Overview Capitalism.pdf

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2.04

S O C I E T A L

R E V O L U T I O N S

lndustrial Revolution-Great

Britain 1730-1850

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GREAT BRITAIN,1850

I R E L A N D

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WHY THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION HAPPENED IN GREAT BRITAIN

o Abundance of natural resources Rich deoosits of coal and iron ore helped the development of the coal and iron industries. British overseas colonial possessions provided raw cotton, helping the development of the textile industry

o Geographical advantages Good harbors and rivers made foreign trade and transportation of bulky goods relatively easy. Rivers also provided water power before steam power was invented

a Abundance of labor New farming techniques and enclosures created unemployment among ' _agriCultural_{workers, leading pany to migrate to the}

towns where they provided a cheap labor supply.

a Capital A wealthy entrepreneurial class had the finance and business skills to set up new industries. Low bank interest rates encouraged entrepreneurs to develop new industries and manufacturing processes

a Markets Demand from two large markets benefited manufacturing industry: a growing and increasingly wealthy domestic population, and the British colonial population (colonists were compelled by law to buy British goods)

o Government The parliamentary system was dominated by people with an interest in the success of industry. Govemments passed legislation enabling the building of roads, canals, and railways; kept taxes low; and created the patent system to protect invbntors from people stealing their designs

a Inventions New inventions allowed mass-production (mass-production of identical articles in large quantities) to become a normal feature of industry by the '1870s, e.9., the invention of powered looms in the textile industry

COAL, IRON, AND COTTON PRODUCTION

Year Production in tonsr

1640 1,680,000

1770 6,721,000

1850 55,337,000

Year Production in tons 1740 19,000

1800 280,000 1850 2,240,0OO

Cotton Year Production in tons 1760 9,000

1800 280,000 1850. 336,000 *1 ton = 0.907 tonnes

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EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

a Workshop of the World Britain became the world's first industrialized nation. Britain

dominated world trade in manufaitured goods until the 1900s and became known as the "Workshoo of the World"

a Spread of industrialization The te)dile industry was the first to be industrialized and.was Britain's' fastest growing export industry. The factory system and use of powered machinery spread to other British industries and to other parts of Europe

a Changes in employment Manulacturing industry replaced agriculture as the dominant economic activity in Britain. Between 1760 and 1840, the percentage of the working population employed in agriculture declined lrom 52"/" to 29Y"; in manufacturing and related industries it rose from 24Yo to 477o

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THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

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THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

S O C I E T A L

Popufation Growth and Migration-Great Britain 1700-1851

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POPULATION GROWTH

Between 17OO and 1851 the population of England, Wales, and Scotland more than tre-bled, one of the most significant changes to effect early industrial Britain. The prbportion liv-ing in towns increased trom207" to 56%.

cAusEs

o Mo.e lood lmproved farming methods, , . encouraged by enclosqre of agricultural land,

increased the productivity of Bhtain's arable land. This led to an increased supply of food at lower prices

a Better health care Advances in medicine, such as the development of a smallpox vac-cine (by Edward Jenner in 1796) and the building of hospitals funded by wealthy indi-viduals or towns, improved the general level . of health care

a Better housing More people in rural commu-nities could afford to replace their mud-walled cottages with brick buildings. Houses in the new industrial towns were also built from brick. The improved protection from the weather and damp helped to reduce disease a Better clothing Factories began to

mass-produce cheap. cotton clothes and good quality soap, which allowed even the poorest families to have higher standards of hygiene and to avoid disease (cotton was much easier to wash and dry than wool)

MIGRATION

In 1700 the areas of highest population density were the fertile arable lands of the south and east. By 1850, many poor.people had migrated from rural communites to industrialized regions; the north and west of England became the most highly populated areas.

CAUSES

o Enclosures Enclosure of agricultural land forced many poor farmers from their land and removed their livelihood. Rather than work as seasonal agricultural laborers, many moved to the expanding industrial towns to find employment in factories and mines a New industrial areas Water and, later, coal

became vital sources of power for the Industrial.Revolution. New industrial towns grew up around the fast-flowing streams and abundant coal seams in the north of England and north Midlands. People moved to these areas looking for work

o Scottish land clearances Many Scottish peasants, forced from their land from about 1750 by landlords wanting to turn it over to sheep grazing, migrated to the developing industrial towns of lowland Scotland a lrish migration Hundreds of thousands of

lrish peasants migrated to English towns in search of employment when the potato blight of 184H8 caused starvation in lreland

