49, "Tocolytic Therapy for Preterm Labor," states that studies of rito-drine, magnesium sulfate, and calcium channel blockers such as nifedipine show that they may be equally effective in delaying delivery by 24 to 48 hours.
www.icsi.org
Other considerations for initial management of preterm labor include the following:
• Initiate betamethasone if 23-34 weeks gestation. Please refer below to "Pharmacologic Management of Preterm Labor" for more information on administration of betamethasone and other corticosteroids
(Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement, 2000).
• Administer IV antibiotic effective against GBS until GBS results are back or if patient is known to be positive for GBS (Thorp, 2002).
• Activity limitation as indicated.
• Consider indomethacin. The addition of indomethacin should ONLY be used at less than 32 weeks and only for 72 hours maximum. Gestation – additional studies assessing the potential risks of
indomethacin tocolysis are needed before it is used as a first-line tocolytic therapy (Doyle, 2005; Loe, 2005)
• Order additional laboratory analysis pertinent to tocolytic being used.
Although use of magnesium sulfate as a tocolytic is nearly universal, concerns regarding safety have been expressed (Mittendorf, 2002).
Supporting evidence is of classes: B, M, R
Pharmacologic Management of Preterm Labor
A. Tocolysis and BetamethasoneManagement of preterm labor should include parenteral tocolysis for 48 hours with administration of two doses of betamethasone.
The usual dosage regimen is betamethasone 12 mg IM STAT, then repeat in 24 hours.
An alternative medication is dexamethasone for a total of 24 mg (usual dosing regimen is 6 mg IM every 12 hours times four doses).
Treatment should be initiated in women with any symptoms or signs that might herald the onset of preterm delivery or a potential need for elective birth, rather than waiting until the diagnosis is in no
doubt. While a single complete course of antenatal steroids provides significant multiple benefits to the
preterm neonate, multiple courses should not be used. Please refer to the NIH Consensus Statement
(National Institutes of Health, 2000; Thorp, 2001; Guinn, 2001).
Treatment should not be withheld because delivery appears to be imminent.
Antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal lung maturation reduces mortality, respiratory distress
syndrome and intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. These benefits extend to a broad range
of gestational ages and are not limited by gender or race (Crowley, 2002). New data indicate that the
benefits of postnatal surfactant are enhanced by antenatal corticosteroid administration. No adverse
consequences to a policy of administration of antenatal steroids to women in preterm labor have been
identified (American College of Clinical Pharmacy, 2000; ACOG, 2002b).
The beneficial effects of corticosteroids are greatest more than 24 hours after beginning treatment.
However, treatment less than 24 hours in duration may improve outcome. Every effort should be made to treat women before spontaneous or elective preterm delivery.
B. Administer antibiotics for GBS prophylaxis until GBS results are back. Please refer to the GBS prophylaxis guidelines at your institution (Hager, 2000).
The Agency for HealthCare Research and Quality reviewed literature on the use of antibiotics in preterm labor (Agency for HealthCare Research and Quality, 2000).
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Attempt to Discontinue Tocolysis
If persistent mild uterine activity continues, consider nifedipine. For more information on tocolysis, please refer to ICSI Technology Assessment # 49, "Tocolytic Therapy for Preterm Labor."
Aggressive Management with Tocolysis
Tocolysis should be continued if necessary until fetal lung maturity is documented or maternal or fetal complications arise for which preterm delivery is indicated.
The etiology of preterm labor remains obscure. Consequently, patients who continue to have regular uterine activity and/or gradual cervical changes on parenteral tocolysis must be managed with clinical judgment, balancing the risks to the mother of ongoing tocolysis against the risks of preterm birth for the neonate. The use of more than a single tocolytic agent greatly increases the risks to the mother and should be under-taken only by experienced obstetric specialists in well-selected cases. An ICSI Technology Assessment Committee concluded the following regarding management of preterm labor with tocolytic therapy (Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement, 2000).
• The effectiveness of magnesium sulfate, nifedipine and ritodrine is comparable when used to delay delivery for 24 to 36 hours. This delay would enable the administration of corticosteroids and/or
transfer of the patient to a tertiary care center. The side effect profiles do differ and should be
considered when a tocolytic agent is to be used.
