PATTERNS OF FOSTER CARE I N SASKATCHEWAN THE IMPACT ON THE FAMILY CONNECTIONS
AND THE EARLY ADULT LI VES OF CARELEAVERS
S u b m i t t e d by S h e r r y A. E. McKibben As r e q u i r e m e n t s -for Ph. D
D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e and Admi n i ni s t r a t i on London School o-f Economi cs and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e U n i v e r s i t y o f London
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h i s t h e s i s w o u l d w o u l d n o t have been c o m p l e t e d w i t h o u t t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t , p a r t i c i p a t i o n , c o o p e r a t i o n , and s u p p o r t o-f many i n d i v i d u a l s . I w an t t o t h a n k them and e x p r e s s my a p p r e c i a t i o n .
F i r s t l y , my g r a t i t u d e t o a l l t h e young a d u l t s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s t u d y and t a l k e d o p e n l y a b o u t t h e i r l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s .
Mr D e re k C o r n i s h was a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e of g u i d a n c e and s u p p o r t t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o j e c t . H i s s k i l l as a t e a c h e r e n a b l e d t h i s t h e s i s t o be u n d e r t a k e n and c o m p l e t e d . D r . A l v i n S c h r a d e r p r o v i d e d i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s as w e l l as p r a c t i c a l a d v i c e and s u p p o r t . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S e r v i c e s , Sa s k a t c h e w a n was c o m p l e t e l y c o o p e r a t i v e i n a s s i s t i n g w i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h . The D e p a r t m e n t and t h e s t a f f , i n p a r t i c u l a r Ms T r u d y Usher and Ms L i n d a Ens, f a c i l i t a t e d a c c e s s t o
i n f o r m a t i o n and r e s o u r c e s . The F o s t e r P a r e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n o f S a s k a t c h e w a n and i n d i v i d u a l f o s t e r p a r e n t s h e l p e d t o d e f i n e t h e r e s e a r c h and f a c i l i t a t e d d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . Ms Lynda Cummings a s s i s t e d w i t h t h e i n t e r v i e w s and Mr s S y l v i a F l o o d w i t h a c c e s s i n g o f b i b l i o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l . The School o f
S o c i a l Wor k, U n i v e r s i t y o f R e g i n a p r o v i d e d a base d u r i n g t h e y e a r o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n .
F i n a l l y , on a p e r s o n a l n o t e , s u p p o r t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t was g e n e r o u s l y f o r t h c o m i n g f r o m many f r i e n d s , f a m i l y members,
and c o l l e a g u e s .
Page 3
ABSTRACT
Th i s e x a m i n e s
e x p e r i e n c e , K i n s n i p , ana e a r i y a a u i t l i v e s . D a t a c o l l e c t i o n t oo k p l a c e bet we en 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 . U s i n g t h e c h i l d r e n ' s - f i l e s , t h e c a r e c a r e e r s o-f 2 06 c h i l d r e n b o rn b e t we e n J a n u a r y 1964 and J u l y 1966 w e r e d e t a i l e d . N i n e t y - o n e w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d , 67% o-f whom w e r e o-f N a t i v e a n c e s t r y .
T h e s e c h i l d r e n w e r e b r o u g h t i n t o c a r e w i t h t h e i r s i b l i n g s b e c a u s e o-f a c y c l e o-f n e g l e c t , a l c o h o l a b u s e , abandonment and m a r i t a l d i - f f i c u 1 t i e s . The c h i l d r e n a v e r a g e d 9 . 7 p l a c e m e n t s
i n 1 0 . 9 y e a r s i n c a r e . F a c t o r s l i n k e d t o p l a c e m e n t i n s t a b i l i t y w e r e : number o-f a d m i s s i o n s , r a c e , i n - c a r e a b u s e , i n a p p r o p r i a t e c a r e , and e d u c a t i o n . E d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t was l o w . A p p r o x i m a t e l y hal -f o f t h e young p e o p l e used
S a s k a t c h e w a n ' s p o s t - c a r e e d u c a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t p r o v i s i o n s . T h e s e young p e o p l e had n o t e x p e r i e n c e d p l a c e m e n t i n s t a b i l i t y , i n a p p r o p r i a t e c a r e , and e a r l y i n d e p e n d e n c e .
T h r e e k i n d s o f a bus e — p h y s i c a l , s e x u a l , and e x p l o i t a t i o n — w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d i n - c a r e by 27'/, o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s . An a d d i t i o n a l 22'/, d e s c r i b e d a s p e c t s of t h e i r c a r e as i n a p p r o p r i a t e , i n c l u d i n g e x c e s s i v e p u n i s h m e n t , n e g l e c t , i n e q u i t a b l e t r e a t m e n t and i n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e m e n t s . S o c i a l w o r k e r s n e v e r a c t e d t o p r o t e c t t h e c h i 1d r e n - i n - c a r e f r om a b u s e . D e s p i t e t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , 57% a s s e s s e d t h e i r c a r e as ' g o o d ' and 85% s a i d b e i n g i n c a r e had e i t h e r i m p r o v e d
t h e i r l i v e s o r had had no e f f e c t .
T h e s e c a r e l e a v e r s w e r e d o i n g l e s s w e l 1 t ha n t h e i r n o n - c a r e p e e r s . T h ey had an unempl oyment r a t e of 4 2 . 5 % ; h i g h income a s s i s t a n c e r e c e i p t ; w e r e l e s s ' h a p p y ' ; and 42% o f
t h e women' s c h i l d r e n — 57% o f t h e m e n ' s w e r e b e i n g r e a r e d by o t h e r s . I t was a r g u e d a c a r e - p o v e r t y - c a r e c y c l e had been e s t a b l i s h e d . An outcome p r o f i l e was d e v e l o p e d w h i c h showed t h e N a t i v e i n t e r v i e w e e s f a r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y p o o r l y . T h e l o w e s t q u a r t i l e w e r e d e s c r i b e d as ' T h e T r o u b l e d T w e n t y ' ; t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h o s e i n t h e t h i r d q u a r t i l e w e r e p r e c a r i o u s . Th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e t o p h a l f w e r e m a n a g i n g w e l l . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b e t t e r outcome w e r e : f r e q u e n t f o s t e r f a m i l y c o n t a c t a t i n t e r v i e w ; t h e p r e s e n c e o f f r i e n d s i n e a r l y a d u l t h o o d ; and e i t h e r no b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y c o n t a c t or e l s e r e g u l a r f a m i l y c o n t a c t w h i l e i n - c a r e . T h e c a r e l e a v e r s who had e x p e r i e n c e d good q u a l i t y c a r e m a i n t a i n e d f o s t e r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t o a d u l t h o o d .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...Page 2
ABSTRACT...Page 3
L I S T OF TABLES ... Page 10
PART ONE THE RESEARCH CONTEXT
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Page 15
P u r p o s e o-f t h e R e s e a r c h 17 T h e s i s O u t l i n e 23
CHAPTER ONE: PREVIOUS RESEARCH ABOUT CARELEAVING.. . . . P a g e 25
INTRODUCTION 25
B R I T I S H CARELEAVERS
S c o t t i s h S t u d i e s 27 E n g l i s h S t u d i e s
F o l l o w up o r Outcome S t u d i e s 36 C a r e l e a v i n g P r o j e c t s 44
Summary 46
EMANCIPATION I N NORTH AMERICA Th e U n i t e d S t a t e s
F o l l o w up o r Outcome S t u d i e s E m a n c i p a t i o n A s s i s t a n c e P r o j e c t s The C a n a d i a n S t u d y 63
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 66
CHAPTER TWO: THE RESEARCH LOCATION: SASKATCHEWAN Page 68
THE PROVINCE 68
CHILD WELFARE SERVICES I N SASKATCHEWAN
Th e D e p a r t m e n t o-f S o c i a l S e r v i c e s 70
L e g i s l a t i o n 75
P r og r am s 77
I n s t i t u t i o n s
I n t r o d u c t i o n 79
R e s i d e n t i a l E d u c a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s 81 The D e p a r t m e n t ' s F a c i l i t i e s 82
O t h e r I n s t i t u t i o n a l S e t t i n g s 83 THE NATIVE ISSUE
I n t r o d u c t i o n 85
T e r m i n o l o g y 85
I n d i a n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and C h i l d W e l - f a r e S e r v i c e s 87 T h e D e p a r t m e n t ' s Response 9 5
Page 5
KI NSHI P
I n t r o d u c t i o n 98
The C a n a d i a n F a m i l y 98
The N a t i v e I n d i a n F a m i l y 100
CLOSING REMARKS 103
PART TWO THE STUDY
INTRODUCTION... ... Page 106
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY... Page 10?