50 100 miles 50 100 150 200 km

+ Migration

r Torivns with population less than 30,000 in 'l700 and over 100,000 in

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I R E L A N D

POPULATTON GROWTH tN ENGLAND, WALES,

AND SCOTLAND

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60o/o 14 million 16 million

52o/o 18 million 21 million 5 1 0 1 5 2 0

Estimated population (in millions)

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AGE OF REVOLUTION

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S O C I E T A L

E u ropean Science 1 800-1

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EVENTS

+ _{1800 ltalian Alessandro Volta announces his invention}_{of the} electric battery (called the voltaic cell)

F _{c. 1803 British scientist John Dalton outs forward his atomic} theory of matler

1820 Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovers links between electricity and magnetism

1827 French scientist Andr6 Ampire formulates laws of electromagnetism

1827 German physicist Georg Ohm lormulates a mathematical law of electric currents

1828 German chemist Friedrich W6hler synthesizes an organic compound, urea, from its inorganic constituents - lirst synthesis of its kind and the foundation of organic chemisiry

1831 British scientist Michael Faraday describes

electromagnetic induction (using a magnetic field to produce an electric current) - crucial to the development of electric generators and motors

1838-1839 German biologists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann advance the idea that cells are the basic units of plants and animals

1841 German chemist Justus von Liebig describes agricultural chemistry, founding biochemistry (branch of biology dealing with chemistry of living organisms)

1847 Hungarian lgnaz Semmelweiss establishes use of aseptic techniques to reduce disease caused by bacterial contamination in hosoitals

1847 Scotsman James Simpson is first to administer chloroform as an anaesthetic during surgery

1858 Evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace are presented in London

1864 French scientist Louis Pasteur invents pasteurization (heat treatment of milk, to kill microorganisms and lengthen shelf-life)

1865 Austrian monk Gregor Mende! establishes laws of heredity (inherited characteristics)

1867 British surgeon Joseph Lister establishes use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic (a substance that kills microorganisms)

1869 Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleyev devises the periodic table of chemical elements

1882 German scientist Robert Koch isolates the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis, proving that a microorganism can be the cause of human disease

1888 German physicist Heinrich Hertz is the first to use radio waves

1895 German physicist Wilhelm R6ntgen discovers powerful X rays (invisible electromagnetic radiation), later to be used in medical diagnosis and in atom-bombardment experiments 1895 Austrian Sigmund Freud founds psychoanalysis

1896 French scientist Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers that uranium emits radiation

1898 Polish-bom chemist Marie Curie discovers the radioac-tive element. radium

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS

Chemistry

o Chemistry was the pre-eminent science during the 19th century o Rules explaining or describing

behavior of chemicals were developed: atomic theory valence, and the periodie table a Organic chemistry and

biochemistry were established

Earth Science

r Geology became a rigorous science during the 1gth century a Awareness that fossils were

proof of the existence of extinct animals and plants suggested a much older age for the earth than previously supposed, and provided key evidence later used in support of biological

evolutionary theories

Biology

a Cell theory developed to describe structure of plants and animals o Louis Pasteur made imoortant

advances in microbiology and medicine

o Theory of evolution, as presented by Charles Danrvin and Alfred Wallace, came to form the underlying theoretical framework explaining origins of life and the relationships between soecies

Medicine

a Progress made in understanding workings ol human body a Use of anaesthetics coupled

with antiseptic techniques revolutionized surgical procedures a Acceptanie of germ theory of

disease, recognition of specific disease-causing microorganisms, and development of vaccines, revolutionized oublic health and hygiene

Physics

a Concepts of energy and energy transformations became firmly established o Discovery of radioactive

chemicals and of rays produced by bombarding atoms led to 20th-century developments in the understanding of atomic structure and use of atomic energy

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S O C I E T A L R E V O L U T I O N S

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INVENTIONS-INVENTORS

1803 Coal gas for factory lighting-Englishman William Murdock

1804 Steam locomotive-Englishman Richard Trevithick

1804 Automatic loor*-Frenchman Joseoh-Marie Jacouard

1824 Portland cement (construction material)-Englishman Joseph Aspidin

1825 Menai Straits Suspension Bridge-Scotsman Thomas Telford

1831 Telegraph (communication device using electrical pulses to denote letters and words)-Englishmen Charles Wheatstone and William Fothergill