• Long-term tocolysis after a successful acute administration of a tocolytic has not been found to be effective in preventing preterm birth or reducing the risk of recurrent preterm labor.
• With appropriate selection and monitoring, tocolytic therapy is a relatively safe procedure. Although side effects are generally minor, they can be major and life threatening, including pulmonary edema, cardiac arrest and death.
• Administration of pharmacologic tocolysis is a complicated procedure that should only be undertaken in an intensive care setting by those familiar with the implications and potential complications. For additional information regarding tocolytic therapy, please refer to the following (ACOG, 1989; National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement, 1995; Ogburn, 1990; Sanchez-Ramos, 1999).
Terbutaline Pump
Several well-designed studies have concluded that terbutaline administered by infusion pump may be a safe and effective treatment option for the prolongation of pregnancy. However, there continues to be debate
in the medical literature concerning the safety and efficacy of the pump (Albert, 1994; Elliott, 1997; Perry, 1995).
Another study (Elliott, 2004), concludes that continuous subcutaneous terbutaline infusion was associated with an exremely low incidence of serious events.
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, B, C, D, M, R
47. Vaginal Pool + Amnio at 32+ Weeks for Fetal Lung Maturity (FLM)
Phosphatidyl glycerol (PG) is a reliable indicator of FLM if present in vaginal pool specimens. L/S ratio
is unreliable if blood and/or meconium are present in the fluid. Certain assays of PG may be influenced
by the presence of heavy growth of gardnerella vaginalis. Please consult with your local hospital clinical laboratory (Beazley, 1996).
www.icsi.org Maternal chorioamnionitis and hospital length of stay were lessened with induction of labor in preterm premature rupture of membranes (pPROM) with mature fetal lung maturity studies after 32 weeks, with no difference in neonatal outcomes compared with expectant management (Mercer, 1993).
Supporting evidence is of class: R
49. Management of Preterm Labor with Bleeding
In the presence of preterm labor with bleeding, IV access is essential. • The patient should be on strict bedrest.
• Blood should be typed and crossmatched.
• Complete blood counts (CBCs) with platelets, prothrombin time (PT), partial thromboplastin time
(PTT) and fibrinogen.
• Continue fetal monitoring while bleeding.
53. Deliver for: Eventual FLM/Fetal Distress/Chorioamnionitis/Active
Labor/37 Weeks No PROM/37 Weeks PROM/Other Obstetrical
Indicators
Under these conditions, we recommend delivery (Hauth, 2006).
Monitoring and Management of Prodromal Preterm Labor
Algorithm Annotations
55. Cervix Less Than 70% Effaced, Less Than 2 cm Dilated, 0 Station,
Contractions Greater Than or Equal to Six Per Hour
Active research in preterm birth aims to better identify and characterize this group with biochemical markers of impending labor and TVS cervical changes. Current practice is still based on clinical evaluation and judgment.
58. Bedrest and Pelvic Rest for 48 Hours and Administer
Betamethasone if High Risk for Preterm Delivery and 23-34 Weeks
A full OB sonogram should be done if no recent OB sonogram results are readily available and if no cervical change is indicated on the second cervical check.• Bedrest or pelvic rest for 48 hours
The number of hours of bedrest (during the day or complete bedrest with bathroom privileges) needs to be determined based upon risk of preterm labor and patient's environment. Bedrest and
careful IV or PO hydration may be sufficient to stop some episodes of preterm labor (Goldenberg, 1994; Guinn, 1997).
• Administer betamethasone if the patient is between 23-34 weeks gestation and at high risk for preterm delivery. See Annotation #45, "Possibly Initiate Tocolytics, Betamethasone and Antibiotic Group B Strep (GBS) Prophylaxis," for information on dosing of betamethasone and other corticosteroids
www.icsi.org Management of prodromal labor should include close observation with a recheck of the cervix one to two hours after initial check. The following steps may be indicated.
• Urinalysis
• Hydration if indicated • Fetal monitoring
• Take steps to reduce uterine irritability such as reduced physical activity, no exercise, lifting, house-hold or yard activity, and no orgasm, intercourse or nipple stimulation.