INTRODUCTION 107
DEFINING THE STUDY POPULATION 109
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
I d e n t i f y i n g t h e S t u d y P o p u l a t i o n 115 The F i l e R e v i e w s 117
L o c a t i n g P a r t i c i p a n t s 123
The I n t e r v i e w s 126
THE INTERVIEWEES VERSUS THE NON-INTERVIEWEES
D i s c u s s i o n 134
S t a t i s t i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 137
DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS 140
SUMMARY 141
CHAPTER FOUR: THE CARE EXPERIENCE:
CAREERS I N CARE Page 143
INTRODUCTION 143
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
The C h i l d r e n 143
The P a r e n t s 145
The S i b l i n g s 147
ADMISSION TO CARE 148
The I n t e r v i e w e e s " P e r c e p t i o n o f
Reasons f o r A d m i s s i o n 150
SUMMARY 152
PLACEMENT HISTORY
D e f i n i t i o n o f a P l a c e m e n t 154
T y p e o f P l a c e m e n t s : Wher e T h e y L i v e d 157 F o s t e r Home P l a c e m e n t s 157
I n s t i t u t i o n a l P l a c e m e n t s 158 ' I n d e p e n d e n t ' P l a c e m e n t s 159
P l a c e m e n t s w i t h B i o l o g i c a l K i n 169
B r i e f Moves 161
P l a c e m e n t P a t t e r n s
P l a c e m e n t P a t t e r n s : D e s c r i p t i o n 162 T h e M e r y S t a b l e :
One t o T h r e e P l a c e m e n t s 165 T h e M o d e r a t e l y S t a b l e :
F o u r t o Seven P l a c e m e n t s 166 T h e M o d e r a t e l y U n s t a b l e :
E i g h t t o T h i r t e e n P l a c e m e n t s 167 T h e V e r y U n s t a b l e :
F o u r t e e n o r more P l a c e m e n t s 168 P l a c e m e n t P a t t e r n s : O t h e r C a r e F a c t o r s 169
P l a c e m e n t Summary 174
EDUCATION
I n t r o d u c t i o n 175
L e v e l o f E l e m e n t a r y - S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n 175 S e c t i o n 4 4 : Th e P o s t - c a r e
F i n a n c i a l S u p p o r t Pr ogr am 177 ADOLESCENCE
I n t r o d u c t i o n 189
I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t A d o l e s c e n c e
T a k e n f r o m t h e F i l e s 181 T h e I n t e r v i e w e e s ' D e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e i r A d o l e s c e n c e 184 Summary o f A d o l e s c e n c e 187 DISCHARGE FROM CARE
I n t r o d u c t i o n 189
D i s c h a r g e I n f o r m a t i o n From t h e F i l e s 191 D i s c h a r g e I n f o r m a t i o n From t h e I n t e r v i e w e e s 197
D i s c h a r g e Summary 292
CHAPTER SUMMARY 2 92
CHAPTER F I V E : THE CARE EXPERIENCE:
ISSUES OF QUALI TY Page 2 9 6
INTRODUCTION' 2 9 6
IN-CARE ABUSE
T h e I n c i d e n c e o f I n - c a r e Abuse 2 96
P h y s i c a l Abuse 211
Case E x a mp l e s 2 1 5
S e x u a l Abuse 2 18
Case E x a mp l e s 229
E x p l o i t a t i o n 2 24
Page 7
<NOT ABUSE JUST) INADEQUATE CARE I n t r o d u c t i o n 2 2 6
Poor Q u a l i t y F o s t e r Home C a r e
T h e P l a c e m e n t P r o c e s s 2 2 8 N e g l e c t i n F o s t e r Homes 22?
E x c e s s i v e and I n a p p r o p r i a t e P u n is hm e nt 231 S o c i a l I s o l a t i o n 2 32
Mismanagement — F a i l u r e s o-f t h e D e p a r t m e n t I n t r o d u c t i o n 2 33
I ne-f-f ec t i v e I n t e r v e n t i o n 2 33
I n a p p r o p r i a t e R e s i d e n t i a l P l a c e m e n t s 235 P l a c e m e n t I n s t a b i l i t y 2 3 6
SOCIAL WORK SERVICES 2 3 8
DI SCRI MI NATI ON I N THE COMMUNITY AND HOMES I n t r o d u c t i o n 2 4 2
Th e N a t i v e E x p e r i e n c e
I n t r o d u c t i o n 2 43
Case E x a m p l e s 2 44
Th e F o s t e r C h i l d i n t h e Community 248
CARE ASSESSMENTS 250
Summary o-f C a r e A s s e s s m e n t s 254
THE CARE EXPERIENCE: CLOSING REMARKS 2 5 6
CHAPTER S I X : THE YOUNG ADULTS... Page 264
INTRODUCTION 2 6 4
HOUSING CIRCUMSTANCES 2 65
LEARNING TO EARN AND GETTING BY
Employment 2 6 8
Some Wer e N e v e r ' A v a i l a b l e ' -for Employment 26?
