Foundation Hypothesis

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Content

Page Page Introduction Introduction Section

Section 1: 1: Overview Overview of of the the Scientific Scientific MethodMethod Section

Section 1: 1: MeaniMeaning ng of of HypothesiHypothesiss Section

Section 1: 1: Definitions Definitions of of HypothesisHypothesis Section

Section 1: 1: Importance Importance of of HypothesisHypothesis Section

Section 1: 1: Nature Nature of of HypothesisHypothesis Section

Section 1: 1: Writing Writing a a HypothesisHypothesis Section

Section 1: 1: Characteristics Characteristics of of Good Good HypothesisHypothesis Section

Section 1: 1: Good Good Hypotheses Hypotheses TipsTips Section

Section 1: 1: Variables Variables in in a a HypothesisHypothesis Section

Section 1: 1: Kinds Kinds of of HypothesHypotheseses Section

Section 1: 1: Scientific Scientific Hypothesis Hypothesis RequirementsRequirements Bibliography

Bibliography

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Foundation of Hypothesis

Research Methodology: Unit I

BODJE NKAUH NATHAN REGIS

M.PHIL 2010

CHRIST UNIVERSITY

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Content

Page

Introduction

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03 Section 01 :

Section 01 :

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_{Scientific Method}

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Section 02 :

Section 02 : Meaning

Meaning of

of Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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05 Section 03 :

Section 03 : Definitions

Definitions of

of Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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06 Section 04 :

Section 04 : Importance

Importance of

of Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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08 Section 05 :

Section 05 : Nature

Nature of

of Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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09 Section 06 :

Section 06 : Writing

Writing a

a Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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Section 07 : Characteristics

Characteristics of

of Good

Good Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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11 Section 08 :

Section 08 : Good

Good Hypothes

Hypotheses

es Tips

Tips

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12 Section 09 :

Section 09 : Variables

Variables in

in a

a Hypothesis

Hypothesis

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14 Section 10 :

Section 10 : Kinds

Kinds of

of Hypotheses

Hypotheses

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16 Section 11 :

Section 11 : Scientific

Scientific Hypothesis

Hypothesis Requirements

Requirements

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19 Conclusion

20 Conclusion

20 References

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Foundation of Hypothesis Page 3

Introduction

The typical presentation of the Scientific Method suggests that scientific

research follows a path, proceeding from a question through observation,

hypothesis formation, and experimentation and finally producing results and a

conclusion.

A scientific study is based on hypotheses. For the assignment of research

methodology courses, we have chosen to speak about hypothesis , because it may

be appropriate before write the research proposal to formulate major hypotheses

and several hypotheses of our subject.

The formulation of hypothesis is a central step in good research [6], and it is

important to give and understand very well many aspect of this.

It is what; this document is tried to do. To avoid some problem in formulate

hypothesis, and aid to ask the right question to write the good hypothesis.

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The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and

effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. [1]

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number.

Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to focus your science fair project question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your experiment.

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Meaning of Hypothesis

The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis [1]

(1) µHypo¶ means tentative or subject to the verification and µThesis¶ means statement

about solution of a problem.

The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale.

(2) µHypo¶ means composition of two or more variables which is to be verified. µThesis¶

means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.

This is the operational meaning of the term hypothesis. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified

empirically. It is a proposition about the fact ual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem.

A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena under observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and action- in the research for new truth.

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Definitions of Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an "educated guess" about how things work. It can be an educated guess about what nature is going to do, or about why nature does what it does. [3]

is simply an educated²and testable²guess about the answer to your research question [6]

- Atentativ_{e supposition or pro}v_{isional guess}

 ³Hypotheses are single tentative guesses--good hunches--assumed for use in

devising theory or planning experiment, intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible.´ Eric M. Rogers, "Physics for the Inquiring Mind." (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1966)

 ³It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the

situation under observation.´ James E. Greighton - ATentativ_{e generalization}

 ³A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation the validity of which remains to be

tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes the basis for further investigation.´ A Lungberg - Shrewd Guess

 ³It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to

explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.´ John W. Best

- Guides the Thinking Process

 ³Science employs hypothesis in guiding the thinking process. When our

experience tells us that a given phenomenon follows regularly upon the appearance of certain other phenomena, we conclude that the former is connected with the latter by some sort of r elationship and we form an hypothesis concerning this relationship.´ A.D. Carmichael