1832 Analytical machine (mechanical computer)-Englishman Charles Babbage

1832 Dynamo (device lor generating electricity)-Frenchman Hippolyte Pixii

1 839 Photographic process-Frenchman Louis-Jacques Daguerre

1839 Photographic paper (for making negatives)-Englishman William Talbot

1843 Tunnel under the Thames (London)-Englishman lsambard Kingdom Brunel

1856 Cheap steel (process for mass-manufacturing) -Englishman Henry Bessemer

1858 Transatlahtic telegraph cable laid. 1862 Gelluloid products (first plastic items) displayed in public-Englishman Alexander Parkes

1867 Alternating current generator (first commer-cial version)-Belgian Z6nobe Th6ophile Gramme

1868 Dry-cell battery (as used in torches)-Frenchman Georges Leclanch6

1876 Four-cycle gasoline engine (later used in motor vehicles)-German Nikolaus Otto

1876 Telephone-Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell 1879 Electric railway in Berlin-German Emst Werrter von Siemens

1884 Rayon fibers (first synthetic

fabric)-Frenchman Hilaire Bemigaud;.Comte de Chardonnet 1884 Linotype typesetting machine-German Ottmar Mergenthaler

1885 First Gasciline-driven motor vehicles-built separately by German engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz

1893 Diesel engine (prototype)-German Rudolph Diesel

1895 Cinematograph-Frenchmen August and Louis Lumibre

1896 Wireless transmission (precurscir of radio)-Italian Guglielmo Marconi

1 The Menai Bridge (built 1825). New materials such as cement and mass-produced steel were used in innovative constructions

2 Charles Babbage's analytical engine (1832). This was an early precursor of 20th-century computer systems

3 Afive-needle telegraph (c. 1831). Messages that had once taken weeks to travel across a continent could be delivered almost instantaneously by telegraph 4 An early car (Daimler c. 1895). Bicycles and.then gasoline-driven cars replaced horsedrawn carts for private transport

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THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

@ Diagram

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S O C I E T A L R E V O L U T I O N S

DEVELOPMENTS IN IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE

STEEL DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS

Crucible Steel

Benjamin Huntsman, 1740

Bessemer Converter Henry Bessemer, 1856

Siemens Method Friedrich Siemens. 1861

Pig iron is melted in an open hearth and blasted with jeis of preheated air and burning gases to bum off impurities. Carbon and manganese are added.

PRODUCT (AND USE)

Small amounts of high quality steel (for swords, razors, knives)

Good quality steel (for machinery, ships, railway tracks) High quality steel (for machinery, ships, railway tracks)

IRON DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS PRODUCT (AND USE)

Charcoal blast furnace Method since

14th century

Charcoal, iron ore, and limestone are bumed in a furnace and blasted with air from water-powered bellows.

Pig iron, made into cast iron (for kettles, pots). Small amounts made into wrought iron (for nails, tools)

Coke blast furnace Abraham Darby l, 1709

Coke, iron ore, and limestoneare bumed in a furnace and blasted with air from bellows powered by water (or steam after 1727).

Good quality pig iron. Small amounts made into wrought iron and steel

Puddling furnace Henry Cort, 1784

Pig iron is remelted in a fumace and stirred with long rods (puddled) to mix in air, causing impurities to be burned off. Heavy rollers squeeze the cooling iron into rods, also removing impurities.

High quality wrought iron (for cables, machinery railway couplings, chains)

Gilchrist-Thomas method Sidney Gilchrist Thomas and Percy Carlyle Gilchrist, 1476

Coke, iron ore, and limestone are bumed in a blast {urnace lined with magnesium oxide, which chemically combines with and draws off phosphorus and sulfur impurities in the ore.

High quality pig iron from impure iron ore (used in Bessemer and Siemens steel processes)

Small amounts of pig iron are heated intensely in a crucible for long periods. Carbon and manganese are added.

Pig iron is melted, tipped into a shallow basin, and blasted with jets of air to bum off

impurities. Carbon and manganese are added.

DEVELOPMENTS IN

FUEL

1700 Charcoal

Charcoal used in all blast ' fumaces. lt is produced by

slow controlled buming of ilmber.

1709 Coke-fired Abraham Darby I uses coke in his blast fumace at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. Coke is produced by intense heating of coal in a low orygen environment to vaporize sulfur and other impurities.

1828 The Hot Blast Scotsman James Neilson discovers that if air blasted into iron smelting fumaces is preheated, ordinary uncoked coal can be used as a fuel.