Some Had Been Employed 271
And Some We re S t i l l Employed
( o r a t L e a s t W i s h e d T h e y Were) 2 7 2
Employment C o m p a r i s o n s 2 7 4
Income A s s i s t a n c e 2 76
E d u c a t i o n 281
Summary and D i s c u s s i o n 2 84
PARENTING AND PARTNERSHIPS I n t r o d u c t i o n 2 8 5
A d o l e s c e n t P r e g n a n c i e s 2 8 6
P r e g n a n c i e s and P a r e n t i n g a t I n t e r v i e w 2 8 8
OTHER ISSUES: HAPPINESS, TROUBLES AND THE FUTURE Sel-f A s s e s s m e n t s 2 9 3
T h e i r D e s c r i p t i o n s o-f T h e m s e l v e s 298
T r o u b l e s 2 99
A l c o h o l Consumpti on 29 9
Drug Usage 301
C r i m i n a l i t y 3 0 3
M e n t a l H e a l t h P r o b l e m s 3 06 The T r o u b l e d T w e n t y 3 0 6 G o a l s -for t h e F u t u r e 309
OUTCOME PROFILE 311
SUMMARY AND CLOSING REMARKS 3 1 5
CHAPTER SEVEN: K I N S H I P Page 320
INTRODUCTION 320
BIOLOGICAL FAMILY CONTACT WHILE I N CARE C o n t a c t w i t h P a r e n t s
L e v e l o-f C o n t a c t 3 2 3
S a t i s-f ac t i on w i t h P a r e n t a l C o n t a c t C o n t a c t w i t h S i b l i n g s
L e v e l o-f C o n t a c t 330 O t h e r B i o l o g i c a l Ki n 3 3 3
B i o l o g i c a l F a m i l y C o n t a c t : O t h e r I s s u e s BIOLOGICAL FAMILY CONTACT AT INTERVIEW
P a r e n t s 33?
Si b l i ngs 340
O t h e r B i o l o g i c a l K i n 3 4 3 Summary o-f B i o l o g i c a l F a m i l y
C o n t a c t A t I n t e r v i e w 3 4 4 FOSTER FAMILY CONTACT AT INTERVIEW
F o s t e r P a r e n t s 3 46 F o s t e r S i b l i n g s 350
E x t e n d e d F o s t e r F a m i l y Members 354
OTHERS: FAMI LI ES AND FRIENDS
I n t r o d u c t i o n 3 55 A d o p t i v e F a m i l i e s
P r o c r e a t i v e F a m i l i e s
F r i e n d s 3 5 7
T h o s e who had N o - o n e K IN S H I P AND OUTCOME
I n t r o d u c t i o n 361
B i o l o g i c a l F a m i l y C o n t a c t and Outcome 361 F r i e n d s h i p and Outcome 3 6 4
F o s t e r F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s
a t I n t e r v i e w and Outcome 3 64 356
3 5 7 360
3 2 8
33 4
Page 9
PART THREE
CHAPTER EIGHTi IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS... Page
INTRODUCTION 371
PLACEMENT ISSUES
I n t r o d u c t i o n 3 7 2
I n - C a r e Abuse 3 73
P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y 3 77
F o s t e r Home S e l e c t i o n and S c r e e n i n g F o s t e r P a r e n t T r a i n i n g 388 R e s i d e n t i a l o r Group C a r e R e s o u r c e s
EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 3 8 7
SOCIAL WORK SERVICES Abuse C o u n s e l l i n g
I s s u e s o f A d o l e s c e n c e D i s c h a r g e S e r v i c e s MANAGING K IN SHI P
I n t r o d u c t i o n 3 98
F o s t e r F a m i l y C o n t a c t I n t o E a r l y A d u l t h o o d B i o l o g i c a l F a m i l y C o n t a c t :
C o n t a c t w i t h P a r e n t s 488 S i b l i n g s R e l a t i o n s h i p s 4 82 O t h e r B i o l o g i c a l Ki n 4 84
THE CARE EXPERIENCE FOR NATIVE CHILDREN 486
N a t i v e and N o n - N a t i v e F o s t e r Homes 4 88 CONCLUDING REVIEW
P u r p o s e o f t h e R e s e a r c h 4 1 4 R e s e a r c h M e t h o d o l o g y 4 14 R e s e a r c h F i n d i n g s 4 1 5
R e s e a r c h A c h i e v e m e n t s , L i m i t a t i o n s , and F u r t h e r Q u e s t i o n s 428
CLOSING REMARKS 4 23
Ap pe nd i x A: Maps o f S a s ka t c h e w a n A pp en d i x B: F i l e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Ap pe nd i x C: C o n t a c t L e t t e r
A p p e nd i x D: I n t e r v i e w S c h e d u l e s A pp en d i x E: Outcome P r o f i l e
♦
A pp en d i x F: P o l i c y on C o r p o r a l P un i s h m e n t R e f e r e n c e s
391 393 3 9 5
378
3 7 9 3 8 2
3 9 9
L I S T OF TABLES AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY . . Pa ge 107
T a b l e One: T h e T o t a l S t u d y P o p u l a t i o n
by Gender and Race 134
T a b l e Two: T he S t u d y P o p u l a t i o n L o c a t e d
by Gender and Race 135
T a b l e T h r e e : Th e S t u d y P o p u l a t i o n I n t e r v i e w e d
by Gender and Race 135
CHAPTER FOUR: THE CARE EXPERIENCE:
CAREERS I N CARE... Page 143 T a b l e One: P a r e n t s " Age a t B i r t h
o f S t u d y P a r t i c i p a n t s 146 T a b l e Two: P a r e n t s " M a r i t a l C i r c u m s t a n c e s
a t B i r t h o-f S t u d y P a r t i c i p a n t s 146 T a b l e T h r e e : Reasons -for A d m i s s i o n t o C a r e 14? T a b l e F o u r : Number o-f A d m i s s i o n t o C a r e 150 T a b l e F i v e : I n t e r v i e w e e s " U i e w o f Reasons
f o r A d m i s s i o n t o C a r e 151 T a b l e S i x : Number o f P l a c e m e n t s
by Race and Gender 162
T a b l e S e v e n : Gender and Race D i s t r i b u t i o n
by P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y 164
T a b l e E i g h t : A d m i s s i o n s and P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y 171 T a b l e N i n e : H e a l t h D i f f i c u l t i e s by
P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y 173 T a b l e T e n : L e v e l o f B a s i c E d u c a t i o n 175 T a b l e E l e v e n : S e c t i o n 44 P a r t i c i p a t i o n
by R a c i a l O r i g i n and Gender 178 T a b l e T w e l v e : S e c t i o n 44 P a r t i c i p a t i o n
by P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y 17? T a b l e T h i r t e e n : Age 16 t o 18 P l a c e m e n t
Change by P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y 182 T a b l e F o u r t e e n : P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y and L e v e l
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T a b l e F i f t e e n : P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y and P r e v a l e n c e o f A d o l e s c e n t B e h a v i o u r a l P r o b l e m s 183 T a b l e S i x t e e n : P l a c e m e n t S t a b i l i t y