Previous preterm delivery, myomectomy and multiple gestation are risk factors of particular concern.
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, R
59. Consider Transvaginal Sonogram (if Available) for Cervical Length
Transvaginal sonogram (TVS) for cervical length is under active investigation for monitoring of patients with sign/symptoms of preterm labor and early cervical change. Cervical length of less than or equal to 25 mm (18-30 mm) or a rapidly thinning cervix correlate with increased preterm birth rates (Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement, 2003; Vendittelli, 2000).
61. Continue Intensive (at Least Weekly) Follow-Up Until 34 Weeks
Plus Six Days/Consider Betamethasone (23-34 weeks)
Patients who test positive for fFN might be more likely to benefit from aggressive therapy, closer surveil -lance and corticosteroid administration to decrease the complications associated with preterm birth.
65. Continue Monitoring fFN
If fFN is negative, reassure patient and continue monitoring fFN weekly or every two weeks until 34 weeks plus six days as long as symptoms persist.
Patients who have a negative fFN have a less than one-percent chance of preterm labor in the next seven days. The patient will need to be retested to assess the subsequent risk of preterm labor. Please refer to ICSI Technology Assessment #47, "Fetal Fibronectin for the Prediction of Preterm Labor."
Vaginal Birth After Caesarean Algorithm Annotations
71. Special Considerations of Labor Management
• Availability of a team capable of performing a Caesarean delivery within a short time (ACOG Practice Bulletin, 2004).
• Intermittent auscultation or continuous electronic fetal heart rate monitoring should be done. See Intra-partum Fetal Heart Rate Management algorithm and annotations.
• Augmentation or induction of labor with oxytocin increases the risk of uterine rupture (Blanchette, 2001).
• The use of prostaglandins for induction or cervical ripening is not recommended because it increases the risk of uterine rupture (ACOG, 2004; ACOG, 2002c; Blanchette, 1999; Lydon-Rochelle, 2001; Plaut, 1999; Ravasia, 2000).
www.icsi.org • Uterine scars do not require manual exploration postpartum (Stovall, 1987).
• There is no evidence that epidural anesthesia is contraindicated in patients with previous low segment transverse Caesarean delivery (Flamm, 1988; Phelan, 1987; Phelan, 1989).
• Amnioinfusion is not contraindicated (Strong, 1992).
• After review of 76 cases, 39 of which were monitored with intrauterine pressure catheters, the useful-ness of IUPCs in making the diagnosis of uterine rupture is not supported (Rodriguez, 1989).
Supporting evidence is of classes: B, C, D, R
74. Complicated Labor Management
The same considerations for intervention in labor apply to VBACs as for other attempted deliveries.
Complicated labor can be manifested in several categories:
• Failure to progress – The same considerations for intervention – including amniotomy, oxytocin, epidural anesthesia/analgesia – apply to VBACs. If indication for primary Caesarean was dystocia, percentage successful VBACs was 77%. Women who required oxytocin for induction had 58% successful vaginal delivery versus 88% who required oxytocin for augmentation (Sakala, 1990; Silver, 1987; Stovall, 1987).
• Fetal distress – See Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Management algorithm and annotations.
• Maternal Complications – Pre-eclampsia and exacerbation of pre-existing maternal illness are managed similarly in complicated VBAC versus a complicated vaginal labor patient.
• Uterine rupture – The scarred uterus has an increased potential to rupture. Uterine rupture occurs in between 1/100 and 1/11,000 deliveries, depending on whose data one uses and the clinical presenta-tion. The type of scar makes a difference in frequency of rupture and severity of symptoms, also (LST 0.2-0.8 Classical 4.3-8.8, T4.3-8.8, Low Vertical 0.5-6.5).
Rupture through a low segment transverse scar is much more likely to go undetected or produce maternal hypovolemia or gradual fetal distress. Complete rupture with expulsion of fetus or placenta is a true obstetric emergency and can lead to maternal or hypovolemic complication, even death, as well as fetal hypoxia and death.
Conditions that increase the risk for uterine rupture:
• Previous uterine injury, Caesarean delivery, myomectomy, etc.
• Trauma during pregnancy – hyperstimulation, difficult forceps, internal podalic versions, fundal
pressure, etc.
