The glottalic consonants of Hausa.

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The Glottalic Consonants

of Hausa

by

Andrew Haruna

Thesis subm itted to the U n iversity of London (School of O riental and African Studies, D epartm en t

of Phonetics and Linguistics) for the degree of D octor of Philosophy

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ProQuest Number: 10673209

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Abstract

This thesis is concerned with the examination of the glottalic consonants of Hausa, a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Togo and Ghana. The glottalic consonants constitute a set of phonemes in the language whose historical and phonetic properties merit further investigation.

The study is laid out in three parts. Part one (Chapters 1, 2 and 3) is the historical section. Here, a general overview of the Hausa language is given. Also discussed are several specific points made by pioneers of the genetic classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic and the reconstruction of glottalic consonants in both Chadic and Afroasiatic. The discussion here is not new but presents a summary of the literature. Hausa native words that have glottalic consonants are compared with possible cognates from other related Chadic languages from West, Central and East branches of Chadic and also from other Afroasiatic languages.

Part two (Chapters 4 and 5) of the study concerns the investigation of phonation types in general. Chapter 4 gives a short account of the larynx, the mechanism of the vocal fold vibration and classification of phonation types. Chapter 5 is devoted to a review of instrumental techniques used in voice measurement.

Part three (Chapter 6, the instrumental section) presents

and discusses the results of a detailed electro-

laryngographic analysis of the activity of the behaviour of the vocal folds in the production of the glottalic consonants and their non-glottalic counterparts as observed in the speech of educated native speakers of the language. The chapter begins with a review of the literature reporting early instrumental and non-instrumental studies of the segmental phonemes of the language. This is followed by a description of the techniques used to record, display and annotate both speech pressure and laryngographic waveforms. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis of the waveforms are presented. The most important parameter in the quantitative analysis is estimated open quotient

(OQ) derived from the Lx waveforms measurements of

Fundamental Frequency, duration and Voice Onset Time are also given. The chapter concludes by presenting the results of the experiment:

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1 OQ increases in anticipation of plain voiceless consonants, and is relatively high at the consonantal release?

2 OQ decreases in anticipation of laryngealized

consonants including the glottal stop (for most

speakers) and less sharply for the ejectives;

3 OQ remains approximately at the speaker's modal value

for the plain voiced consonants;

4 The laryngealized segments tend to lower pitch at the

left of the consonant; and

5 They also tend to be longer than their plain

counterparts.

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Table of C ontents

Title P a g e ... 1 Abstract ... 2 Table of C o n t e n t s ... 4 List of T a b l e s ... 5 List of F i g u r e s ... 11 List of M a p s ... 29 D e d i c a t i o n 3 0 Acknowledgements ... 31 Notes and T r a n s c r i p t i o n s ... 35 List of C h a p t e r s ... 39 A p p e n d i c e s ... 590 R e f e r e n c e s ... 594

(6)

List of Tables

1.1: H a u s a C o n s o n a n t s :

Classification in Terms of

Place and Manner of

Articulation... 60

1.2: Hausa Vowel Phonemes... 61

1.3: Inventory of Hausa Glottalic

C o n s o n a n t s ... 62 2.1: N/M's (1966) Proto-Chadic Consonants... 7 6 2.2: NM's (1977b) Proto-Chadic Phonemes... 78 2.3: JS's (1981) Proto-Chadic P h o n e m e s ... 8 6 3.1: Phonological Correspondences in Semito-Hamitic (AA) Languages... 14 6

3.2: Main Phonetic Correspondences

in Semito-Hamitic (AA)... 147

5.6.1: Measurements of broad surface

contact during vocal fold

vibration... 256

5.6.2: Measurements of maximal

height of the larynx... 256

5.6.3: Measurements of the level of

the upper edge of P. vocalis

during vowel phonation... 2 56

5.7.1: Comparison between open

quotient from glottograms and

high speed motion pictures. . . . 263

5.7.2: Distribution of stops and

fricatives with respect to

g l o t t a l o p e n i n g and

continuity of pulsing... 2 68

(7)

5.7.3: Combinations of conditions of glottal opening and pulsing

for stops and fricatives... 2 68

5.7.4: Average time intervals of

glottal events for /p/, /ph/,

/b/, /bh/... 271

5.9.1: Phonation types - Ratios... 310

5.10.1: Time intervals for PCA

activity in relation to stop

closure and release... 328

5.11.1: Illustrations of tonal

contrast in Hmong... 351

5.11.2: Measures of glottal activity

in Burmese tones... 358

5.12.1: Air-flow measurements for

breathy vowels in Gujarati. . . . 364

5.12.2: Air-flow measurements for

Korean stops... 366

5.12.3: Mean values of peak sub- and

supra-glottal pressure

measurements for Sindhi

s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l

implosives/explosives... 374

5.12.4: Duration of voicing of Sindhi

implosives/explosives... 376

5.12.5: Mean and standard deviation

of reaction times for various

stop closures in English... 379

5.13.1: Duration of vowels in

monosyllables and disyllables

in Gujerati... 388

5.13.2: F u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y

measurements for Gujerati

vowels... 388

5.13.3: Average differences in

amplitude between murmured

(8)

Gujerati... 388

5.13.4: Difference between amplitudes

of first and second harmonics for breathy and clear vowels

in iXoo... 390

5.13.5: Relative amplitudes of first

and second harmonics for

breathy and normal vowels in

Gujerati... 391

5.13.6: Voice onset time measurements

for Korean stops... 4 00

5.13.7: Onset values of fundamental

frequency following a stop

consonant in K o r e a n ... 401

5.13.8: Vowel onset time measurements

5.13.9: Duration of the first full

glottal cycle of vowel

following plosive release for

Korean stops... 403

5.13.10: Acoustic Characteristics of

Hindi stops... 407

5.14.1: Table of languages and

techniques used in voice

measurement... 427

6.1: Word list used in the

experiment... 475

6.2: List of the Informants... 478

6.3: Breakdown of variation

according to speaker and

between speakers for / b 1/ and

/d'/... 500

between speakers for /'y/ and

/ V

... 504

(9)

according to speaker and between speakers for velar

ejective /k'/... 516

between speakers for alveolar

ejective /ts/... 523

6.7: AVOQ, mean OQ at pre, and

standard deviation for OQ at

pre for all speakers

pronouncing the word

yaayaa... 531

6.8: Means and standard deviations

for NQ1 for the various

consonant types... 536

6.9: First ANOVA table for NQ at

Cl... 538

6.10: R e s u l t s of p l a n n e d

c o m p a r i s o n s ... 538

6.11: Second ANOVA table for NQ at

C l ... 539

6.12: Results of Scheffe multiple

comparison... 539

6.13: Mean and standard deviation

for NQ2 for the various

consonant types... 54 0

6.14: First ANOVA table for NQ at

C2... 541

6.15: Second ANOVA table for NQ at

C2... 542

6.16: Results of the Scheffe

multiple comparison... 542

for the ratio of FRAT1... 542

6.18: ANOVA table for FRAT at Cl. . . . 545

(10)

for FRAT2... 546

6.21: ANOVA table for FRAT at C 2 . . . . 547

multiple comparison... 548

for NQ1 for the single and

geminate consonants for

speakers who recorded both

singles and geminates... 553

6.24: ANOVA table between single

and geminate consonants for

NQ at C l ... 554

multiple comparisons... 554

6.26: Mean NQ values and the

standard deviation at

position C2 for the various

consonant types... 555

NQ at 02 ... 556

6.28: Results of the comparisons. . . . 556

for the ratio FRAT1... 557

FRAT at Cl ... 558

for the ratio FRAT2... 559

FRAT at C2 ... 559

(11)