by P r e - 1 8 I n d e p e n d e n c e 184 T a b l e S e v e n t e e n : Age o f A c h i e v i n g I n d e p e n d e n c e by
P l a c e m e n t Change i n A d o l e s c e n c e 184 T a b l e E i g h t e e n : I n t e r v i e w e e s ' A d o l e s c e n t
Di f f i c u 1 t i e s 185
T a b l e N i n e t e e n : I n t e r v i e w e e s ' A d o l e s c e n t S u p p o r t s 187 T a b l e T w e n t y : L o c a t i o n o f t h e S t u d y P o p u l a t i o n 191 T a b l e T w e n t y - O n e : L i v i n g A r r a n g e m e n t a t D i s c h a r g e
by Age o f I n d e p e n d e n c e 192 T a b l e T w e n t y - T w o : A n t i c i p a t e d Income a t D i s c h a r g e
by Age o f I n d e p e n d e n c e 194 T a b l e T w e n t y - T h r e e : L e v e l o f A s s e s s e d M a t u r i t y
and A p p a r e n t P r o b l e m s
a t D i s c h a r g e 196
T a b l e T w e n t y - F o u r : D i s c h a r g e S e r v i c e s 199
CHAPTER F I V E : THE CARE EXPERIENCE:
ISSUES OF QU ALI TY... Page 2 0 6
T a b l e One: Th e I n c i d e n c e o f I n - c a r e Abuse 2 08 T a b l e Two: I n a p p r o p r i a t e C a r e O b s e r v a t i o n s 2 2 7 T a b l e T h r e e : Th e R o l e o f S o c i a l W o r k e r s 2 38 T a b l e F o u r : I m p e d i m e n t s t o S o c i a l Work S e r v i c e s 240 T a b l e F i v e : L e v e l o f S o c i a l Work S e r v i c e Needs
Compared w i t h S e r v i c e R e c e i v e d 241 T a b l e S i x : C a r e A s s e s s m e n t s 251
T a b l e S ev en : T h e E f f e c t o f C a r e on C u r r e n t
C i r c u m s t a n c e s by Gender 2 53 D i a g r a m One: P a t t e r n s o f C a r e 2 59
T a b l e T h r e e s L e v e l o f Income A s s i s t a n c e R e c e i p t
A f t e r D i s c h a r g e f r o m C a r e 2 7 8 T a b l e Fours L e v e l o f Income A s s i s t a n c e R e c e i p t
o f t h e I n t e r v i e w e e s
A f t e r D i s c h a r g e f r o m C a r e 2 79 T a b l e F i v e s I n t e r v i e w e e s ' R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
F u r t h e r i n g T h e i r E d u c a t i o n 2 83
T a b l e S i x s Th e L i v i n g A r r a n g e m e n t s o f t h e C h i l d r e n Born t o F e m a l e I n t e r v i e w e e s
by R a c i a l O r i g i n 2 8 9
T a b l e Sevens H a p p i n e s s o f I n t e r v i e w e e s Compared t o CANADA'S HEALTH PROMOTION SURVEY
Responses 2 94
T a b l e E i g h t s F a c t o r s L i s t e d as C o n t r i b u t i n g
t o H a p p i n e s s and U n h a p p i n e s s 2 95 T a b l e N i n e s Th e S t a t e d N a t u r e o f P a s t
Drug o r S o l v e n t Usage 3 0 2
T a b l e Tens G o a l s f o r t h e F u t u r e 310 T a b l e E l e v e n s Outcome P r o f i l e 311
T a b l e T w e l v e s Outcome by Gender and Race 3 1 3
T a b l e T h i r t e e n s Outcome by R a t e d M a t u r i t y
a t D i s c h a r g e 314
D i a g r a m Ones P a t t e r n s o f C a r e and Outcome 3 1 8
CHAPTER SEVENS K I N S H I P ... Page 320 T a b l e Ones P a r e n t a l C o n t a c t W h i l e i n C a r e 3 2 3 T a b l e Twos Summary o f P a r e n t a l C o n t a c t
up t o D i s c h a r g e f r o m C a r e 3 2 5 T a b l e T h r e e s Amount o f P a r e n t a l C o n t a c t by S a t i s f a c t i o n
w i t h B i o l o g i c a l F a m i l y C o n t a c t 3 28 T a b l e Fours S i b l i n g C o n t a c t W h i l e i n C a r e 331 T a b l e F i v e s L e v e l o f S i b l i n g C o n t a c t 331
T a b l e S i x s Reasons f o r Lack o f
B i o l o g i c a l F a m i l y C o n t a c t 3 3 6 T a b l e Sevens I n t e r v i e w e e s ' C o n t a c t
Page 13
T a b l e E i g h t : I n t e r v i e w e e s ' C o n t a c t
w i t h T h e i r F a t h e r s 3 39
T a b l e N i n e : C o n t a c t w i t h S i b l i n g s a t I n t e r v i e w 341 T a b l e T e n : L e v e l o-f S i b l i n g C o n t a c t a t I n t e r v i e w 341 T a b l e E l e v e n : C o n t a c t w i t h F o s t e r P a r e n t s
a t I n t e r v i e w 3 4 7
T a b l e T w e l v e : F o s t e r S i b l i n g C o n t a c t a t I n t e r v i e w 351 T a b l e T h i r t e e n : I n t e r v i e w e e s ' L i s t o-f L o v i n g
and S u p p o r t i v e R e l a t i o n s h i p s 3 55 T a b l e F o u r t e e n : Outcome and P a r e n t a l and S i b l i n g
C o n t a c t W h i l e i n C a r e 3 62 T a b l e F i - f t e e n : P a r e n t a l C o n t a c t a t
I n t e r v i e w and Outcome 3 63
T a b l e S i x t e e n : F o s t e r F a m i l y C o n t a c t a t
I n t e r v i e w and Outcome 3 6 5
T a b l e S e v e n t e e n : P a r e n t a l and F o s t e r F a m i l y
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INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
T h e r e s e a r c h d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s t h e s i s i s a - f o l l o w - u p s t u d y o-f young a d u l t s who had s p e n t a s i g n i - f i c a n t p o r t i o n o-f
t h e i r l i v e s i n t h e c a r e o f t h e s t a t e . Th e r e s e a r c h i s m u l t i f a c e t e d and d e t a i l s t h e i r e a r l y a d u l t h o o d c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r k i n s h i p c o n n e c t i o n s and t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e c a r e e x p e r i e n c e .
T h e s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n was drawn f r o m S a s k a t c h e w a n ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S e r v i c e s c h i 1d - i n - c a r e p o p u l a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f f o u r m a j o r c r i t e r i a . T h e s e a r e d e f i n e d i n C h a p t e r T h r e e a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l . Th e
c r i t e r i a w e r e : t h e y w e r e YOUNG ADULTS who had s p e n t a S I G N I F I C A N T AMOUNT o f t h e i r c h i l d h o o d o r a d o l e s c e n c e I N CARE and w e r e d i s c h a r g e d f r o m c a r e a s INDEPENDENT p e o p l e .