- Test to determine its v_alidity

 ³A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a

proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect.´ Goode and Han

 ³A theory when stated as a testable proposition formally and clearly a nd subjected

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Foundation of Hypothesis Page 7 - Relationship between two or more v_ariables

 ³A hypothesis then could be defined as an expectation about events based on

generalization of the assumed relationship between variables.´ Bruce W. Tuckman - Statement temporarily accepted as true

 ³A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at

the time, known about a phenomena, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search for new truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts, principles and theories.´ Barr and Scates

 ³Hypothesis is an assumption or proposition whose testability is to be tested on the

basis of the computability of its implications with empirical evidence with previous knowledge.´ George, J. Mouly

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Importance of Hypothesis

Bruce W. Tuckman presents the importance of Hypothesis in the Research Spectrum : Research begins with a problem and utilization of both theories and findings in arriving at hypothesis. These hypotheses contain variables which must be labelled a nd then operationally defined to construct predictions. These steps might be considered the logical stages of t he research. These stages are followed by methodological stages, which culminate in the development of research design and development of measures and finally in the finding themselves.

George J. Mouley thinks that Hypotheses serve the following purposes:

1. They provide direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the collection of useful or excess data.

2. They sensitize the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the standpoint of the problem at hand.

3. They enable the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its ramification.

4. They serve as a framework for the conclusive-in short a good hypothesis: (a) Gives help in deciding the direction in which he has to proceed.

(b) It helps in selecting pertinent fact. (c) It helps in drawing conclusions.

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Nature of Hypothesis

The following are the main features of a hypothesis:

1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a hypothesis. The concepts should be clearly defined, operationally if possible. Moreover, they should be definitions which are commonly accepted and communicable rather than the products of a³ private world´ .

2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts, it is not merely idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification. 3. It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates t he tentative relationship between two or more variables. In other words, while the hypothesis may study value judgments, such a goal must be separated from a moral preachment or a plea for acceptance of one¶s values [7]

4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future verification not the past facts and informations.

5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its verification.

The nature of hypothesis can be well understood by differentiating it with other terms like assumption and postulate.

Rapid Reference: Assum ption, Postul ate and Hy pothesis

Assumption: Assumption means taking things for granted so that the situation is simplified for logical procedure. They merely facilitate the progress of an agreement a partial

simplification by introducing restrictive conditions. For example, the for mulas of Statistics and measurement are based on number of assumptions. Assumption means restrictive conditions before the argument can become valid. Assumptions are made on the basis of logical insight and their truthfulness can be observed on the basis of data or evidences. Postulate: Postulates are the working beliefs of most scientific activity. The mathematician begins by postulating a system of numbers which range from 0 to 9 and can permute and

combine only thereafter. Similarly µHull¶s Theory of Reinforcement¶s is based on eight

postulates of behavior of an organism. With many people God and Spirit is a postulate of the good life or godly life. Postulates are not proven; they ar e simply accepted at their face value so that their basic work for the discovery of other facts of nature can begin.

Hypothesis:A hypothesis is different from both of these. It is the presumptive statement of a proposition which the investigator seeks to pr ove. It is a condensed generalization. This

generalization requires a knowledge of principles of things or essential characteristics which pertain to entire class of phenomena.

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Writing a Hypothesis

Most of the time a hypothesis is written like this:

"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." [1] Example

- If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light , then people with a high exposure to uv light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer.

- If leaf color change is related to temperature, then exposing plants to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color.

Notice that these statements contain the words, if and then. They are necessary in a formalized hypothesis. But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. For example,

- If I play the lottery, then I will get rich. T his is a simple prediction.

In a formalized hypothesis, a tentative relationship is stated. if you a lways ask yourself that if one thing is related to another, then you should be able to test it.

Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is "independent" and the other is "dependent" [4]. The independent variable is the one you, the "scientist" control and the dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or measure the results.

Rapid Reference: S am ple V ari ables & Hy pothesis [5]

Question: Which AA battery maintains its voltage for the longest period of time in low, medium, and high current drain devices?

Variables: - Independent Variable: Time, how long each battery operates. -Dependent Variable: Voltage.