6.35: Comparison of mean values for geminate consonants with mean values for single consonants

for the variables NQ1,NQ2,

FRAT1 and FRAT2 ... 560

for NQ1 for individual

consonants and consonant

groupings. ... 563

6.37: ANOVA Table: NQ1 by consonant

type and speaker (single

consonants)... 564

6.38: Durations, mean durations and

duration ratios for the

bilabial stops... 567

alveolar stops... 568

6.40: Durations, mean, mean VOT,

and duration ratios for the alveolar affricate ejective, voiceless stop and voiceless

fricative... 57 0

6.41: Durations, mean, mean VOT and

duration ratios for the velar

ejective... 572

laryngealized palatal, plain palatal glide and glottal

(12)

List of Figures

1.1: Tree diagram of Chadic

showing Hausa and its main

dialects... 54

2.1: C h a d i c C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

According to Greenberg... 74

According to Newman and M a ... 75

According to Newman... 77

3.1: Diagram of the AA family

(including Omotic)... 13 0

4.1: Schematic diagram of the

principal cartilages... 164

4.2: The cartilages as they are

normally joined... 165

4.3: The larynx and the fibrous

bands (ligaments) and

membranes of the larynx... 166

4.4: Photographs of the vocal

folds during voice and

voiceless phonation... 169

4.5: Schematic cross-section of

the vocal folds during

vibration... 169

4.6: Schematic diagram of airflow

through a the glottis... 170

4.7: The laryngeal muscles... 171

4.8: Action and location of the

laryngeal muscles... 172

4.9: Schematic diagram showing the

relationship between the

laryngeal cartilages and the

forces acting on them... 177

(13)

4.10: The vocal folds during creaky

voice... 183

4.11: The vocal folds during

breathy voice... 191

5.2.1: Subject in position for

laryngeal photography and

experimenter prepared to

photograph... 207

5.4.1: Schematic presentation of a

system for ultra high speed

photography... 216

5.4.2: Graphic illustration of a

single cycle of vibration... 2 22

5.4.3: Vocal fold vibration: low

intensity and low pitch... 223

5.4.4: Vocal fold vibration: medium

intensity and medium pitch. . . . 223

5.4.5: Vocal fold vibration: high

intensity and high pitch... 22 3

5.4.6: Position of points marked on

the vocal fold images... 224

5.4.7: Glottal area and excursion of

measured points... 225

5.5.1: I n t r o d u c t i o n of the

fiberscope into the nasal

cavity... 227

5.5.2: An Olympus laryngeal

fiberscope NPF type and VF

type 4A2... 228

5.5.3: Normal vibratory patterns of

the vocal folds in a 51

year-old male... 230

5.5.4: Time courses of the glottal

width for representative

utterance samples of the

three types of Korean velar

(14)

5.5.5: Time courses of the glottal

width for representative

utterances samples of the three bilabial Korean stops

in absolute word-initial

position... 234

5.5.6: Typical examples of the

glottal time curves for

Japanese syllable-final

applosives at the end of

s e n t e n c e f o r t h r e e

subjects... 235

5.5.7: Typical examples of glottal

time curves for the sequences

o f t h e J a p a n e s e

syllable-final applosives

followed by weak and strong

velar stops for speaker M ... 23 6

5.5.8: Typical examples of the

glottal curves for the

sequence of Japanese

syllable-final applosives

followed by fricatives for

speaker M ... 236

5.5.9: Typical contours of glottal

width for Hindi bilabial

stops... 238

5.5.10: Selected frames of the

glottal view for an Japanese

utterance /ke:ke:/... 240

5.5.11: Opening and closing process

of the glottis for Japanese

voiceless consonants... 241

5.5.12: Averaged time course of the

glottal opening and closing

process for Japanese

voiceless consonants... 241

(15)

5.5.13: 5.5.14: 5.6.1: 5.6.2: 5.6.3: 5.6.4: 5.6.5: 5.6.6: 5.6.7: 5.6.8:

Maximum glottal aperture for

d i f f e r e n t J a p a n e s e

consonants... 242

Relationship between the

maximum glottal width and peak value of averaged PCA activity for word-initial and

w o r d - m e d i a l J a p a n e s e voiceless consonants... 243 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f C i n e f l u o r o g r a p h i c equipment... 245 Electrolaryngographic display of changing neck impedance

a n d c o r r e s p o n d o n g

a n t e r o - p o s t e r i o r

radiographs... 250

Tracing of a laminograph of

the vocal folds... 252

S c a t t e r p l o t s o f

cross-sectional area measures

by frequency... 252

Mean of area measurements for

four subjects... 253

Illustrative series of

stoboscopic laminograms

showing vibratory action of

vocal folds in coronal

cross-section... 253

Variation in vocal fold

thickness as a function of

fundamental frequency... 2 54

Mean of vocal fold thickness

(16)

5.6.9: Frontal cineradiographic

observation of different

configurations of the

larynx... 258

5.6.10: Frame by frame tracings of a

frontal cineradiographic

examination of the utterance

/ta/... 2 58

5.7.1: Photoelectric method of

studying the vibratory

movements of the vocal

folds... 24? 9

5.7.2: Plot of glottal area function

and photoglottogram... 2 64

and photoglottogram... 2 65

and photoglottogram. ... 2 65

5.7.5: Glottogram of an English

sentence... 266

5.7.6: Oscillographic traces for

audio signals and the

photo-electric glottograms. . . . 269

5.7.7: Superimposed glottal area

curves comparing temporal

course of glottal dynamics. . . . 272

5.8.1: Example of an ultrasonic

signal received through the

vocal folds... 276

5.8.2: Block diagram illustrating

the principle of the

Ultrasound Glottograph... 277

5.8.3: Velocity and vocal fold

displacement curves with

corresponding glottogram... 279

(17)