Once t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n had been e s t a b l i s h e d t h e a c t u a l i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d u s i n g t h e D e p a r t m e n t ' s manual and c o m p u t e r r e c o r d s . T h e i r c h i 1d - i n - c a r e f i l e s w e r e r e a d t o o b t a i n a c a s e h i s t o r y . T h e y w e r e t h e n l o c a t e d a n d , when t h e y c o n s e n t e d , i n t e r v i e w e d . T h i s p r o c e s s was more o r l e s s s e q u e n t i a l a l t h o u g h new a p p r o p r i a t e c a s e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d s o me t im es by wo r d o f mouth t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s e a r c h w h i c h l a s t e d f r o m S e pt e mb er 1985 t o S e pt e m be r 1 9 8 6 .
D e p a r t m e n t ' s F a m i l y S e r v i c e s D i v i s i o n o f f i c e i n R e g i n a and a l s o had c o n t a c t w i t h and us ed t h e f a c i l i t i e s o f v a r i o u s l o c a l o f f i c e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e . H h i l e t r y i n g t o l o c a t e t h e young p e o p l e c o n t a c t w i t h many f o s t e r p a r e n t s was a l s o h a d , f a c i l i t a t e d t h r o u g h t h e F o s t e r P a r e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n o f S a s k a t c h e w a n . C o n t a c t among t h e young p e o p l e ' s k i n i n c l u d e d b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y members a s w e l l as f o s t e r p a r e n t s , c h i l d c a r e s t a f f , p a r t n e r s , i n - l a w s , f r i e n d s a n d , most i m p o r t a n t l y o f a l l , t h e young p e o p l e ' s v a r i o u s s i b l i n g s .
S i b l i n g s w e r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s s t u d y f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . T he p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s w e r e p r i m a r i l y drawn f r o m s i b l i n g s . As w e l l t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n was s o m et i m es c r u c i a l t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f an i n t e r v i e w . The s i m u l t a n e o u s or s e q u e n t i a l p l a c e m e n t s b e t w ee n b o t h b i o l o g i c a l and f o s t e r s i b l i n g s a c t e d as an i n t e r n a l v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d by t h e s e young p e o p l e a b o u t t h e i r c a r e e x p e r i e n c e s .
Of e qu al i m p o r t a n c e i n d e v e l o p i n g a c o m p r e h e n s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c h i l d w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s i n S a s k a t c h e w a n was t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n t e r a c t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e economic and c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o r p e o p l e o f N a t i v e a n c e s t r y . T h i s i n c l u d e d a t t e n d a n c e a t t h e I N VI TAT ION AL CONSULTATION ON CURRICULUM ( a b o u t N a t i v e s o c i a l work e d u c a t i o n ) i n R e g i n a i n t h e f a l l o f 1 9 8 5 .
Page 17
u n s t a b l e c a r e i n as many as 35 p l a c e m e n t s . The mean number o-f p l a c e m e n t s was one p l a c e m e n t p e r c h i l d p e r y e a r i n c a r e . A t t h e t i m e o-f t h e i n t e r v i e w t h e i r a d j u s t m e n t as young a d u l t s a l s o v a r i e d -from wh at c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as normal p r o d u c t i v e a d u l t h o o d t o m u l t i p r o b l e m . W h a t e v e r t h e i r c a r e e x p e r i e n c e or c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e y w e r e e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t b e i n g young a d u l t s and w i l l i n g t o t a l k a b o u t t h e i r l i v e s .
P u r p o s e o-f t h e R e s e a r c h
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o p r o v i d e a s y s t e m a t i c f o l l o w - u p s t u d y o f C a n a d i a n c a r e l e a v e r s . T h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r l i v e s a r e e x a m i n e d . T h e i r c a r e e x p e r i e n c e i s d e s c r i b e d and e v a l u a t e d u s i n g bo th t h e c h i 1d - i n - c a r e f i l e s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t and t h e i r own d e s c r i p t i o n s ; t h e i r k i n s h i p c o n t a c t s t h r o u g h t h e c a r e e x p e r i e n c e and i n t o young a d u l t h o o d a r e e x a m i n e d ; and f i n a l l y t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s as young a d u l t s a r e d e l i n e a t e d . Out o f t h e v a r i e d i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s each o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s d e s c r i b e d and f r o m t h e i r c h i 1d - i n - c a r e f i l e s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n p a t t e r n s and f r o m t h e s e p a t t e r n s i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o d e v e l o p p r a c t i c e and p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s . By t h i s p r o c e s s i t i s hoped t o i n c r e a s e t h e f u n d o f k n o w l e d g e used f o r p r a c t i c e and p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s i n c h i l d w e l f a r e . C l ]
c a r e l e a v e r s . T h i s s t u d y a l o n g w i t h o t h e r n o n - C a n a d i a n ■ f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s o-f c a r e l e a v e r s i s s c r u t i n i z e d i n C h a p t e r One. T h e r e i s now a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t E n g l i s h ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 8 1 ; C o x , 1 9 8 0 ; E d w a r d s , 1 9 8 9 ; G o b l e and L y m b e r y , 1 9 8 4 ; G o d e k , 1 9 7 6 ; K a h a n , 1 9 7 9 ; L o v e d a y , 1 98 5; L u p t o n ,
19 85 ; L upt on and R o b e r t s , 1 9 8 3 ; M a n n , 1 98 4; M u l v e y , 1 9 7 7 ; P o r t e r , 1984; S t e i n and C a r e y , 1 9 8 4 a , 1 9 8 4 b , 1 9 8 6 ) and S c o t t i s h c a r e l e a v e r s <F e r g u s o n , 1 9 6 6 ; M o r g a n - K l e i n , 1 9 8 5 ; T r i s e l i o t i s , 1 9 80 c ; T r i s e l i o t i s and Russel 1 , 1 9 8 4 ) . As w e l l t h e r e a r e t h r e e r e c e n t A m e r i c a n s t u d i e s ( F a n s h e l , F i n c h and G r u n d y , 1 9 8 9 a , 1 9 8 9 b , 1 9 9 0 ; F e s t i n g e r , 1 9 8 3 ; Zi mmerman, 1 9 8 2 ) and some o l d e r ones ( J a c o b s o n and C o c k er u m , 1 9 7 6 ; M e i e r , 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 5 ,
1966; T h e s i s , 1 9 2 4 ) . T h i s s t u d y p r e s e n t s m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e C a n a d i a n c o n t e x t a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s .
T h e C a n a d i a n c i r c u m s t a n c e s d i f f e r f r o m t h e B r i t i s h o r A m e r i c a n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c h i l d w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s i n a number o f w a y s . H i s t o r i c a l l y C an ada , p a r t i c u l a r l y w e s t e r n C a n a d a , has e m p h a s i z e d f o s t e r home c a r e or b o a r d i n g - o u t ( t h e s e t e r m s w i l l be used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y i n t h i s t e x t ) as t h e p r e f e r r e d method o f a l t e r n a t e c a r e f o r n o n d e l i n q u e n t c h i l d r e n i n c a r e . T h i s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e S c o t t i s h e x p e r i e n c e ( A n d e r s o n , 1 8 7 1 ; F e r g u s o n , 1 9 6 6 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e C a n a d i a n and A m e r i c a n p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n i n c a r e b o a r d e d - o u t d u r i n g t h e 1970s was s i m i l a r a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70V£ ( H e p w o r t h , 1 9 8 0 ; K a d u s h i n ,
1 9 8 0 , 3 2 1 ) t h i s method o n l y became p r e d o m i n a n t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e 1950s ( K a d u s h i n , 1 9 8 0 , 3 1 4 - 3 2 1 ) o r l a t e r ( J a c o b s o n and C o c k e r u m , 1 9 7 6 ) . I n CHILDREN WHO WAIT Rowe and La m b e r t ( 1 9 7 3 ) ga v e 41 p e r c e n t as t h e f i g u r e f o r t h e e a r l y
Page 1?