• Uterine defects not related to trauma, e.g., congenital defect, invasive mole. • More than one previous Caesarean delivery
Signs and symptoms of uterine rupture include:
• Fetal distress – 50%-70% of detected ruptures present with abnormal FH tracings (i.e., variable decelerations that evolve into late decelerations)
• Uterine pain, especially pain over previous incision that continues between contractions • Hemorrhage – intra-abdominal, vaginal or urinary
www.icsi.org • Loss of contractions
• Recession of presenting part • Fetal death
Uterine scar disruptions can be classified into three types:
• Scar dehiscence – Opening of previous scar, with intact overlying peritoneum (uterine serosa) no expulsion of uterine contents
• Incomplete rupture – Opening of previous scar, but not overlying peritoneum, extraperitoneal extru-sion of intrauterine contents
• Complete rupture – Opening of previous scar and overlying peritoneum with extrusion of intrauterine contents into peritoneal cavity
(Pridjian, 1992)
Supporting evidence is of classes: C, D, R
Treatment of Failure To Progress in Labor Algorithm Annotations
79. Less Than 1 cm Dilation x Two Consecutive Hours?
Labor progress is measured in dilation of the cervix. The only way to make this assessment is to do cervical checks. Cervical checks should indicate at least 1 centimeter dilation per hour. Frequent cervical checks afford the best opportunity for detection of failure to progress.
At least one clinical trial testing the effectiveness of active management of labor in reducing Caesarean deliveries has used one-hour checks; others have used two-hour checks. Consider the effects of medication on progress of labor and affects on the fetus. The "two-hour" rule for determining dilatation has been chal-lenged. However, there is not enough supporting evidence to change our recommendation of "one-hour" cervical checks.
(ACOG Practice Bulletin, 2003a, Akooury, 1988; Boylan, 1991; Frigoletto, 1995; Lopez-Zeno, 1992; Turner, 1988; Zhang, 2002).
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, C, R
80. Management of Arrest Disorders
Failure to progress is defined as cervical changes of less than 1 cm per hour for two consecutive hours. Active
management of labor does not reduce the rate of Caesarean delivery but may decrease the length of labor and increase patient satisfaction in nulliparas. [Conclusion grade II: See Conclusion Grading Worksheet C – Annotation #80 (Management of Arrest Disorders)] Also see: (Glantz, 1997; DeMott, 1992; Harman, 1999; MN Clinical Comparison and Assessment Project, 1991).
The sequence of management of arrest disorders includes:
1. Evaluation of the potential causes (check adequacy of labor with internal monitor). Adequate contractions are counted as a minimum of 200 montevideo units per 10-minute blocks of time over a two-hour time period.
2. Artificial rupture of membranes if membranes are intact and there are no contraindications. (See
Annotation #11, "Intrapartum Care.")
www.icsi.org 4. Oxytocin augmentation according to hospital protocol.
Contraindications include:
• unknown presentation or floating/unstable,
• patient refusal, and
• inability to monitor contractions adequately.
Electronic monitoring of fetal heart tones and uterine contractions is necessary when oxytocin is administered. Refer to Main Algorithm, Annotation #11, "Intrapartum Care," for criteria to guide discontinuance of oxytocin augmentation.
Because of the risk of uterine hyperstimulation, an intrauterine pressure catheter should be encour-aged in conjunction with a high-dose oxytocin protocol.
Uterine hyperstimulation is defined as contractions lasting longer than 90 seconds, or more than five contractions in 10 minutes. Contractions can be managed by changing the maternal position
and administering oxygen, shutting off the pitocin until recovery has occurred and possibly the administration of terbutaline 0.25 mg subcutaneously.
5. Obtain an obstetrical/surgical consult if necessary. Caesarean delivery is done when patient is not making progress for two to four hours (regardless of oxytocin dosage or duration of oxytocin) after adequate contraction pattern has been achieved on maximum oxytocin dose appropriately used. Although studies of single aspects of active management have not demonstrated a decrease in the rate of Caesarean delivery, an analysis of the literature suggests that some combination of active management techniques will lead to an overall decrease in the rate of Caesarean delivery (Turner, 1988).