5.8.4: Relative vocal fold velocity

and relative displacement

patterns during phonation... 280

5.8.5: Comparison of actual and

calculated vocal fold

motion... 281

5.8.6: Principal diagram of the

TM-recording method... 282

5.8.7: Block diagram of especially

constructed reflectroscope

for echoglottography... 283

5.8.8: An investigation at nine

points on the neck around the

level of the vocal fold... 284

5.8.9: Simultaneous recording of

vocal fold vibrations with ultrasound transmission and

photoglottographic methods. . . . 284

5.9.1: T h e l a r y n g o g r a p h

electrodes... 286

5.9.2: Typical Lx waveform (modal

voice)... 287

5.9.3: Comparison of laryngograph

output with the glottal area

and stroboscopic pictures... 293

5.9.4: Electroglottographic signal

and stroboscopic pictures of

the vocal folds... 294

5.9.5: Definition of the areas for

obtaining a glottographic

signal... 295

5.9.6: Signal classification for

different glottograms... 296

5.9.7: Glottogram of a normal

subject pronouncing different

vowels... 296

(18)

area waveform during modal

phonation. . . . ... 297

5.9.9: Glottal air flow and vocal

fold contact area during /se/

in the syllable /bse/... 297

5.9.10: Idealized modal of vocal fold

contact area... 301

5.9.11: Synchronized speech, EGG and

glottal area waveforms for

normal subjects... 302

5.9.12: Flash X-ray radiograms... 303

5.9.13: Speech pressure and Lx

waveforms for various

phonation types... 3 05

5.9.14: Basic Lxwaveform with four

phases... 307

5.9.15: Representative Lx waveforms

and ratios... 309

5.9.16: Lx waveform for modal voice

at various frequencies... 310

5.9.17: Lx waveforms for whispery

v o i c e a t v a r i o u s

frequencies... 311

5.9.18: Lx waveforms for extremely

whispery voice/breathy voice

5.9.19: Lx waveforms for harsh voice

5.9.20: Lx waveforms for ventricular

v o i c e a t v a r i o u s

f r equenc ies... 312

5.9.21: Lx waveforms for creaky voice

5.9.22: Lx waveforms for falsetto at

various frequencies... 313

5.9.23: Lx waveforms of [i] of please

for four speakers... 314

(19)

5.9.24: Speech pressure waveforms and Lx compared for three Korean

utterances beginning with

velars... 315

5.9.25: Sp and Lx waveforms for

vowels spoken by a female

Javanese speaker... 317

5.9.26: Abnormal waveforms obtained

from patients with vocal

pathology... 318

5.9.27: Lx traces pre-operative... 320

5.9.28: Lx Traces post-operative... 320

5.9.29: Synchronized speech and EGG

waveforms for subjects with

a vocal disorder... 321

5.10.1: Insertion of the electrodes

into the different laryngeal

muscles... 322

5.10.2: Averaged EMG curves of VOC

and CT ... 331

5.10.3: Averaged EMG curves of LCA. . . . 331

5.10.4: Average EMG curves for

various stops... 334

5.10.5: Averaged EMG curves for five

i n t r i n s i c l a r y n g e a l

muscles... 336

5.10.6: Degree of suppression of

averaged EMG activity of four

different muscles... 338

5.11.1: Circumferentially vented

pneumotachograph mask... 342

5.11.2: Vocal fold waves obtained

from male speaker for the

sound [ae] at different

pitches... 347

5.11.3: Typical vocal fold area waves

(20)

5.11.4: Glottal air flow and vocal fold contact area during /se/

in the syllable /bse/... 347

5.11.5: Inverse-filtered glottal

volume velocity waveforms... 349

5.11.6: Inverse-filtered glottal

volume velocity waveforms for

different phonations... 350

5.11.7: S a m p l e g l o t t a l flo w

waveforms... 352

5.11.8: Waveform marking... 353

5.11.9: Duration of vowels (means and

standard deviations)... 3 53

5.11.10: Duration of vowels (means and

standard deviations)... 3 53

5.11.11: Slope ratios (means and

standard deviations)... 354

5.11.12 : Sketches of glottal waveforms

of clear and breathy vowels

in 1X66... 355

5.11.13: Measurement points on each

cycle of the inverse filtered

waveforms. ... 357

5.11.14 : Pitch and duration of Burmese

tones... 359

5.12.1: Diagram of experimental

apparatus... 362

5 .12.2: Waveform and air flow traces

5.12.3: Oscillomink traces of oral

air pressure and flow during

the production of two

different Korean word

pairs... 369

5.12.4: Pressure and flow of weak and

strong stops of ten speakers

for Korean word pairs... 370

(21)

5.12. 5.12. 5.12. 5.12. 5.12. 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13

5: Subject positioned for

aerodynamic recording... 372

6: Mingogram of Sindhi [barO]

' burden1... 375

7: Mingogram of Sindhi [b'arO]

'a child1... 375

8a: Average air flow traces for

[ak] and [a?]... 378

8b: Averaged airflow traces for

[ap] and [a?]... 378

1: A dual beam oscilloscope... 381

2: The principle of tape

recording... 381

,3: The sound spectrograph... 3 84

, 4: Wideband and narrowband

spectrograms of the sound

[ba]... 385

, 5: Wideband and narrowband

spectrograms of !Xoe clear

and breathy vowels... 389

,6: Waveforms and spectra of

Gujerati clear and breathy

vowels... 391

,7: Wideband spectrograms of

Jolapa Mazetec creaky, modal

and breathy vowels... 393

.8: Waveforms of Jolapa Mazetec

creaky, modal and breathy

vowels... 394

.9: Spectra of Jolapa Mazetec

creaky, modal and breathy

vowels... 395

.10: R e l a t i o n s h i p of the

fundamental to the first

formant in Jolapa in Mazetec

vowels... 397

(22)

illustrating differences among three stop types in

Korean... 398

5.13.12: Oscillograms of three Korean

words showing qualitative

differences in waveforms... 404

5.13.13: Spectrograms illustrating

breathy aspirated plosives

in Hindi and Oweri Igbo... 408

5.13.14: Spectrograms illustrating the

contrast between voiced and breathy (murmured vowels) in

Marathi... 409

5.13.15: Spectrograms illustrating the

contrast between voiced and breathy (murmured vowels) in

Gujerati... 410

contrasting bilabial stops

in Javanese, breathy and

voiced... 411

5.13.17: Pitch contours measured at

various points for Hmong

phonation types... 414

5.13.18: Spectrum of voiced, breathy

and laryngealized vowels in

! Xoo... 415

5.13.19: Parts of the waveforms near

the midpoints of the vowels

in the IXoo /aa/ and /iao/. . . . 416

5.13.20: Spectra and waveforms of

intervocalic bilabial in Bumo

and Hausa... 418

Hausa, Kalahari and Sindhi

implosives... 419

5.13.22: W a v e f o r m of G i t k s a n

(23)

ejective... 424

5.13.23: Amplitude of release burst

for Gitksan and Chipewyan

ejectives... 425

5.13.24: Period by period frequency

changes in vowel onset for

Gitksan glottalized stops... 425

6.1: Kymograms of the Hausa

phrases sun ^ab'b'azge itace

'they peeled the bark of a

tree many times ’ and sun

babba shi 'they gave him many

times1... 446

6.2: Airflow traces and speech

waveforms for Hausa /b/... 448

waveforms for Hausa /d/ and

/d'/... 449

6.4: Spectrograms of intervocalic

Hausa /d'/ and /d/... 44 9

waveforms for intervocalic

Hausa /s/ and /ts/;

spectrograms of /t/ and

/ts/... 450

6.6 Airflow traces and speech

waveforms for /y/ and /'y/;

spectrograms of /y/ and

/'y/... 451

6.7: Waveforms and

electro-glottograph recordings of

Hausa /b/ and / b 1/ ... 452

6.8: Waveforms and

electrog-lottograph recordings of

Hausa /d/ and / d 1/ ... 453

6.9: Examples and

(24)

Hausa /k/ and / k '/... 453

6.10: Electrolaryngraph recordings

of Hausa /s/ and /ts/... 454

6.11: Waveform recordings of Hausa

/yA Ay/ and /!/...