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s p e c i f i c t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h b r o a d e n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s . T he p o p u l a t i o n o f S a sk a t c h e w a n i s and has been p r e d o m i n a n t l y r u r a l (CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA,1 st e d . , 1 9 8 5 , s . v . " S a s k a t c h e w a n " > and l e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e i r c h i l d i n c a r e p o p u l a t i o n has been s i t u a t e d i n t h e two l a r g e s t u rb a n c e n t r e s , b o t h o f w h i c h had a p o p u l a t i o n o f l e s s t ha n 1 7 0 , 6 0 0 i n 1981 ( C l a r k e , 1 9 8 5 , 2 1 - 5 5 ) . As w e l l , S a s k a t c h e w a n , as i d e n t i f i e d by Johnson i n h i s 1983 book NATIVE CHILDREN AND THE CHILD WELFARE SYSTEM, h as ' o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t , i f no t h i g h e s t , p r o p o r t i o n s o f N a t i v e c h i 1 d r e n - i n - c a r e ' ( 3 7 ) a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o - t h i r d s o f i t s c h i l d i n c a r e p o p u l a t i o n ( 3 7 - 3 9 ) . None o f t h e s t u d i e s a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s w h i c h w i l l be e x a m i n e d i n C h a p t e r One i n c l u d e N a t i v e c h i l d r e n i n t h e s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n s . O n l y a f e w r e f e r s p e c i f i c i a l 1y t o c h i l d r e n r a i s e d i n r u r a l f o s t e r homes ( F e r g u s o n , 1 9 6 6 j M e i e r , 1 9 6 2 ) . T h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e s b o t h r u r a l and N a t i v e c a r e l e a v e r s .
Johnson document ed t h e phenomenal i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e 1960s o f c h i l d r e n o f N a t i v e a n c e s t r y i n t h e c h i l d w e l f a r e s y s t e m s i n Canada and r e f e r s t o t h i s as t h e ' S i x t i e s S c oo p ' ( 2 3 - 6 2 ) . Th e D e p a r t m e n t ' s ANNUAL REPORTS ( 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 6 8 ) a l s o docume nt ed and d i s c u s s e d t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f N a t i v e c h i l d r e n i n c a r e . The N a t i v e young p e o p l e i n t h i s s t u d y w e r e p a r t o f t h a t phenomenon. T h i s s t u d y i s a b l e t o e x a m i n e t h e c a r e e x p e r i e n c e and t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a g r o u p o f N a t i v e c a r e l e a v e r s and compare them t o t h e i r n o n - N a t i v e p e e r s who s h a r e d a s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e .
p r o v i s i o n s . T h e s e i n c l u d e d i f f e r e n c e s bet we en t h e r u r a l and ur b a n c a r e e x p e r i e n c e and s p e c i f i c i n i t i a t i v e s such as t h e p o s t - c a r e e d u c a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t p r o g r a m . The s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s p r o g r a m s a r e u n i q u e t o S a s ka t c h e w a n and m e r i t some a t t e n t i o n .
I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f i e l d o f c h i l d w e l f a r e a s a w h o l e t h i s s t u d y has m e r i t b e c a u s e o f t h e d e a r t h o f f o l l o w up s t u d i e s . F a n s h e l w r o t e t h a t f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s pose many p r o b l e m s
i n c l u d i n g l o c a t i o n and c o o p e r a t i o n o f s u b j e c t s , d e f i n i n g m e a s u r e s o f outcome w i t h o r w i t h o u t c o m p a r a b l e g r o u p s and e s t a b l i s h i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s t o p r e v i o u s e v e n t s ( M a a s , 1 9 6 6 , 1 8 1 ) . T h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s as r e l a t e d t o p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s i n t h i s r e s e a r c h a l o n g w i t h t h e i r i m p a c t on t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r T h r e e .
The D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S e r v i c e s i n S a s k a t c h e w a n , w i t h whose c o o p e r a t i o n t h i s s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d , h i g h l i g h t e d t h e need f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d c a r e s e r v i c e s and e s t a b l i s h e d a c h i l d i n c a r e r e v i e w r e s e a r c h team i n 1984 whose p u r p o s e was t o ' r e v i e w . . . t h e n ee ds o f c h i l d r e n i n c a r e . . . t o d e t e r m i n e pr og ra m d i r e c t i o n ' ( S a s k a t c h e w a n , CHILD I N CARE R E V I E W , 1 9 8 5 b , 1 ) . The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s was seen as c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o t h e r e s e a r c h b e i n g c o n d u c t e d by t h a t r e v i e w team t h e r e b y a u g m e n t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a bo u t t h e i r c h i 1d - i n - c a r e s e r v i c e s .
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a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r c a r e l e a v e r s i s e x a m i n e d i n t h e f i n d i n g s . K i n s h i p i n t h i s s t u d y can be seen as b o t h a d e p e n d e n t and i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and t h i s makes i m p a c t a s se s sm en t d i f f i c u l t . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f k i n s h i p c o n n e c t i o n s t o outcome i s e x a m i n e d .
A t t h e same t i m e i t was p l a n n e d t h a t t h e c a r e e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d be t r e a t e d as a c o n s t a n t and t h e r e f o r e d e a l t w i t h i n a m e a n i n g f u l b u t s u c c i n c t m a n n e r . As t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , and more s p e c i f i c a l l y a s t h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d , i t became c l e a r , as v a r i o u s k i n d s o f abuse a n d / o r o t h e r f o r m s o f poor q u a l i t y c a r e w e r e d e s c r i b e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h a t some r e f o c u s s i n g was n e c e s s a r y . I t was n o t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t a n c e s o f m a l t r e a t m e n t w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e d t h i s r e f o c u s s i n g ; i t was t h e h i g h r e p o r t e d i n c i d e n c e o f i n c a r e abuse o r n e g l e c t .