Supporting evidence is of classes: C, M, R
82. Caesarean Delivery
After evaluating these options, caregiver will perform a Caesarean delivery when necessary. Education for vaginal birth after Caesarean trial of labor is given before discharge.
84. Less Than 1 cm Descent Per Hour?
When the patient has reached Stage II labor, a reassessment at least every 30 minutes x2 is done to assess descent of the fetus and rotation of the fetus. If the patient is making appropriate progress, the caregiver can anticipate vaginal delivery. Fetal descent should be greater than 1 cm per hour.
If patient is not progressing, consider an internal monitor to measure strength of uterine contractions. After two hours of internal monitoring there should be enough evidence to determine if patient is making progress (Harbert, 1992).
Relative contraindications to direct, invasive monitoring include chorioamnionitis, active maternal genital herpes infection and HIV infection, certain fetal presentations and conditions that preclude vaginal examinations such as placenta previa or undiagnosed vaginal bleeding (Association of Women's Health Obstetrics and Neonatal Nurses, 2003).
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86. Management of Protraction Disorders
If the patient in Stage II labor is not making progress, management of protraction disorders will include:
• Evaluation of maternal position and fetus position. Consider having the patient move into different positions.
• Evaluation of fluid balance
• Oxytocin augmentation for failed Stage II unless contraindicated. (See Annotation #80, "Manage-ment of Arrest Disorders.")
• OB/Surgical consult if necessary
(ACOG Practice Bulletin, 2003; Minnesota Clinical Comparison and Assessment Project, 1991; Saunders, 1992)
Supporting evidence is of classes: B, R
88. Operative Vaginal Delivery Contraindicated?
When above measures fail, the caregiver will consider operative vaginal delivery, including vacuum
extrac-tion or mid/low forceps delivery unless contraindicated. Vacuum extracextrac-tion contraindicaextrac-tions include:
• presenting part is too high, • provider is inexperienced,
• fetal distress with inability to do timely operative vaginal delivery, and • patient refusal.
Note: When using vacuum extraction or forcep application with a suspected macrosomic infant, be aware
of the risk of shoulder dystocia.
There is some evidence to suggest that it is safe to wait to intervene until after four hours of adequate labor with progress in absence of fetal distress (Akoury, 1988; ACOG, 2000; Rouse, 1999).
Supporting evidence is of classes: C, D, R
Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring Algorithm Annotations
91. Continuous EFM-ext or EFM-int (if needed)
Electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) is indicated in all high-risk situations and in low-risk situations when the
auscultatory pattern is unclear or when 1:1 nursing staff is not available. Internal EFM may allow easier patient positioning and promote patient activity by being less confining than external EFM. Low-risk patients
should be encouraged to be as active and mobile as possible.
95. Assessment and Remedial Techniques
A persistently non-reassuring FHR tracing requires evaluation of the possible causes. Initial evaluation and
treatment may include:
• discontinuation of any labor stimulating agent;
• cervical examination to assess for umbilical cord prolapse or rapid cervical dilation or descent of the fetal head;
www.icsi.org • changing maternal position to the left or right lateral recumbent position, reducing compression of
the vena cava and improving uteroplacental blood flow;
• monitoring maternal blood pressure level for evidence of hypotension, especially in those with regional anesthesia (if present, treatment with ephedrine or phenylephrine may be warranted); • assessment of patient for uterine hyperstimulation by evaluating uterine contraction frequency and
duration; and
• amnioinfusion – indications for therapeutic amnioinfusion include repetitive severe variable decelera-tions and prolonged deceleradecelera-tions (Fraser, 2005; Miyazaki, 1985; Rinehart, 2000). Amnioinfusion for thick meconium is no longer recommended.
(ACOG Practice Bulletin, 2005)
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, R
96. Reassuring Fetal Heart Rate (FHR) Pattern Now?
All obstetrical nurses, nurse midwives and physicians must achieve competence and confidence in fetal
heart rate monitoring and FHR pattern analysis. The following patterns must be recognized and managed
appropriately:
• Late decelerations are a gradual decrease and return to baseline of the fetal heart rate associated with a uterine contraction. The deceleration's onset, nadir and termination are coincident with the onset, peak and termination of the contraction. Late decelerations indicate possible uteroplacental
insufficiency and they imply some degree of fetal hypoxia. Repetitive late decelerations and late
decelerations with decreased baseline variability are non-reassuring.