454

6.12: A wide-band spectrogram

illustrating Hausa [s']... 456

6.13: Example of a waveform showing

irregular vibrations of the

vocal folds during an

intervocalic laryngealized

palatal Hausa /'y/... 457

6.14: Waveforms of intervocalic

velar ejectives in Hausa and

Navaho... 459

6.15: Waveforms of an implosive

/ b 1/ showing the points

measured and an intervocalic

plosive /b/ in Degema... 4 61

6.16: Mean end-to-middle amplitude

ratios of labial and alveolar implosives in Okrika (Ok) ,

Kalahari (Ka), Bumo (Bu) ,

Degema (De) and Hausa (Ha). . . . 462

6.17: Mean closure durations of

l a b i a l and a l v e o l a r

implosives in Hausa (Ha),

Okrika (Ok), Kalahari (Ka) ,

Degema (De) and Bumo (Bu)... 4 62

6.18: Spectrum and waveform of an

intervocalic implosive in

Bumo... 4 63

6.19: Spectrum and waveform of

bilabial implosive in

Hausa... 4 63

6.20: Waveform of the laryngealized

palatal /'y/ in Hausa... 464

(25)

6

.

2 1

:

6

.

2 2

:

6.23: 6. 24 : 6.25: 6.26: 6.27: 6.28: 6. 29: 6.30: 6.31:

The recording equipment... Schematic representation of the sections analyzed for

each utterance... (Lx Type 1) The waveform of an intervocalic /b/ produced by speaker M2, saabaa a,d intervocalic /d/ produced by

speaker M4, faada... (Lx Type 2) The waveform of an intervocalic / b 1/ produced

by speaker M10, gaab'aa... (Lx Type 3) The waveform of an intervocalic /?/ produced

by speaker M4, ta?adi±... (Lx Type 4) The waveform of

an intervocalic / 1 y/ produced

by speaker M2, 'Yaa'yaa. . . . Intervocalic /b/ produced by

speaker M2, saabaa, /d/

produced by speaker M 4 , faada and /bb/ produced by speaker

M7, d'eebabbee... Typical Lx waveforms of type

2, produced by speaker M7,

'yaa'yaa, speaker M10,

'yaa'yaa and gaab'aa produced

by speaker M10... Typical Lx waveforms for type

3, produced by speaker M 4 , ta?adii, speaker M10, ba£aa

and speaker Mil, huud'aa... Typical Lx waveforms for type

4, produced by speaker M l ,

•yaa'yaa and speaker M2,

1yaa•yaa... llustrations of a mixture of 471 481 486 486 487 487 488 490 492 493

(26)

Lx types 2-4, produced by

speaker M4, fad'aa, speaker

M 6, gaab'do and speaker M10,

fad'aa... 495

6.32: Illustration of the plain

bilabial stop /b/ and the glottalic bilabial stop / b '/,

produced by speakers M 7 ,

baabaa and M10, gaab'aa, the plain alveolar stop /d/ and the glottalic alveolar stop /d'/ produced by speaker M4,

tsaadaa and fad'aa... 497

6.33: Speech and laryngograph

waveforms at the end of the

vowel in eight, with

cycle-by-cycle O Q ... 501

6.34: Speech and laryngograph

waveforms for Hausa /'y/ with

O Q ... 501

6.35: Lx and Sp waveforms for / 'y/

produced by speaker M 7 ,

1yaa'yaa...

6.36: Lx and Sp waveforms for /?/

produced by speaker M 8 ,

ta?adii...

6.37: Lx and Sp waveforms for /y/

produced by speaker M10,

yaayaa... 503

6.38: Illustrations of Sp waveform

type 1, produced by speaker

FI, hak'aa, speaker M13,

hak'aa and speaker M 1 4 ,

shaak'aa... 506

6.39: Illustration of Sp waveforms

of /k/ and /tt/ between two

vowels /a/, produced by

503

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speaker M8, kaakaa, speaker

M9, dakaa, speaker M14r

kaakaa and speaker M15,

tattaaraa...

Illustrations of the Sp

waveforms of the ejective affricate /ts/ between two

vowels /a/ produced by

speaker M7, tsaatsaa, speaker

M 7, tsattsaaraa and speaker

M 9 , daatsaa...

Illustrations of the

intervocalic /s/, produced

by speaker M7, laasaa and

speaker M8, taasaa...

Illustrations of Sp and Lx waveforms for the glottalic stop /k'/ produced by speaker

M10, shaak'aa, and FI,

hak * a a ...

Illustrations of the single

velar stop produced by

speakers M 9 , dakaa and M14,

kaakaa...

Examples of intervocalic

/k'k1/ and /kk/ produced by

speakers M10, sajk* ak1 k'ee,

M15, sajk'ak'k'ee, M8 andM15,

cikakkee... Examples of waveforms for

/ts/ and/tts/: M7, tsaatsaa,

M 9, daatsaa and M 7 ,

tsattsaaraa, for /s/, /ss/

and /tt/: M7, laasaa, M7,

masassabii, M15, tattaaraa. . . .

Illustrative cases which were eliminated...

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6.47: Illustrative cases of Lx

waveforms suspected but

included in the analysis... 528

6.48: Mean OQ at pre plus and minus

1 standard deviation... 531

6.49: Mean NQ for each speaker at

the intervocalic consonantal

positions pre, Cl, C2 and

post for /'y/... 533

post for /b'/ and /d'/... 534

post for /k/ and /s/... 534

6.52: Mean NQ across speakers for

all glottalic consonants and

for glottalic / b 1/ and

/d'/... 535

6.53: Mean NQ values across

speakers for all plain voiced

consonant plus geminates... 53 5

6.54: Mean NQ values across

speakers for all plain

voiceless consonants plus

geminate... 536

6.55 Mean NQ at Cl plus and minus

1 standard deviation for all

the consonant types... 537

6.56: Mean NQ at C2 plus and minus

1 standard deviation... 54 0

6.57: Mean ratio for FRAT1... 543

6.58: Plot of NQ1 vs FRAT1 for the

laryngealized consonants

following low tone vowels... 545

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6.59: Plot of NQ1 vs FRAT1 for the

laryngealized consonants

following high tone vowels. . . . 545

6.60: Mean ratio of FRAT2... 547

6.61: Mean NQ by consonant position

for the geminates /b'b1/ and /d'd'/ plus and minus one

standard deviation... 550

for the geminates /tts/ and /k'k'/ plus and minus one

for the geminates /bb/ and

/dd/ plus and minus one

for the geminates /kk/, /ss/ and /tt/ plus and minus one

6.65: Mean ratios of Fo at Cl to

maximum Fo between pre and

Cl... 552

6.66: Mean ratios of Fo at C2 to

maximum Fo between C2 and

post... 553

6.67: Ratios of single glottalic to

(30)

List of M aps

1.1: The major dialects of Hausa... 65

2.1: Location of some Chadic

languages... 96

(31)

Dedication

This Thesis is dedicated to Asabe, Saratu, Na'omi

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A cknow ledgem ents

For setting me firmly on the path to my dissertation, my supervisors Dr. K. Hayward and Dr. P.J. Jaggar must be the

first to be thanked. They studied the initial sketchy

plans with enthusiasm and helped the investigations to take

off. They read my scripts time and time again as the

research progressed and their observations helped me

towards a more lucid presentation of my ideas. Their

constant attention to the details of my work and

suggestions for further research and support (academic, financial and emotional) were vital to the completion of

this thesis. Furthermore, they taught me to recognize

criticism as positive input rather than an unfriendly

gesture. Without the moral support and constructive

criticism from these shrewd, meticulous and sympathetic advisers this work would not have reached its present state. It has been a long, difficult road and I express my profound gratitude, knowing full well that my debt to them is irredeemable.

