Volume 9 Issue 1 Article 2
2000
“More a Medicine than a Beverage”: “Demon Rum” and the
“More a Medicine than a Beverage”: “Demon Rum” and the Canadian Trench Soldier of the First World War
Canadian Trench Soldier of the First World War
Tim Cook
Canadian War Museum, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh Recommended Citation
Recommended Citation
Cook, Tim "“More a Medicine than a Beverage”: “Demon Rum” and the Canadian Trench Soldier of the First World War." Canadian Military History 9, 1 (2000)
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on the difficult questions of t r e n c h culture and, p e r h a p s more importantly, how soldiers survived the ghastly conditions of the Western Front.7
Accepting Britain's declaration of war in A u g u s t 1 9 1 4 a s its own, C a n a d i a n s g r e e t e d t h e c o n f l i c t ' s a r r i v a l w i t h e n t h u s i a s m a n d celebration.8 Notions of glory a n d adventure were enough to enthral m a n y young men; moreover, there were the "Big Words" - patriotism, empire, a n d honour. Once overseas, however, soldiers found t h a t the type of conflict they h a d envisioned was far different from the reality of the Western F r o n t . T h e m u d , c o r p s e s a n d c o n s t a n t e n c o u n t e r s with d e a t h a n d suffering quickly destroyed all notions of glory a n d a d v e n t u r e . S u c h heroic sentiments were replaced by the grim need to "stick it out." Surviving in the t r e n c h e s - b o t h physically a n d psychologically - required t h a t morale at the individualistic a n d group level be continually buoyed.
The fighting on the Western Front h a s often been envisioned as one "big p u s h " after another.
The futility of the Somme, with soldiers climbing out of the trenches to be g u n n e d down, continues to s h r o u d the popular memory of the entire war.
There were, no doubt, m o m e n t s of p u r e terror, b u t more often the fighting w a s characterized by long periods of waiting. Soldiers did n o t a t t a c k day after day in relentless a s s a u l t s , yet they were terrorized daily by stray shelling, sniper fire a n d poison gas. The inability to strike back at the enemy steadily eroded morale.9
Morale h a s always been an essential factor in war. It w a s as n e c e s s a r y in battle as good equipment or leadership, a n d like those factors,
Acouple of months before he was killed at Vimy Ridge, Private Ronald Mackinnon noted t h a t he h a d to cut his letter to his father short because he h e a r d "the joyful cry [of] ' r u m up'."1 In the trenches, everyone reacted when r u m was issued.
The r u m ration was, in the words of Private E.
S e a m a n of the 3rd Battalion, "the highlight of the day."2 First Battalion infantryman Ralph Bell wrote t h a t "When the days shorten, a n d the rain never ceases; when the sky is ever grey, the nights chill, a n d t r e n c h e s thigh deep in m u d a n d water;
w h e n the front is altogether a beastly place, in fact, we have one consolation. It comes in gallon jars, marked simply 'S.R.D.'"3 That SRD was army
issued Special Red Demerara r u m .