• Variable decelerations are an abrupt decrease in fetal heart rate below the baseline. The decrease is greater than or equal to 15 beats per minute (bpm), lasting equal to or greater than 15 seconds and less than two minutes from onset to return to baseline. The onset, depth and duration of vari-able decelerations commonly vary with successive uterine contractions. Varivari-able decelerations are non-reassuring when the FHR drops to less than 70 beats per minute (bpm), persists for at least 60 seconds from the beginning to the end of the variable deceleration, and is repetitive. The pattern of variable deceleration consistently related to the contractions with a slow return to FHR baseline is also non-reassuring.
• Tachycardia is a FHR greater than 160 bpm. Fetal tachycardia may be a sign of persistent non-reas-suring tracing when it lasts longer than 10 minutes and is associated with decreased variability. • Moderate bradycardia is a FHR less than 110 bpm and is often associated with fetal head
compres-sion. Severe bradycardia (less than 80 bpm) lasting longer than three minutes is an ominous finding
and may be associated with fetal acidosis.
• A sinusoidal pattern of regular oscillation of the baseline long-term variability with absent short-term variability is an ominous sign that may indicate fetal compromise.
• Prolonged deceleration is a decrease in FHR below the baseline of 15 bpm, lasting 2 minutes but less than 10 minutes from onset to return to baseline. A prolonged deceleration of 10 minutes or more is considered a change in baseline. Prolonged deceleration can be caused by any mechanism that leads to fetal hypoxia.
(ACOG 2005; Kubli, 1969; Murata, 1982; Tejani, 1976) Supporting evidence is of classes: D, R
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99. Further Fetal Assessment Reassuring?
Obtain obstetrical or surgical consultation or referral where needed to plan for operative delivery if there are any non-reassuring FHR patterns present. Consider contacting a neonatology team to plan for possible neonatal intervention.
Reassuring results: 15 bpm increase for 15 seconds from beginning to end of acceleration in response to scalp
stimulation or to vibration or sound. Fetal scalp blood sampling for pH may be used to assess a nonreassuring fetal heart rate pattern. Scalp pH greater than 7.19 is a positive result (Skupski, 2002; Smith, 1986).
Scalp pH or other fetal assessment may be performed according to each medical group's established practice.
Fetal pulse oximetry is an emerging technology whose benefit is yet unproven. [Conclusion Grade III: See Conclusion Grading Worksheet D – Annotation #99 (Further Fetal Assessment Reassuring)]
If the scalp stimulation test or vibroacoustic test is non-reassuring, immediate delivery is indicated. Other tests to assess fetal status may be helpful if available. This includes fetal scalp sampling to determine fetal acid base status. However, proper FHR pattern interpretation and the use of scalp stimulation or vibroacoustic stimulation can allow the clinician to detect persistent non-reassuring tracing.
Knowledge of the fetal oxygen saturation is not associated with a reduction in the rate of Caesarean delivery or with improvement in the condition of the newborn (Bloom, 2006).
Supporting evidence is of classes: A, D, M
100. Emergent Delivery
Persistent non-reassuring tracings indicate the need for emergent delivery. Delivery should be affected by appropriate means, depending on the clinical situation. This may include vacuum extraction, forceps or Caesarean delivery, depending upon fetal presentation and the expertise of the attending physician(s). Caesarean delivery should be performed if vacuum extraction or forceps are inappropriate for use. If a Caesarean delivery is performed, the suitability of a VBAC in a subsequent pregnancy should be discussed with the patient.
The following are indications for Caesarean birth based on abnormal FHR monitoring, according to the
Minnesota Clinical Comparison and Assessment Project:
• Late decelerations that comprise the majority of contractions over a minimum 20-minute period in the absence of adequate beat-to-beat variability and that do not respond to remedial techniques.
• Severe variable decelerations that comprise the majority of contractions over 20-60 minutes and that do not respond to remedial techniques.
• Severe persistent non-remediable bradycardia.
• Scalp pH less than 7.2 or negative FHR acceleration test (confirmation in 15-20 minutes recom -mended).