I should also like to record my gratitude for the stimulating discussions I have had with Prof. A. Fourcin, Dr. G. Lindsey, Dr. D.M. Howard, Dr. E. Abberton and Dr. M Huckvale (all of the University College London) concerning

the issues dealing with the electrolaryngograph.

Dr. Lindsey provided enthusiasm and encouragement. He

became involved at the very beginning of my research and introduced me to the electrolaryngograph and the Masscomp

computer. At UCL Phonetics laboratory Dr. Lindsey spent

many hours a day for several months orientating me in the various capabilities of this equipment. He also helped me analyse endless laryngograms carefully and went over the

(33)

wording of phonetic descriptions of my findings. I wouldn't have survived the laboratory at all without the

care and attention he gave me. Words cannot express my

appreciation to him.

This work would not have been possible without the technical assistance I have received from laboratory

technicians and research fellows at the phonetic

laboratories where I have worked (SOAS, UCL and The Voice Clinic, Ferens Institute of Otolaryngology), including M. Baptista, J. Latif, Geoff Williams and Steve Halliday (SOAS) and S.P. Nevard, P. Davies, A. Breen (UCL). To them I say "thank you".

I am also grateful to Mr. R.A. Williams (The Director) ,

Mr. D. Garfield Davies FRCS, Consultant ENT Surgeon,

Mr. R. Dhillon FRCS, Senior Registrar in ENT, and

Mr. R. Allen, Scientific Officer, The Voice Clinic, Ferens

Institute of Otolaryngology, The Middlesex Hospital,

London, for their kind cooperation and the use of their equipment.

The favourable response from students and lecturers alike has sustained me thoughout the research. My gratitude goes to Prof. J. Carnochan, Prof. R.H. Robins, Prof. T. Bynon, Dr. R.J. Hayward, Dr. D. Bennett, Dr. J. Harris, Dr. A. Barry, research students of the Linguistic Departments at

UCL and SOAS, and all staff members of the Africa

Department, SOAS. Furthermore, there are a number of

people whose support and friendship have been invaluable to me during the writing of this thesis. My deepest thanks go to my close colleague Mohammed M. Munkaila who has been my

friend for so many years. His consistent interest and

attention to my work, encouragement (emotional and moral), help in conducting the research, advice on various aspects of Hausa phonetics and his voluntary contribution as an

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like to thank are Rev. Dr. Fr. Matthew H. Kukah, Bature

Ali, G.I.Bello, Y. Mukhtar, I.A. Welye, P.S. Amaza,

N. Akello, S. Determeyer, Dr. M. Kidda, Dr. &

Mrs. S.O. Peters, J. Essien, Mr. and Mrs. R.B. Mshelia,

Mr. & Mrs. D. Banks, and all staff of the BBC Hausa

Section. I also owe special thanks to my informants Dr.

S.A. B'ab'ura, Dr. H.A. Birnuwa, I. Hassan, B.A. Hassan,

B.A. B'ab'ura, Dr. L.T. Zaria, S. Halilu, M. Baba,

Dr. I.A. Tsiga, Dr. A. Bayero, Dr. J. Mohammed,

Dr. K. Ahmed, H.I. Kankiya and H. Ibrahim.

Many thanks are due to John Adebisi and E. Abimbola for their support. My friends in the Lighthouse Church deserve my special thanks for their love, friendship, support and unceasing encouragement to me during the execution of this project. I thank Deborah O'Brien and Oi Fee Reid for their husbands' late hours helping me, and for their hospitality.

I am also grateful to N. Reid, Erik and Susan Pattison, A.

Debska and S. Coxson for checking my English. I have had

the great benefit of editorial guidance from Mr. G. O'Brien

BDS. Despite his busy schedule he spent long hours at

night and at weekends editing the thesis. He type-set

everything and still remained pleasant. He always tells

me, "Andrew, don't worry. This is 'no skin off mv nose'". To him I owe many thanks; also to Mr E Seal BDS MSc LDS DDPH RCS for the use of computer equipment.

My study in the U.K was financed in full by my employers, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria, without whose support

this project would not have been realized. To them I say

a big thank you.

I have reserved until the end the expression of my gratitude to those who always pay the highest price for a very long period of study abroad - one's family. I want to thank my parents Mallam Haruna Sh. Buri and Mante H. Buri,

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Mr. and Mrs. P.J. Dogo, Mr & Mrs W.C. Waru, and all my brothers and sisters for the confidence and support they

have given me. Above all, to my wife - Asabe, and our

children - Saratu, Na'omi and Yahaya - who are as proud and relieved as I at the completion of this thesis.

A . Haruna,

(36)

© •'

Notes and

Transcription

1 Some of the terms/labels in the text have to be

abbreviated to save space. Many of the abbreviations

are self-evident, but in the event that an

abbreviation is unclear, its expansion can be found here.

2 On the transcription of the data I have not adhered

strictly to the transciption of each author for ease of typing. The glottalized consonants in Hausa are written as /b'/, /d'/, /ts/, /k'/ and /'y/ even in quotations. See below for alternative symbols for the

data transcribed from other languages and

non-glottalized segments in Hausa.

3 Tone is not marked on proper nouns and in chapters 1-3

on data which the original authors did not mark it.

4 A grave accent (‘ ) above a vowel indicates that it has

a low tone, e.g. mace 'woman'. The accent is marked on the first vowel of the double vowel. A circumflex accent (*) above a vowel indicates that it has falling tone, e.g. mai 'oil'. High tones are left unmarked.

5 ( ) with a segment enclosed, e.g. (h), means that the

segment is not yet well established; without a segment enclosed means that there is a missing segment.

6 /sh/ is used in Hausa even in quotation to mean

palato-alveolar voiceless fricative.

7 /?/ means correspondence is questionable.

8 * indicates protoform.

9 ** indicates protoforms for Chadic West-A in Lax

(1986).

10 C? indicates any consonant plus glottal stop, e.g.

/d2 / voiced alveolar stop plus glottal stop.

11 /aa/ = long vowel.

(37)

12 /a/ = short vowel.

13 C = any consonant.

14 / h 1/ means /6/ = glottalized bilabial stop.

15 /d'/ means /£ / - glottalized aveolar stop.

16 /ts/ = alveolar ejective affricate.

17 / t 1/ = dental voiceless ejective.

18 /c'/ - palatal voiceless ejective.

19 / k 1/ means /Jc/ = velar ejective.

20 /'y/ means glottalized palatal glide.

21 /'w/ means glottalized labial glide.

22 /?/ - glottal stop.

23 / 1J/ = palato-alveolar ejective.

24 E = / S / = schewa

25 E = / £ / front, half-open unrounded vowel.

26 /e/ retracted front, half-open unrounded vowel.

27 /a/ = voiceless front open unrounded vowel.

28 /e/ = slightly raised front, half-close unrounded,

vowel.