N or can t h e a bus e r e p o r t e d h e r e be seen as o n l y o f h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t . The S a s k a t c h e w a n Ombudsman w r o t e i n
1 9 8 5 ( e ) s
Ne a r e s t i l l s e e i n g f o s t e r p a r e n t s who a r e known, o r s h o u l d be known, by t h e D e p a r t m e n t t o use v e r y p h y s i c a l d i s c i p l i n e ( w i t h b e l t s and b r o k e n w h i p s ) h a v i n g c h i l d r e n p l a c e d w i t h them who w e r e a p p r e h e n d e d f r o m t h e i r n a t u r a l p a r e n t s b e c a u s e t h e y s u f f e r e d s i m i l a r k i n d s of a b u s e . ( 3 8 )
T h i s c o n c e r n was r e i t e r a t e d i n 1987 i n t h e s p e c i a l Ombudsman' s r e p o r t THE PROTECTION OF CHILDREN: THE RIGHTS OF CHILDREN: THE URGENT NEED TO IMPROVE A SYSTEM I N C R I S I S .
n e c e s s a r y t o document t h i s m a t e r i a l as c o m p l e t e l y as p o s s i b l e . T h i s h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s no t howe ve r i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e o t h e r f o c u s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h : k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t may i n s t e a d h e l p c l a r i f y t h e v a r i o u s k i n s h i p c o n n e c t i o n s w h i c h d i d o r d i d n o t d e v e l o p f r o m t h e k i n s h i p s y st e m s t o w h i c h t h e s e c a r e l e a v e r s w e r e c o n n e c t e d .
C h i l d w e l f a r e p r a c t i c e i s l a r g e l y p r e d i c a t e d on t h e b e l i e f t h a t w h e r e t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y c a n n o t , f o r w h a t e v e r d e f i n e d r e a s o n , m a i n t a i n or resume c a r e o f t h e c h i l d , t h e b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e i s a s u b s t i t u t e f a m i l y — p r e f e r a b l y an a d o p t i v e f a m i l y o r s e c o n d a r i l y a l o n g t e r m f o s t e r f a m i l y ( K a d u s h i n , 1 9 8 6 , 3 2 2 - 3 2 8 ; Packman, 1 9 8 1 ; Rowe and L a m b e r t , 1 9 7 3 , 4 ; U n i t e d Ki ng d om , 1 9 4 6 ) . T h i s b e l i e f and s u b s e q u e n t p r a c t i c e p r i n c i p l e i n v o l v e s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h i s l o n g t e r m s u b s t i t u t e f a m i l y w i l l a b s o r b t h e c h i l d as a f u l l f a m i l y member, by de f a c t o a d o p t i o n <K a d u s h i n , 1 9 8 6 , 3 1 3 ; S a s k a t c h e wa n, ANNUAL REPORT, 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 ) and t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e k i n s h i p s u p p o r t s , i f t h e s e a r e n e c e s s a r y , i n t o a d u l t h o o d . But do t h e y ? T h a t i s t h e q u e s t i o n w h i c h i s a s k e d h e r e .
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T h e s i s Ou 1 1 i ne
C h a p t e r One p r e s e n t s r e s e a r c h a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s : B r i t i s h , A m e r i c a n and C a n a d i a n . T h i s m a t e r i a l d e a l s w i t h c a r e l e a v e r s and t h e c a r e l e a v i n g p r o c e s s . T h e r e a r e no s t u d i e s a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s w h i c h i n c l u d e c h i l d r e n o-f N a t i v e a n c e s t r y . C h a p t e r Two b e g i n s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t S a s k a t c h e w a n and i t s c h i l d w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s . B r i e f l y t h e d e m o g r a p h i c s and h i s t o r y o f S a s k a t c h e w a n a r e d e s c r i b e d . Th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h i l d w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s i n t h e p r o v i n c e i s t h e n p r e s e n t e d , w i t h e m p h a s i s on t h e l e g i s l a t i o n and s e r v i c e s w h i c h w e r e i n p l a c e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d t h e s e c a r e l e a v e r s w e r e i n c a r e . T he se co nd h a l f o f t h e c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s N a t i v e i s s u e s and i n c l u d e s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f k i n s h i p i n N a t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s . Mor e g e n e r a l i s s u e s o f k i n s h i p o r young a d u l t d e v e l o p m e n t a r e n o t d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s t e x t b e c a u s e o f s p a c e l i m i t a t i o n s ; t h e r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l us e d i s l i s t e d i n t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y .
as r e l a t e d t o c o r p o r a l p u n i s h m e n t i n f o s t e r homes and t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f r e p o r t e d a bus e a r e d i s c u s s e d .
C h a p t e r S i x moves t h e f o c u s f r o m t h e p a s t t o t h e p r e s e n t and l o o k s a t t h e c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e young a d u l t s . The f a c t o r s e x am i n e d a r e h o u s i n g , employment and e d u c a t i o n , p a r e n t i n g and p a r t n e r s h i p s , c r i t i c a l i s s u e s such as c r i m i n a l i t y and d r u g u s a g e , and t h e young p e o p l e ' s s e l f a s s e s s m e n t s . An outcome p r o f i l e i s d e v e l o p e d .
C h a p t e r Seven d e s c r i b e s k i n s h i p c o n n e c t i o n s b o t h d u r i n g t h e t i m e i n c a r e and a t t h e t i m e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w . Th e c h a p t e r c l o s e s w i t h some comments a b o u t k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s h i p s and c u r r e n t f u n c t i o n i n g .
Th e f i n a l c h a p t e r ' I m p l i c a t i o n s and C o n c l u s i o n s ' d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e many i s s u e s r a i s e d i n t h e e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s . Some s p e c i f i c r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e made. The a p p r o a c h used h e r e can b e s t be d e s c r i b e d as a m e l i o r a t i v e . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o N a t i v e c h i l d r e n and t h e c h i l d w e l f a r e s y s t e m .
ENDNOTES
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CHAPTER ONE
PREVIOUS RESEARCH ABOUT CARELEAVING
INTRODUCTION
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h a b ou t B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n c a r e l e a v e r s . T h e r e v i e w i s l i m i t e d t o s t u d i e s
c o m p l e t e d a f t e r I 9 6 0 . T h i s i s a somewhat a r b i t r a r y d a t e a l t h o u g h i n any e v e n t p r i o r t o t h a t t h e r e w e r e f e w s t u d i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s i n B r i t a i n or t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e most n o t a b l e o f t h o s e i s T h e s i s " 1924 s t u d y o f New Y o r k o r p h a n s . R o b i n s < 1 9 6 6 , 8 - 1 0 ) r e v i e w s t h e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s , w h i c h w e r e p r i m a r i l y Eur op ea n and a b ou t d e l i n q u e n t c h i l d r e n r a t h e r t ha n c h i l d r e n e x i t i n g c a r e p e r s e . T h e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s a r e e x c l u d e d b e c a u s e t h e i r c o m p a r a b i 1 i t y t o
t h i s s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n g i v e n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f d i s c h a r g e f r o m c a r e i s seen a s l i m i t e d .
d i s c u s s e d b e lo w u n d e r a s e p a r a t e h e a d i n g . F i n a l l y t h e r e i s t h e n o n s y s t e m a t i c a n e c d o t a l m a t e r i a l . W h i l e t h i s l a t e r t y p e c a n n o t be used t o g e n e r a l i z e t o t h e w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n , i t do es p r o v i d e more i n - d e p t h o r i n s i g h t f u l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f b e i n g i n c a r e t ha n i s s om e t i me s p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e more s y s t e m a t i c s t u d i e s . A1 1 o f t h e s e t y p e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s r e v i e w . N o t i n c l u d e d a r e t h e <a u t o ) b i o g r a p h i c a l d e s c r i p t i v e s i n g l e c a s e s t u d i e s ( A r d e n , 1977; H i t c h m a n , 1 9 6 6; M a c V e i g h , 19 82 ; M a i e r e k , 1 9 8 4 ; T i m m s , 19 73 ; T y m a n , 1 9 8 9 > .