Blast furnace

Access ramp

Fire resisEnt stone and lire-brick lining

Sand bed (when the Air fed by molten iron is tapped bellows it runs into molds through the shaped in wet sand) blast hole

IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION

1740-1913 Year

(ooos of tons*)

lron Steel

1740 1 9

1760 38

1796 140

1806 288

't850 _2,4&

1870 6,720 1,232

1884 8,736 2,128

1890 8,960 3,976

1900 10,080 5,488

1 908 10,976 6,720

1 9 1 0 1 1 , 2 0 0 7,280

1 9 1 3 1 1 , 5 3 6 8,624

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ton = 0.907 tonnes

British lron and Steel Production 1700-1913

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@ Diagram Published by Facts On File, Inc.

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S O C I E T A L

The Factory System-Great

Britain 1733-1861

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EVENTS

1733 John Kay invents the Flying Shuttle (1), a moving wooden component to which yarn is attached, allowing weavers to work twice as fast as before

1764 James Hargreaves invents the Spinning Jenny (2), a new spinning wheel that allows a spinner to work up to eight threads at a time (later, 80 threads)

1769 Richard Arlcvright invents the Water-Frame (3), which uses water power (later steam) to drive spinning wheels making strong, thick thread. The Water-Frame gradually replaces hand-operated machines

1771 Richard Arkwright builds the tirst water-powered cotton-spinning mill-in Cromford, Derbyshire

129 Samuel Crompton invents the Spinning Mule (4), which makes high-quality strong, fine thread

1786 Edmund Cartwright invents the Power Loom (5). This machine, pow-ered by water (later steam), speeds up weaving. Machinery is now too large for weavers to work at home. Demand for cotton grows

1785 Steam engines are first installed in cotton factories. Steam begins to replace water as a power source for the new machinery. Factory locations no longer restricted to sites by rivers

1793 American Eli Whitney invents the Cotton Gin (6) for separating cot-ton libers from seeds. The machine makes it possible for slaves on American plantations to produce ten times more cotton per day. lmports of cotton increase

1833 Factory Act. Textile factory own-ers can no longer employ children under nine years of age. Children under 13 to work a maximum of 8 hours per day and to receive 2 hours of education per day. Factory inspectors are employed to supervize implementation of the act

1M4 FactoryAct. Women are not permitted to work more than 'l2 hours per day in textile factories

By 1861 Around 400,000 Power Looms are in use in Britain. most in large factories

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIRST FACTORIES

Location

o Northern England and central Scotland

a Built near.rivers that could supply water power to run the machines

Owners

a Wealthy textile merchants and landowners

Labor

o Workers came from the poorer classes. In 1835, around 11o/o were under 1 3 years; 2OY" were 13-18 years; 367o were adult females; 33% were adult males

Conditions

a 12-14 working hours a day

o Unhealthy and unsafe conditions-rnany workers were injured by the machinery

Goods produced

r Mainly cotton and woolen cloth

Raw materials

o Cotton was shipped from cotton plantations worked by slaves in the southern United States. Wool was produced in Great Britain

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACTORY SYSTEM

CAUSES

o Demand across Europe for cloth (in particular cotton cloth) from the increased population a Invention of new machines (the Water-Frame

and Power Loom) using water and later steam power-rnachines too expensive and too ldrge to be set up in workers'homes

THE FACTORY SYSTEM 18th century a Large numbers of workers brought together

under one roof

I Division of labor. with each worker involved in one stage in the rhaking ol a product (in earlier 'Tactories" each laborer functioned independenily to produce goods from start to finish)

a Use of machinery instead of simple tools, aiding mass-production of goods (production of large quantities of identical goods)

o Quicker, cheaper, and more efficient production

IMPACT

o Decline of the domestic system (in which peasant workers given raw materials produced goods from start to finish at home; their employers paid them for the goods they produced and sold the finished articles) a Growth of the British textile industry and spread

of the Industrial Revolution in Europe

o Invention of machines and techniques making it possible to extend the factory system to other industries (e.9., firearms)

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THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

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S O C I E T A L

ChildLabor-GreatBritain1800-1asoiF-.\-w-?+i1ff$tii$?,:-T.q#,fl1*-T

The use of child labor in industrialized early 1gth-century Britain was more systematic and widespread than the agricul-tural work traditionally done by peasant cfiildren before the Industrial Revolution. In factories children were separated from their families and forced to work to regimented and exhausting schedules.