29 /a/ - centralized open unrounded back vowel

3 0 /ti/ - non-syllabic overshort close back unrounded

vowel.

31 /p'?/ means /p?/ questionable bilabial ejective.

32 /0/ means / o / - half-open back rounded vowel.

3 3 /3/ means /^ /. The hieroglyph depicting the Egyptian

vulture.

3 4 /a/ = nasalized vowel.

35 /$/ = voiceless bilabial fricative.

3 6 /ai/ = diphthongs.

37 / o e / = half-open, front, rounded vowel.

38 /r/ = rolled r.

39 /r/ = tap.

40 / f / means retroflex.

41 L means /V,/ = lateral approximant.

42 /X/ means /jf/ = voiced non-emphatic uvular fricative.

43 C" means glottalized consonant.

44 /fo / = close back rounded vowel.

(38)

1 1 .

46 /lz / means /Jf. / = hlateral (lateral fricative) .

47 /lz2/ means /■fc1/ = hlateral (lateral fricative) .

48 /1Z/ means /Ij/ = hlateral (lateral fricative) .

49 /ky/ means /£/ = palatalized voiceless velar stop.

50 /kw/ means /£/ = labialized voiceless velar stop.

51 /gy/ means /cf/ = palatalized voiced velar stop.

52 /gw/ means / $ / - labialized voiced velar stop.

53 /xy/ means /$./ = palatalized velar fricative.

54 /xw/ means /^/ = labialized velar fricative.

55 Y = front vowel in Lax (1986).

56 W = back vowel in Lax (1986).

57 V = unspecified vowel in Lax (1986).

58 -V unspecified final vowel of verbs in Lax (1986).

59 /NC/ = prenasalized consonant.

60 /0/: this symbol is not a phoneme, but is a symbol

used to represent the phonetic onset of word-initial vowels.

61 /@/ means [•[] close central unrounded vowel.

62 _/I/ „ close central unrounded vowel.

63 _{/£/ = voiceless non-emphatic lateralized affricate.}

64 _/_{9/ = voiceless palatal fricative.}

65 /C/ = Alveolar palatal affricate.

66 _/%/ = retracted voiceless emphatic dental stop.

67 /b./r _

= long voiced bilabial stop.

68 _{/ y} = voiceless emphatic1 dental stop.

69 _/<?/ voiced emphatic dental stop.

70 /s/ = emphatic dental affricate.

71 _{/ v} = emphatic velar stop.

72 /Z/ as alveolar voiced emphatic affricate.

73 /2/ = alveopalatal voiced fricative.

74 _{/?/ = emphatic velar voiceless fricative.}

75 /s/ = alveolar voiceless sibilant fricative.

76 /S/ = voiceless non-emphatic lateralized affricate.

77 _{/*/ = alveopalatal voiceless affricate.}

78 _/?/ = emphatic alveopalatal affricate.

79 _{/q/ — Arabic voiceless uvular plosive.}

80 _{/*/ = Arabic voiced uvular plosive}

(39)

81 /g/ = emphatic velar plosive.

82 /h/ emphatic (uvular fricative) epiglottal.

83 /h/ voiceless non-emphatic, uvular fricative.

84 /^/ = velar nasal. 85 /§/ = post-alveolar, voiceless-fficative. 86 VI = voiceless. 87 Vd = voiced. 88 PI «** plosive. 89 / / = phonemic slashes. 90 [ ] = phonetic brackets. 91 /q/ > /k/ = fqj becomes /k/. 92 /k/ < /q/ = comes from /q/. 93 b_ = bilabial implosive. 94 d' = alveolar implosive. 95 g' = velar implosive. 96 tj = alveolar affricate.

97 /ph/ = aspirated, voiceless, bilabial stop.

98 /bh/ = aspirated voiced, bilabial stop.

99 /£/ = pharyngealized fricative.

1 The term "emphatic" is the conventional name of

consonants with a dot under them and their

etymological counterparts. In the languages of the AA family the "emphatics" are realized as glottalized, uvularized, pharyngealized, retroflex or aspirated

(cf. Dolgopolsky (1977). It is not always clear which of the terms some of the authors cited in this work used.

2 Sound with a zero under or over it (e.g. [§])

indicates voicelessness (in other words it is

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List of Chapters

PART ONE: HISTORICAL

Chapter 1: Some Background Information

on Hausa... 51 1.1 General Introduction... 52 1.2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d Geographical Spread... 54 1.3 Dialects... 57 1.4 Phonological Preliminaries... 60 1.4.1 Consonantal Chart... 60 1.4.2 Vowel Phonemes... 61 1.4.3 Syllable Structure... 61 1.4.4 Tone... 62

1.4.5 The Glottalized Consonants... 62

1.4.6 The Geminates... 63

Chapter 2: Glottalic Consonants in

Chadic... 67

2.1 Introduction... 68

2.2 Problems of Reconstruction

within the Chadic Family... 7 0

2.3 Basis of Comparing the Hausa

Glottalic Phonemes... 71

2.3.1 Notes on Conventions Used... 71

2.4 A p p r o a c h e s t o t h e

Classification of Chadic... 73

2.5 The Implosives /b'/ and

/d'/... 79

2.6 The Ejectives /ts/ and

/k'/... 80

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2.7 The Glottalized Palatal / ' y / ... 90 2.7.1 C o r r e s p o n d e n c e s f o r Glottalized /'w/... 91 2.7.2 C o r r e s p o n d e n c e s f o r Glottalized /'y/... 92 2.8 Summary... 93

2.9 Table of Languages: Numbering

S y s t e m and L a n g u a g e

Abbreviations... 95

2.9.1 Sources of Data for

Comparative List... 97

2.10 Hausa and Chadic Lexicon... 98

2.11 Comparative Wordlist for

/b'/... 99

/d'/... 101

/k'/... 105

2.13.1 Dialect Variation... 109

2.13.2 Borrowing: Arabic /q/ > Hausa

/k * : k/... 109

/ts/... Ill

2.14.1 Dialect Variation... 113

2.14.2 Borrowing from Arabic to

Hausa... 114

2.14.3 Correspondences Between Hausa

/ts/ and Guruntum /b'/... 116

2.15 Summary... 117

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Chapter 3: Hausa (Chadic) Glottalic

C o r r e s p o n d e n c e s i n

Afroasiatic... 122

3.2 Notes on the Data and

Abbreviations... 124

3.3 A p p r o a c h e s t o t h e

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f

Afroasiatic: Membership and

Criteria for Membership... 126

3.4. N o t e s ... 157

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PART TWO: THE LARYNX AND VOICE MEASUREMENT

Chapter 4: The Framework of the Larynx:

Classification and Definition

of Phonation Types... 161

4.1 The Structure of the

Larynx... 163

4.1.1 Introduction... 163

4.1.2 The Laryngeal Cartilages... 164

4.1.3 The Thyroid Cartilage... 165

4.1.4 The Cricoid Cartilage... 166

4.1.5 The Arytenoid Cartilages... 166

4.2 The Structure of the Vocal

Folds... 167

4.2.2 Vocal Fold Adjustments... 168

4.2.2.1 The Vocal Folds During

Phonation... 168

4.2.2.2 Subglottal Air Pressure... 168

4. 2.2. 3 The Bernoulli Principle... 170

4 . 3 The Major Intrinsic Laryngeal

Muscles... 171

4.3.1 The Cricothyroid Muscles

(CT)... 173

4.3.2 The Posterior Cricoarytenoid

M u s c l e s ( P C A - O p e n i n g

Muscles)... 17 3

4.3.3 Lateral Cricoarytenoid Muscle

(LCA - Closing Muscles)... 174

4.3.4 Thyroarytenoid Muscle (TA). . . . 174

4.3.5 I n t e r a r y t e n o i d M u s c l e

(INT)... 174

4.3.6 Summary... 176

4.4 Classification and definition

of Phonation Types... 178

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4.4.2 Modal Voice... 179

4.4.3 Creaky Voice... 181

4 .4. 3 .1 Linguistic Function of Creaky

Voice... 187 4.4.4 Breathy Voice... 190 4.4.4.1 Linguistic Function of Breathy Voice... 196 4.4.5 Summary... 198 4.5 N o t e s ... 199

Chapter 5: Review of Techniques for

Voice Measurement... 2 01

5.2 Laryngoscopy... 207

5.2.1 Principles and A p p a r a t u s ... 207

5.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

of the Technique... 209

5.2.3 Some Applications of the

T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h

Research... 210

5.3 Stroboscopy... 212

5.3.1 Principles and Apparatus... 212

5.3.3 Comparisons With Other

Techniques... 214

5.4 Ultra High Speed Photography

(UHSP)... 215

5.4.3 Comparisons With Other

Techniques... 217

Research... 220

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5.5 Fibreoptics... 227

Research... 230

5.6 X-Ray... 244

5.6.3 Comparison With Other

Techniques... 249

Research... 251

5.7 Photo-Electric Glottography

(Transillumination of the

Larynx)... 259

of the Technique... 2 60

5.7.3 Comparisons with other

Techniques... 261

Research... 265

5.8 Ultra Sound Glottography

( U l t r a s o n o g l o t t o g r a p h y ,

Echoglottography)... 275

5.8.3 Comparisons with other

Techniques... 278

5.9 E 1 e c t r o 1 a r y n g o g r a p h y

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5.9.1.1 Fourcin's Laryngograph... 286

5.9.1.2 The Lx Waveform and

Quantification of Results . . . . 287

5.9.3 Comparison with other

Techniques... 292

5.9.4 Characterising Phonation

Types... 305

Research... 314

5.9.6 Clinical Investigations... 317

5.10 Electromyography... 322

Research... 325

5.10.4 Summary: Studies of Laryngeal

Muscle Activity... 338

5.11 Inverse Filtering... 341

5.11.3 Comparisons with Other

Techniques... 345

Research... 348

5.12 Aer omet ry... 361

of the Technique... 3 62

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Research... 3 63

5.13 Acoustic Analysis... 380

5.13.2 Spectrography... 382

5.13.2.1 T h e T r a d i t i o n a l

Spectrograph... 382

5.13.2.2 Computer-implemented Digital

Techniques... 385

Research... 386

5.13.3.1 Studies of Contrastive

Phonation Types... 387

5.13.3.2 Studies of Sounds Produced

with Glottalic Airstream

Mechanism... 417

(48)

PART THREE: THE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 6: Description of Hausa

Consonants... 434 6.1 Introduction... 437 6.2 N o n - I n s t r u m e n t a l Investigations... 438 6.3 E a r l y I n s t r u m e n t a l Investigations... 445

6.3.1 Summary: Review of Previous

Studies... 465

6.4 The Problems... 467

6.5 The Present Study... 469

6.6 T h e E x p e r i m e n t : Methodology... 470 6.6.1 I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d Recording... 470 6.6.2 The Laryngograph... 471 6.6.3 The Material... 473 6.6.4 The Informants... 477

6.6.5 Editing Procedure and

Segmentation... 479

6.6.6 Labelling Notations... 480

6.6.7 Parameters Assessed... 482

6.7 Qualitative Classification of

Lx Waveforms: Plain Voiced

Stops, Palatal Glide,

Laryngealized Stops, Glottal

Stop and Laryngealized

Glide... 485

6.8 Qualitative Analysis: Results

and Discussion... 496

6.8.2 /fo1/ and /d'/ vs /b/ and

/d/... 496

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6.8.2 • 1 Description of Lx and Sp

waveforms... 496

6.8.3 /'Y/f /!/ and /y/... 500

6.8.3.1 Description of the Lx

waveforms... 501

6.9 Qualitative Classification of

Sp Waveforms: Ejectives and

Voiceless stops... 505 6.9.1 /k'/ and /k/... 512 6.9.1.1 Description of Lx and Sp Waveforms... 512 6.9.2 /ts/ and /s/... 517 6.9.2.1 Description of Lx and Sp Waveforms... 517

6.10 Quantitative Analysis: Open

Quotient (OQ) and Fundamental

Frequency (Fo)... 524

6.10.2 Balance Between Speakers

Within the Data Base... 524

6.10.3 Elimination of Outliers... 52 5 6.10.4 Statistical Procedures... 52 9 6.10.5 Open Quotient... 53 0 6.10.6 Fundamental Frequency... 532 6.11 Single Consonants... 53 3 6.11.1 NQ at Cl ... 533 6.11.2 NQ at C2 ... 540 6.11.3 Fo at C l ... 542 6.11.4 Fo at C2 ... 546

6.11.5 Single Consonants: Summary. . . . 548

6.12 S i n g l e v s G e m i n a t e Consonants... 550 6.12.1 Introduction... 550 6.12.2 NQ at Cl ... 553 6.12.3 NQ at C2... 555 6.12.4 Fo at Cl ... 556 6.12.5 Fo at C2 ... 558

(50)

6.12.6 S i n g l e vs G e m i n a t e

Consonants: Summary... 559

6.13 Other Sources of Variation in

the Data... 563 6.14 Measurement of Duration... 565 6.14.1 Introduction... 565 6.14.2 /b'/f /<*'/# / W and /d/ ... 565 6.14.3 /ts/ and / & /... 569 6.14.3.1 VOT ... 569 6.14.4 /k'/ and /k/... 571 6.14.4.1 VOT... 573

6.14.5 /'y/, /y/ and /?/... 574

6.14.6 S u m m a r y : D u r a t i o n

Measurements... 575

6.15 Summary and Conclusion... 577

6.16 Notes... 587

Appendix 1 ... 590

Appendix 2 ... 593

R e f e r e n c e s ... 594

(51)

PART O N E:

H IS T O R IC A L

(52)

Chapter One

Some Background Information on Hausa.

1.1 General Introduction... 52

1.2 Classification and Geographical

Spread... 54 1.3 Dialects... 57 1.4 Phonological Preliminaries... 60 1.4.1 Consonantal Chart... 60 1.4.2 Vowel Phonemes... 61 1.4.3 Syllable Structure... 61 1.4.4 Tone... 62

1.4.5 The Glottalized Consonants... 62

1.4.6 The Geminates... 63

(53)

1.1 General Introduction

This is a study of the glottalic consonants of Hausa a

Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria, Niger,

Cameroon, Togo and northern Ghana. The glottalic

consonants are chosen because they constitute a set of

phonemes in the language whose phonetic properties and

historical origin merit further investigation.