Experime ntal Group Controlled Variables for Each Group

Low current drain Same portable CD player | Play the same music track | Play at the same volume level

Medium current drain Identical flashlight | Identical light bulb High current drain Same camera flash

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Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics:

1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.

2. A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true. 3. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.

4. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.

5. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally called hunch.

6. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the investigator.

7. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools a nd techniques will be effectively used for the purpose of verification.

8. A good hypothesis takes into account the different t ypes controls which are to be exercised for the purpose of verification.

9. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is r eadily approachable.

10. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study. 11. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law, facts, assumption and postulate.

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Good Hypotheses Tips

The question comes first. Before you make a hypothesis, you have to clearly identify the question you are interested in studying.

A hypothesis is a statement, not a question. Your hypothesis is not the scientific

question in your project. The hypothesis is an educat ed, testable prediction about what will happen.

Make it clear. A good hypothesis is written in clear and simple language. Reading your hypothesis should tell a teacher or judge exactly what you thought was going to happen when you started your project.

Keep the variables in mind. A good hypothesis defines the variables in easy-to-measure terms, like who the participants ar e, what changes during the testing, and what the effect of the changes will be. (For more information a bout identifying variables, see: Variables in Your Science Fair Project.)

Make sure your hypothesis is "testable." To prove or disprove your hypothesis, you need to be able to do an experiment and take measurements or make observations to see how two things (your variables) are related. You should also be able to repeat your experiment over and over again, if necessary.

To create a "testable" hypothesis make sure you have done all of these things: 1. Thought about what experiments you will need to carry out to do the test. 2. Identified the variables in the project.

3. Included the independent and dependent variables in the hypothesis statement. (This helps ensure that your statement is specific enough.

Do your research. You may find many studies similar to yours have already been conducted. What you learn from available research and data can help you shape your project and hypothesis.

Don't bite off more than you can chew! Answering some scientific questions can involve more than one experiment, each with its own hypothesis. Make sure your hypothesis is a specific statement relating to a single experiment.

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Foundation of Hypothesis Page 13 To help demonstrate the above principles and techniques for developing and writing solid, specific, and testable hypotheses, we offer the following good and bad examples.

Good Hypothesis Poor Hypothesis

When there is less oxygen in the water, rainbow trout suffer more lice.

Kristin says: "This hypothesis is good because it is testable, simple, written as a statement, and establishes the participants (trout ), variables (oxygen in water, and numbers of lice), and predicts effect (as oxygen levels go down, the numbers of lice g o up)."

Our universe is surrounded by another, larger universe, with which we c an have absolutely no contact.

Kristin says: "This statement may or may not be true, but it is not a scientific hypothesis. By its very nature,it is not testable. There are no observations that a scientist can make to tell whether or not the hypothesis is correct. This statement is speculation, not a hypothesis."

Aphid-infected plants that are ex posed to ladybugs will have fewer a phids after a week than a p hid-infected plants which are left untreated.

Sandra says: "This hypothesis gives a clear indication of what is to be tested (the ability of ladybugs to curb an aphid infestation), is a manageable size for a single experiment, mentions the independent v ariable (ladybugs) and the dependent variable (number of aphids), and predicts the effect (exposure to ladybugs reduces the number of aphids)."

Ladybugs are a good natural pesticide for treating a phid infected plants.

Sandra says: "This statement is n ot 'bite size.' Whether or not something is a 'good natural pesticide' is too vague for a science fair project. There is no clear indication of what will be measured to evaluate the pr ediction.

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Variables in a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is made testable by providing operational definitions for the terms or variables of the hypothesis. For a testable hypothesis there are two i mportant things : Variables, and Operational definitions.

There are five types of variables.

(i) The Independent Variable: The independent variable which is a stimulus variable or input operates either within a person or within environment to affect his behaviour. It is that factor which is measured, manipulated. or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomena.

If a researcher is studying the relationship between two variables X and Y. If X is independent variable, then it affects another variable Y: So the characteristics of independent variables are: (a) It is the cause for change in other variables.

(b) Independent variables are always interested only it affects another variable, not in what affects it.