R u m was an institutionalized a n d regimented p a r t of the ritual of enduring the war. Throughout the history of warfare, soldiers from all nations have u s e d forms of s t i m u l a n t s , including drugs a n d alcohol, before going into battle.4 For some m e n these were as necessary as the w e a p o n s they carried. "Morale, c a n be, a n d h a d to be, c r e a t e d , "5 t h e 1 9 2 2 R e p o r t o n S h e l l s h o c k c o n c l u d e d . R u m d i d j u s t t h a t a n d w a s a significant agent in fortifying the body a n d the mind. And although r u m m a y not have b e e n the p r i m e trigger i n c o m b a t m o t i v a t i o n , i t w a s certainly an important component. As a n u a n c e d tool of morale, it is p e r h a p s not surprising t h a t more t h a n one soldier remarked: "If we h a d n ' t h a d our r u m , we would have lost the war."6
R u m w a s u s e d as a combat motivator, as part o f t h e r e w a r d s y s t e m a n d a s m e d i c i n e . F u r t h e r m o r e , an examination of the m a n y u s e s of r u m in battle situations provides insights into the mentalité a n d collective lives of the C a n a d i a n Great War soldier. An analysis of r u m , a n d the social mores s u r r o u n d i n g it, s h e d s some light
Tim Cook
was not worth worrying a b o u t survival since one would live if it were m e a n t to be, or else get it
"when your n u m b e r was up." A determined mind set w a s helpful, b u t there were other tools of survival. Religion a n d superstition were essential for some men, less important for others. Threats a n d p u n i s h m e n t were all u s e d to keep m e n from breaking down. More positive features were also prevalent. Occasional leave w a s given or medals a w a r d e d . R a t h e r t h a n c o n s i d e r i n g c o m b a t motivation to be simply peer-bent, it is more balanced to think of this motivation as a subtle blend of issues. One of those factors w a s r u m . There were certainly m e n who were against it, b u t most found the daily issue of r u m a valued prop to steel the will a n d keep from going "windy. "
Rum a n d other strong spirits h a d long formed p a r t of the daily issue of the British soldier on campaign; a n d soldiers complained w h e n they did not get their ration of it.I4 During the S o u t h African War, where Canadian troops fought u n d e r British high c o m m a n d , they too h a d received a r u m ration consisting of ° gill of r u m [two ounces]
three times per week.15 When the 1st C a n a d i a n Infantry Division arrived in France in February 1915, it w a s a p p r e n t i c e d to British v e t e r a n s already in the line. In the process of learning how to survive on the Western Front, they were a g a i n i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e r u m r a t i o n . Not surprisingly, C a n a d i a n soldiers adopted the r u m ration tradition quickly.
Issued at the discretion of their officers, r u m was given to m e n at stand-to at dawn a n d s t a n d - down at d u s k . As these were the expected times for an enemy attack, the whole forward u n i t was called out to wait with rifles at the ready. If no attack came, sergeants doled out two o u n c e s of 186 proof J a m a i c a n r u m to each man.1 6 It w a s to be d r u n k in the presence of the NCO or officer so no hoarding could be done, with a n y extra r u m to be p o u r e d out into the mud.1 7 In reality though, not a lot of r u m went into the dirt, with friends of the NCOs a n d o l d - h a n d s generally benefitting. As one m e m o r a n d u m to Overseas Minister A.E. K e m p n o t e d , "It is left to t h e discretion of t h e C o m m a n d i n g Officer as to w h e t h e r Oxo, S o u p or R u m is required. As a general proposition, preference is expressed for the latter. The individual m a n is in all cases free to refuse the issue of R u m if he so desires, b u t this option is only exercised in a few instances."1 8
morale h a s b e e n a n element t h a t c a n b e the difference between s u c c e s s or failure. Without it, seemingly efficient, well-equipped armies of millions could disintegrate into armed mobs. But if strong morale m a k e s good soldiers, what m a k e s strong morale?
As i m p o r t a n t as it is, morale r e m a i n s an intangible spirit t h a t is h a r d to qualify, a n d t h u s i s d e f i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . S t u d i e s o n c o h e s i v e n e s s a n d t h e m e m o i r s o f s o l d i e r s repeatedly attribute the desire by the soldier to fight for his b r o t h e r s - i n - a r m s . Common ordeals a n d experiences were a s t r o n g b i n d i n g force among soldiers. Many factors might have brought a soldier into the army, b u t his close companions at the platoon or company level gave him strength to e n d u r e the s t r a i n s of war.10 So important h a s this factor become in studies of wartime morale, however, t h a t it s e e m s to p r e c l u d e all other analysis of combat motivators for the soldiers.
Soldiers are p r e p a r e d to fight for a variety of r e a s o n s , of which loyalty to m a t e s is b u t one.
Two military sociologists who have studied the fighting efficiency of soldiers have declared t h a t
"Morale is t h e willingness to fight. It involves cohesion a m o n g m e n , commitment to some type of cause."1 1 A British historian looking at one specific u n i t in the Great War described morale as "a quality of m i n d a n d spirit which combines c o u r a g e , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e a n d e n d u r a n c e . "1 2 Imposed discipline is another component, as m e n were drilled to follow orders a n d complete t a s k s unquestioningly. But beyond this is the more subtle p r e s s u r e from officers a n d NCOs, pride in t h e r e g i m e n t , fear of p u n i s h m e n t , religious conviction, revenge, faith in a cause, or simply b e c a u s e this w a s n e c e s s a r y to get h o m e . All of these factors helped to keep soldiers fighting in conditions more dreadful t h a n any could have imagined.