The m a t e r i a l i s o r d e r e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l 1y w i t h i n each o f t h e s u b h e a d i n g s . T h i s f o r m a t i s used b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e f ew c o m m o n a l i t i e s b e t w ee n t h e s t u d y s u b j e c t s , t h e m e t h o d o l o g i e s , o r t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s , e x c e p t f o r t h e f a c t t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e c a r e l e a v e r s . I n t e r m s o f t h i s s t u d y t h e most r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l i s F e s t i n g e r ' s 1983 New Y o r k s t u d y NO ONE EVER ASKED US. Her m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h i s s i m i l a r , h e r s t u d y s u b j e c t s m a i n l y e x i t e d c a r e f r o m f o s t e r homes, and i n c l u d e d B l a c k and H i s p a n i c c a r e l e a v e r s w h i c h a l l o w e d f o r some i n t e r r a c i a l c o m p a r i s o n s . T r i s e l i o t i s ' 1989 S c o t t i s h s t u d y i s a l s o r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e o f h i s f o c u s on t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f ' as su me d" k i n s h i p i n t o a d u l t h o o d . F i n a l l y , F e r g u s o n ' s 1966
and M e i e r ' s 1962 S c o t t i s h and A m e r i c a n s t u d i e s h a v e some c o m p a r a t i v e a p p l i c a b i l i t y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n c l u s i o n o f b o t h r u r a l and u r b a n c a r e l e a v e r s . The B r i t i s h s t u d i e s a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s e x i t i n g f r o m i n s t i t u t i o n a l c a r e i n t o a p r o b l e m a t i c h o u s i n g m a r k e t ha v e p e r h a p s t h e l e a s t r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h ( B u r g e s s , 1 9 8 1 ; G o d e k , 1 9 7 6 ; G o b l e and L y m b e r y , 1 9 8 4 ; L o v e d a y , 1985; L u p t o n , 1 9 8 5 ) .
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t h e e x i s t i n g r e s e a r c h a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s . Mor e a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o p a r t i c u l a r s t u d i e s b e c a u s e o f some a s p e c t o f c o m p a r a b i 1 i t y t o t h i s s t u d y . Th e m e t h o d o l o g y used and i t s s h o r t c o m i n g s a r e d i s c u s s e d . F i n a l l y , a summary o f t h e f i n d i n g s i s g i v e n . T h e s e s t u d i e s a b o u t c a r e l e a v e r s a s w e l l as o t h e r c h i l d w e l f a r e r e s e a r c h w i l l be drawn on i n P a r t Two as t h e f i n d i n g s f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e p r e s e n t e d .
B R I T I S H CARELEAVERS
S c o t t i s h S t u d i e s
F e r g u s o n b e g i n s h i s 1966 f o l l o w - u p s t u d y t i t l e d CHILDREN I N CARE— AND AFTER w i t h a h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w o f a l t e r n a t e c a r e i n S c o t l a n d . He w r o t e !
T r a d i t i o n a l 1y t h e S c o t t i s h method o f c a r i n g f o r c h i l d r e n d e p r i v e d o f a normal
home l i f e has been t h e s ys te m o f
b o a r d i n g - o u t w i t h f o s t e r - p a r e n t s , j u s t as f o r as l o n g t h e E n g l i s h m e t h o d . . . w a s by a d m i s s i o n t o an i n s t i t u t i o n . . . ( 1 )
t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f f i n d i n g enough f o s t e r homes, r e j e c t i o n o f some c h i l d r e n by t h e i r f o s t e r p a r e n t s and f i n a l l y t h e need t o a s s i s t c a r e l e a v e r s w i t h e m p l o y m e n t . He w r o t e t h a t t h e s e i n q u i r i e s m a i n t a i n e d ' c o n s i s t e n t l y o v e r t h e y e a r s ' ( 8 ) t h e v a l u e o f b o a r d i n g o u t b e c a u s e :
L i v i n g i n w o r k i n g - c l a s s homes, t h e c h i l d r e n soon d e v e l o p e d d o m e s t i c a t t a c h m e n t s , and c e a s e d t o be a s e p a r a t e c l a s s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , and w e r e ' s p e e d i l y a b s o r b e d and l o s t s i g h t o f i n t h e mass o f t h e l a b o u r i n g p o p u 1 a t i o n ' . < 8 )
F e r g u s o n ' s s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n was b or n b e t w e e n 1 9 4 3 - 4 5 . M o s t , 8 7 X , o f t h e 2 8 3 y o u t h s i n t h e s t u d y came i n t o c a r e b e f o r e t h e i r t e n t h b i r t h d a y < 4 7 - 4 9 ) . T h e p u r p o s e of h i s s t u d y was:
. . . t o f i n d o u t how a s e r i e s o f young p e o p l e . . . f a r e d a f t e r . . t h e y p a s s ed o u t o f c a r e on a t t a i n i n g t h e age o f 18 y e a r s . . . < 46)
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a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25'/, had no c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r - f o s t e r p a r e n t s ( 1 0 8 ) , and t h e i n - f o r m a t i o n may, i n a d d i t i o n , have r e f l e c t e d t h e b i a s s e s o-f t h e f o s t e r p a r e n t s . T h i s i s t h e o n l y f o l l o w up s t u d y w h i c h d i d n o t i n t e r v i e w t h e a c t u a l c a r e l e a v e r s a l t h o u g h F e r g us o n may ha v e i n t e r v i e w e d some.
D e s p i t e t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s t h e s t u d y does c o n t a i n some u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p o s t c a r e c a r e e r s o f t h i s g r o u p s o f c a r e l e a v e r s . I t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t h e r e b e c a u s e o v e r 70% w e r e p l a c e d i n r u r a l f o s t e r homes, 16% w e r e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h r e l a t i v e s and 13% w e r e r a i s e d i n C h i l d r e n ' s Homes. A t age t w e n t y , two y e a r s o u t o f c a r e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25% had no c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r f o s t e r p a r e n t — 27% o f t h e young men and 23% o f t h e young women. T w e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e men and 34% o f t h e women w e r e s t i l l l i v i n g w i t h t h e i r f o s t e r p a r e n t s and:
. . . i n a d d i t i o n , 40 p e r c e n t , o f t h e l a d s and 38 p e r c e n t , o f t h e g i r l s p r e s e r v e d t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r f o s t e r homes. . . < 108)
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 16% w e r e l i v i n g w i t h b i o l o g i c a l f a m i l y members — o r a b o u t t h e same p e r c e n t a g e as had been l i v i n g w i t h r e l a t i v e s w h i l e i n c a r e .