(ii) The Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is response variable or output. It is a n observed aspect of the behaviour of an organism that has been stimulated. The dependent variable is that factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variables. It is the variable that will change a s a result of variations in the

independent variable. It is considered dependent because its value depends upon the value of the independent variable. It represents the consequence of change in the parson or situation

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Foundation of Hypothesis Page 15 Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables: Most experiments involve

many variables when two continuous variables ar e compared, as in correlation studies, deciding which variable to call independent and which dependent is sometimes arbitrary. In such cases variables are often not labelled as independent or dependent since there is no real distinction. Independent variables may be called factor and their variation may be called levels.

(iii) The Moderator Variable: The term moderator variable describes a special type of independent variable a secondary independent variable selected for study to determine if it affects the relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable. The moderator variable is defined as that factor which is measured, manipulated or selected by the experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of independent variable

to an observed phenomena. The sex and rural ur ban generally function as moderator variables. (iv) Control Variable: All the variables in a situation can not be studied at the same time, some must be neutralized to guarantee that they will not have a differential or moderating effect on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. T hese variables whose effects must be neutralized or controlled ar e known as control variables. They are defined as those factors which are controlled by experimenter to cancel out or neutralize any effect they might otherwise have on the observed phenomena. While the effects of the control variables are neutralized, the effect of moderator variables are studied. Certain variables appear repeatedly as control variables, although they occasionally serve as moderator variables.

For example sex, intelligence and socio-economic status are three subject variables that ar e commonly controlled, noise, task order and task content are common control variables in the situation.

(v) Intervening Variable: Each independent, moderator, and control variable can be

manipulated by the experimenter and each variation can be observed by him as it affects the dependent variable. Often these variables are not concrete but hypothetical, the relationship between a hypothetical underlying or intervening variable and dependent variable. An

intervening variable is that factor which affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen and measured or manipulated, Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the Independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomena. The attitude, learning process, habit and interest function as Intervening variables.

In addition, the extraneous variables have an impact upon this Intervening variable. Such extraneous variables are not under the researcher¶s control, their presence weakens a study. One of the goals of a researcher is to remove as many significant factors as possible from the extraneous variables category by bringing them into the categories of moderator and control variables. Such a process of removing extraneous variables strengthens a study.

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Kinds of Hypotheses

The following kinds of hypotheses represent an attempt to order the more commonly observed varieties as well as to provide some general guidelines for hypothesis, development and

statement. There are four kinds of hypotheses: (a) Question (b) Declaration Statement (c) Directional Statement and (d) Null form or Non-Directional.

a. Question form of Hypotheses: Some writers assert that a hypothesis may be stated as a question, however, there is no general consensus on this view. At best, it represents the simplest level of empirical observation. The following example of a question is used to illustrate the various hypothesis forms:

H: Is there a significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes?

b. Declarative Statement : A hypothesis may be developed as a declarative which provide an anticipated relationship or difference between variables. The following is an

example of this form of hypothesis

H : There is significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes.

c. Directional Hypothesis : A hypothesis may be directional which connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference between variables. The above hypothesis has been written in directional statement for m as follows:

H : Extrovert learns better through intermittent schedule of reinforcement whereas introvert learns through continuous schedule of reinforcement.

d. N on-Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no difference exists between or among the variables. The following are the examples of null form of hypothesis

H0 : There is no significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes.

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Foundation of Hypothesis Page 17 Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes the null hypothesis [8]. Sometimes we use a notation like HAor H1to represent the alternative hypothesis or your

prediction, and HO or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though. In

some studies, your prediction might very well be that there will be no difference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are

opposed to the alternative.

If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-t ailed hy pothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of the company employee training program, there will either be no significant

difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase. which is tested a gainst the alternative hypothesis:

HA: As a result of the company employee training program, there will be a significant

decrease in employee absenteeism.

In the figure on the left, we see this situation illustrated graphically. The alternative

hypothesis -- your prediction that the program will decrease absenteeism -- is shown there. The null must account for the other two possible conditions: no difference, or an

increase in absenteeism. The figure shows a hypothetical distribution of absenteeism differences. We ca n see that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome variable.

When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-t ailed hy pothesis. For instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans.

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You believe (based on theory and the previous research) that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce

depression (after all, you've seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually were shown to have severe side effects t hat actually worsened symptoms). In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the drug, there will be no significant difference in

depression.

which is tested a gainst the alternative hypothesis:

HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the drug, there will be a significant difference in depression.