REASONS FOR EMPLOYING CHILDREN

o Cheap labor Profits were increased by employing children - they were paid between one-third and one-sixth of an adult male wage. Orphan children were the cheapest to employ; they worked in semi-slavery in return for food and a place to sleep

o Plentiful supply In 1821 ,49o/" of Britain's population was aged under 20 years (compared with 25o/o in the 1990s). Poorer classes sent their children to work because the money they eamed was essential for the family's survival

a Docile Children had no preconceived ideas and were less likely to complain about poor conditions and injuries sustained through unsafe working practices'

o Size and agility Children's small size meant that .they could work in confined spaces such as

narrow mining tunnels, chimneys, and beneath machinery in factories

e No regulations Initially, there were no laws to protect children from exploitation. The general trend of economic thought was strongly against any govemment interference with industry (theory known as laissez-faire or "leave alone")

CHILDREN AS PART OF THE WORKFORCE COTTON FACTORIES

(children working, in 000s)

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TWF 476,000 WOOL FACTORIES

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TWF 92.000

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TWF 317,000

Key: fUnderl3 f]to-tayrs TWF=Total Workforce CONDITIONS IN EARLY FACTORIES

a Long hours Before 1833 children as young as six typically worked between 12 and 14 hours every day (5 A.M.-l0.30 P.M.) except Sunday a Absence of recreation and education Rest

periods allowed were typically quarter of an hour for breakfast, hall an hour for dinner, and quarter of an hour for drinking water. There was no time left for play or education

o Harsh discipline Children were beaten tor breaking strict factory rules

a Iniuries and poor health Consumption and asthma were common. Some children became permanently deformed from working in unnatual postures for long periods

IMPROVEMENTS

British legislation protecting children:

1833 Factory Act (textile mills except silk and lace) Minimum age for employment 9 years; maximum of 8-hour day lor children under 1 3 years; 2 hours of education per day to be provided for children under 1 3; factory inspectorate esiablished

1842 Mines Act Women and children prohibited from work underground; 10 years minimum age for boys to work underground; mines inspectorate established

1844 Factory Act (textile factories only) Maximum ot iVzhour day for children under 13 years; 3 hours edu-cation to be provided per day

1867 Factory Act Extensions Act Minimum age for employment in a factory-8 years

1857 Agricultural Gangs Act Minimum age for agricultural employment-8 years

EXAMPLES OF JOBS

o Factorics Sweeping up cotton and wool waste from under machinery; tending machines a Mines Mine-workers'helpers, drawing trucks of

coal along narrow tunnels

o Potteries Boys were employed to convey molds from the potters'wheel to the stove for firing, woking in extreme heat

a Agriculture Children from the age of four were employed to do a wide range of jobs, trom weeding to birdscaring

o Other trades E.9., chimney-sweeps-small boys and girls were driven up hot chimneys to sweep the soot away. Some were accidentally burned alive

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THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

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Early European Railways 1 804-1

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lnvestment in transoort before 1830 was directed into improving roads and building canals. The'building of railways between 1830 and 'l880 brought a transport revolution to Europe. Thousands of workers called navigators ("nawies") were employed to make cuttings, tunnels, and embankments and lay miles of railway lines (first iron and then steel) for steam locomotive transport. British railways, financed entirely by private investment, led the way in this development. The new railways stimulated the iron (and later steel) industries. They reduced the costs of transporting raw materials and finished goods and provided a new form of passenger transport.

EVENTS

F 1804 Richard Trevithick builds the first commercial steam locomotive for an ironworks in south Wales, proving that locomotives with smooth wheels €n run on rails and haul substantial loads

1813-1820 First steam locomotives used by coal mines in northeast England

1 A21 -1 825 Steohenson builds the Stockton-Darlington line (northeast England)--carrying passengers as well as coal, it is the world's first public railway

1829 George Stephenson designs lhe Rocket, a locomotive that sets a record speed of 29 mph (47 kmlh)

1 830 Liverpool-Manchester rail-way opens in England-the first major railway. The Rocket is chosen to provide the motive power

From 1834 Belgian government provides state finance for railway develooment

By 1840 Briiain, Belgium, France, Germany, ltaly, and Russia start railway building. Austria, Holland, and Switzerland start railway building soon after

From 1842 French railway system combines state and private ownerchip.

By 1880 Europe has c. 65,000 miles (105,000 km) of raiMay

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George Stephenson's First-class carriage,

steam locomotive, the Liverpool-Manchester

Rocket,1829 Railway,1833

Second-class carriage, Liverpool-Manchester Railway, 1833

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