Chapter 1 is a general introduction and provides a brief

sketch of the Hausa language, its geographical

distribution, status in Nigeria, and phonology. The

remainder of the study is divided into three parts.

Chapters 2 and 3 constitute the historical part, providing a comprehensive overview of the genetic classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic and the reconstruction of glottalic consonants in Chadic and their counterparts in

Afroasiatic. Correspondences between the glottalic

consonants of Chadic and related Afroasiatic languages are

given. No new theories are put forward, but critical

comments on the plausibility of earlier treatments are

made.

The second part of the thesis concerns the investigation of

phonation types in general. Chapter 4 gives a brief

account of the larynx and the mechanism of vocal fold vibration, with some consideration of the classification of

phonation types. Chapter 5 provides an overview of

instrumental techniques used in voice measurement.

Part three concerns the investigation of phonation types in

Hausa. Chapter 6, the experimental chapter in the thesis,

describes and presents the results of an instrumental

investigation of the Hausa glottalic consonants. The main

technique used was the electrolaryngography. Subjects were sixteen Hausa speakers, 15 males and 1 female, representing

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section of chapter 6, is the general conclusion.

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1.2 Classification and Geographical Spread.

Hausa is a member of the Chadic family of languages in the Afroasiatic phylum that includes as its other branches, Berber, Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic and Ancient Egyptian. Fig. 1.1 is a tree diagram of the Chadic family including Hausa and its major dialects (cf. also map 1.1). For a detailed family tree of Chadic see Chapter 2 (section 2.4).

West East Bauchi/Guddiri Sokoto

Katsina Had’eja O aura/G obir Kano

Zaria Central Hausa Group East CHADIC

Figure 1.1: Tree diagram of Chadic showing Hausa and its main dialects.

Within Chadic there are over 140 languages (cf. Fleming 1983:19) of which Hausa is the most widely spoken. In some of the northern states of Nigeria Hausa is spoken as a

first language. It is estimated that there are between 2 5

and 30 million people living in northern Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon and southern Niger who speak the language as their mother tongue. A further 20 million may speak it as their

second language (cf. Furniss and Jaggar 1988).

In some of the northern states of Nigeria, Hausa is used as a lingua franca. In diaspora, Hausa is spoken in several neighbouring countries. For example, on the eastern border

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of Nigeria, Hausa is spoken in northern Cameroon. On the northern border of Nigeria, Hausa is spoken in Niger Republic and West-Central Chad, and to the west in the Republic of Benin, northern Togo, and northern Ghana. Hausa is also spoken in communities of settlers in urban centres in Senegal, Libya, Sudan, Ivory Coast and Zaire.

Within the Chadic family Hausa is the language which is best documented. In the last 100 years, the language has been the subject of serious linguistic study (cf. Hair 1967

for a comprehensive list of early studies on Hausa). The

first grammar of the language appeared in 1862 and a dictionary in 1876, both by Schon. Since then the study of

the language has been developing rapidly. It would be

beyond the scope of this work to list all works on the

subject. For an extensive bibliography of writings on

Hausa linguistics and literature covering the earliest times of the language study to 1977 see Baldi (1977), and for the period covering 1976-86 (see Awde 1988) (this list includes a number of items not found in Baldi 1977).

As a language, Hausa has a recognised importance. It is taught in universities in Africa (mainly in universities of northern Nigeria and Niger Republic). It is also taught in

universities in Europe and North America. Hausa is

broadcast and transmitted on local and national radio and

television stations both within Nigeria and Niger.

Internationally, it has a slot in a number of established foreign radio stations. Programmes in Hausa are broadcast by the external services of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) London, Voice of America (VOA), Voice of Germany (Deutsche Welle), Radio Cairo, Radio Peking (China) and Radio Moscow. In the continent of Africa south of the Sahara it is as widely spoken as Swahili. In West Africa the Hausa language is fast spreading as a lingua franca.

Under the Government of the former Northern Region of

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Nigeria, Hausa has shared official status along with English (cf. Kraft and Kirk-Greene 1973). In 1979, Hausa

was recognized as one of the three major languages of

Nigeria (the other two are Igbo and Yoruba) and

incorporated in the 2nd schedule of the Nigerian

Constitution, although it does not enjoy the status of

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1.3 Dialects.

Since this is not a work on dialectology, I am not going to go into much detail, beyond what is relevant to this work. In spite of its relatively large geographical distribution, to my knowledge the dialects are mutually intelligible. However within the phonological systems of the various dialects there are some interesting differences (cf. Ahmed and Daura (1970), Bello (1972), Dogo (1977), Zaria (1982) and Abubakar (1983)).

Bargery (1934) classified the language into two groups which he called the "Kano dialect" and "Sokoto dialect." The Kano dialect is usually accepted as "Standard" Hausa. Ahmed and Daura (1970) used the terms "Classical" (to mean the Sokoto dialect) and "Modern" (to mean the Kano dialect) of Hausa. Dogo (1977) adopted the use of the terms "West" (i.e the type of Hausa spoken in the former Sokoto and Katsina provinces of Nigeria and neighbouring French territories) and "East" (i.e the type of Hausa spoken in the former Kano, Zaria, and Bauchi provinces). Following Dogo, I have decided to adopt the terms "West" and "East".

Within the two major divisions in Nigeria, seven major dialects of Hausa have been recognized, as well as many minor dialects. Most of the dialects centre around a major city. For instance, Sakkwatanci (Sokoto dialect) is spoken mainly in Sokoto and the surrounding towns, Kananci (Kano dialect) is spoken mainly in Kano and the surrounding towns, Katsinanci (Katsina dialect) is spoken mainly in Katsina and the surrounding towns and Zazzaganci (Zaria dialect) has its concentration of its speakers in Zaria and the neighbouring towns. Dauranci (Daura dialect) centres in and around Daura, Had'ejiyanci centres in and around Had'eja, Bausanci (Bauchi dialect) and Guddiranci (Guddiri dialect) are mainly spoken in Bauchi and Guddiri and the surrounding towns respectively. The divisions according to

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Dogo (1977) are:

West Hausa

1. Sokoto dialect (Sakkwatanci). 2. Katsina dialect (Katsinanci) and

3. Daura and Gobir (Dauranci and Gobiranci).

In Niger Republic the Daura/Gobir cluster includes Dogon- douchi and Kurfey (Filingde) dialects.

East Hausa

1. Kano dialect (Kananci).

2. Had'eja dialect (Had'ejiyanci). 3. Zaria dialect (Zazzaganci)

4. Bauchi dialect (Bausanci and Guddiranci in Katagum)

As would be expected, within the two major divisions, the sub-dialects have their own idiosyncrasies distinguishing them from the other sub-dialects with which they have been

grouped. Below are examples of cross-dialect

correspondences between the two main divisions.

A East 1 d ’aacii 2 d'aataa West d*waacii d'waataa 'bitterness 1 'garden egg1

3 d'aatanniyaa d'waatannaa 'a type of grass1

East /d'/i West /d'w/.

B 1 East tsiinii Katsina Tsiiga West tsiinii c'iinii t'iinii Katsina Kat1ina Kac1ina Tsiiga T* iiga c* iiga 'sharpness1 'Katsina town1 'Tsiga town1