The figure on the right illustrates this t wo-tailed prediction for this case. Again, notice that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of the distribution for your outcome variable. The important thing to remember about stating hypotheses is that you formulate your

prediction (directional or not), and then you

formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first a nd incorporates all

possible alternative outcomes for that case. When your study analysis is completed, the idea is that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your prediction was correct, then you would (usually) reject t he null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If your original prediction was not supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject

the alternative. The logic of hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles:

y the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together, exhaust all possible outcomes

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Scientific Hypothesis Requirements

What makes a statement a scientific hypothesis, rather than just an interesting speculation? A scientific hypothesis must meet 2 requirements:

1. A scientific hypothesis must be testable,

Science proceeds by making observations of nature (experiments). If a hypothesis does not generate any observational tests, there is nothing that a scientist can do with it. Arguing back-and-forth about what should happen, or what ought to happen, is not the way science makes progress [3]

2. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable.

According to the 20th-century philosopher Karl Popper, hypotheses must be falsifiable

(Popper, 1963). In other words, the researcher must be able to demonstrate that the hypothesis is wrong. If a hypothesis is not falsifiable, then science cannot be used to test the hypothesis. For example, hypotheses based on religious beliefs are not falsifiable.

Therefore, because we can never prove that faith-based hypotheses are wrong, there would be no point in conducting research to test them. Another way of saying this is that the researcher must be able to reject the proposed explanation (i.e., hypothesis) of the phenomenon being studied. [6]

Notice: Most Scientific Hypotheses Can't Be Proven Correct!

Hypothesis C: "Any two objects dropped from the same height above the surface of the earth will hit the ground at the same time, as long as air resistance is not a factor."

Hypothesis C is a scientific hypothesis because:

+ It is testable - pick 2 objects, and drop them. Of course, you may have to provide a vacuum for them to fall in, in order to remove air resistance from consideration.

+ It is falsifiable - If anyone finds 2 objects that don't hit the ground at the same time and can show that it is not due to air resistance, then she has proven the hypothesis wrong. This hypothesis "sticks its neck out" for every test. In theory and in practice, if Hypothesis C were wrong, it would be very easy and straightforward to show it.

Note that it is very easy to prove Hypothesis C wrong, but it is impossible to prove it correct! Since Hypothesis C states that any pair of objects behaves in a certain way, in order to prove it correct, all possible combinations of objects that exist (or have ever, or will ever exist) must be tested. This is clearly not possible. As we test Hypothesis C more and more, we can get

more and more confident in its truth, but we can never be absolutely sure. Someone could always come up with 2 objects tomorrow which don't behave exactly as Hypothesis C says they should, and this would make Hypothesis C incorrect.

Actually, this almost happened. Just a few years ago a group of physicists published a paper claiming that careful reanalysis of some experimental data published at the turn of the centur y (which confirmed Hypothesis C) actually showed that t hings made of large, heavy atoms fall very slightly faster than things made of small, light atoms. This "fifth (antigravity) force" idea caused quite a stir for a short while, but no one has (so far) been able to confirm this effect. If other physicists had been able to observe it, Hypothesis C would have been proven wrong.

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Conclusion

According to L. R. Gay and Peter Airasian, a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or events that have occurred or will occur. "A good hypothesis states

as clearly and concisely as possible the expected relationship (or differencce) between two variables and defines those variables in operational, measurable terms." (Gay 1996, page 62). A well-stated and defined hypothesis must be testable. It should be possible to support or not support the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data. To formulate a research hypothesis we start with a research question and generate operational definitions for all variables. A hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. Hypothesis can also be classified in terms of how they were derived inductive hypothesis which is a generalization based on observation and deductive hypothesses derived from theory.

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References

[1] http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/pro ject_scientific_method.shtml [2] Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics Y.K. Singh, NEW AGE

INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

[3] http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/physics/phynet/aboutscience/hypotheses.html [4] http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.php

[5] http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_sample_variables.shtml [6] Essentials of Behavioral Science Series Founding Editors, Alan S. Kaufman a nd Nadeen L. Kaufman

[7] Methods in social research, William J. Goode and Paul K. Hatt [8] http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php

[9] Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application, Seventh E dition by L. R. Gay and Peter Airasian (2003, Merrill/Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-099463-4)