• There may be other combinations or non-remediable patterns that may not meet severity criteria listed above that may be indications for preparation for Caesarean birth. A scalp pH or FHR acceleration test (scalp or acoustic) may help clarify the issue. Consultation or second opinion is suggested.
• In the second stage of labor, depending on the judgment and skill of the physician, operative vaginal delivery may be the least hazardous for the mother and child.
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If one-minute APGAR is less than three, or five-minute APGAR is less than six, cord pH or gases are recommended. Cord pH is a better indicator than APGAR for fetal compromise. A segment of umbilical cord is isolated with clamps and may be stored up to 60 minutes after delivery with reliable umbilical artery pH determination. The segment does not need to be heparinized or placed on ice (Duerbeck, 1992; Johnson, 1993).
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Appendix A – Abbreviations Used in This Guideline
amnio amniocentesis
DIC disseminated intravascular coagulation
fFN fetal fibronectin
FHR fetal heart rate
FHT fetal heart tracing
FLM fetal lung maturity
GBS group B streptococcus
MPAF Minnesota Pregnancy Assessment Form
N,P,F nitrazine, pooling and ferning
oligo oligohydramnios
PE pelvic exam
PROM premature rupture of membranes
pPROM preterm premature rupture of membranes
PTL preterm labor
ROM rupture of membranes
SSE sterile speculum exam
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Appendix B – Patient Education Handout
ACTIVE MANAGEMENT OF LABOR
Is active management of labor for you?This is for you if you are going to be giving birth for the first time, you are healthy and are within three
weeks of your due date, and the baby is in the usual head-down position.
This is not for you if you have delivered a baby before, or if you are having your labor induced (started) in the hospital, or if you are expecting more than one baby.
Why is active management of labor used?
Active management of labor is a method of intervention that prevents labor from lasting too long. Prolonged labor increases a woman's risk of exhaustion, infection, hemorrhage after delivery and need for Caesarean delivery.
Recent studies in both the United States and abroad have demonstrated clear benefits of this intervention.
Active management of labor does not cause any increased risks to the baby.
How is active management of labor used?
It begins when you are admitted to the hospital in labor, and you are having regular contractions at least every
five to seven minutes. When your cervix is effaced (thinned out) and dilated to 3 centimeters or more, your
care provider will check if your membranes have ruptured (water has broken). If not, the membranes will be opened unless the baby's head is too high. This procedure is known as an "amniotomy." The amniotic
fluid will then start to leak out. This procedure may be enough to keep your labor progressing and prevent
it from lasting a long time.
During your labor, you will need to have a vaginal exam every two hours or so to check your progress. If your cervix continues to dilate at least one centimeter or more per hour, your labor is making normal progress. If your labor progress stalls and your cervix changes too slowly (less than 1 centimeter in two hours), your labor will be augmented with a medication, oxytocin.
Oxytocin (Pitocin) Augmentation
Pitocin is a synthetic hormone that helps to increase the strength of the contractions and make them more effective. It is given through an intravenous (IV) drip and the amount is carefully monitored.
A fetal monitor will be used to follow the baby's heartbeat and record the contractions.
You will still be able to move around and change positions for your own comfort. You can certainly also receive pain relief as needed.
Failure to Progress
If following this labor management plan does not progress to vaginal delivery, you will need a Caesarean delivery. Active management does not increase your chances of failure to progress; however, it can shorten the time between the beginning of your labor and when the decision is made for a Caesarean delivery. This can help in your recovery from surgery.
www.icsi.org The third stage of labor (delivery of placenta)
Following delivery of the baby, oxytocin can be given to help your uterus contract to deliver the placenta and control bleeding. This can be given through your intravenous drip (if you have one) or as a shot. Studies have shown that this management reduces the rate of heavy bleeding after delivery, anemia (low iron in the blood) and the need for blood transfusion.
How do women like active management of labor?
Many women like having an idea of knowing how long their labor will last and knowing that it will not last too long. After delivery, they have more energy to enjoy their baby and to get breast-feeding off to a good start.
This information is meant to enhance but not replace what you learn in childbirth education classes. Child-birth education classes are highly recommended.
Availability of references
References c