C a n a d i a n i n f a n t r y m a n Vick Lewis opined t h a t it w a s n o t w i n n i n g a Victoria C r o s s or Military M e d a l t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e d a m a n ' s courage, instead, it w a s the common r a n k e r who stood up u n d e r the c o n s t a n t horror while not cracking u p .1 3 So trying were the weapons of war t h a t killed m e n at r a n d o m t h a t most soldiers acquired a fatalistic view of life. To mentally shield themselves from weighing their c h a n c e s every m i n u t e of the day, m a n y soldiers decided t h a t it
R u m w a s popular in the trenches.
B u t o n t h e h o m e f r o n t , t h e r e w e r e organizations at work trying to deny the long-suffering t r e n c h soldier his r u m ration; war might take the soldiers' bodies, b u t "Demon Rum" would not take their souls.
T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e s e g r o u p s w a s t h e Woman's C h r i s t i a n T e m p e r a n c e U n i o n (WCTU). It a n d m a n y other g r o u p s believed alcohol to be a f u n d a m e n t a l s o u r c e of social malaise.1 9 Drinking w a s portrayed by these groups as immoral a n d depraved;
i n s a n i t y , m o r a l d e c a d e n c e a n d physical degradation were all linked w i t h t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f a l c o h o l . A b s t a i n e r s employed all m a n n e r of quasi-scientific evidence a n d moralistic w a r n i n g s to keep "Demon Rum" from d e s t r o y i n g t h e lives o f C a n a d i a n soldiers.
The temperance movement was not n e w in C a n a d a , b u t the war proved to be a p o w e r f u l s t i m u l u s for it by allowing advocates to effectively argue m o r a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s for prohibition. Anti-drink advocates were
all too h a p p y to mix the message of temperance with the war effort. H a r n e s s i n g the twin motives of patriotism a n d guilt, groups like the Young Men's C h r i s t i a n Association (YMCA), c h u r c h organizations, a n d the WCTU d e m a n d e d t h a t C a n a d i a n s m a k e a parallel sacrifice of alcohol for t h e w a r effort. As m a n y p e o p l e s a w it, prohibition would be a chance to do something good a n d strike at the H u n from the homefront.
How w a s o n e t o a r g u e w i t h e d i t o r i a l s t h a t declared: "anyone who will vote in favor of liquor might as well enlist u n d e r the Kaiser as far as patriotism goes."20 Abstainers extolled citizens to do all they could for their country, with "lolly- gagging" a n d drinking in p u b s not conducive to the war effort. Those who failed to give up drink, were, in effect, hindering victory. Prohibition w a s patriotic. When 10,000 men, women a n d children m a r c h e d on Toronto's Queen's Park on 8 March 1916, presenting a petition of 825,572 signatures to Premier William Hearst, a teetotaler himself, h e felt c o m p e l l e d t o b r i n g i n p r o h i b i t i o n m e a s u r e s .2 1 Those politicians who failed to heed
the increasingly urgent message became victims, like R.P. Roblin's Manitoba government. By 1917, all provinces of C a n a d a save Quebec h a d enacted prohibition.
S p u r r e d b y t h i s s u c c e s s i n C a n a d a , t h e t e m p e r a n c e g r o u p s p u s h e d to revoke alcohol privileges for soldiers overseas, p r e s s i n g t h e government with petitions a n d s h a m i n g tactics to achieve a "dry" a r m y . Various influential groups began to question w h e t h e r they s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o s e n d t h e i r s o n s o v e r s e a s t o b e corrupted. C a n a d i a n Methodist Dr. S a m u e l D.
Chown questioned the Army's "moral right" to pollute C a n a d i a n boys a g a i n s t their m o t h e r ' s will.22 Chief Justice of the Quebec S u p r e m e Court F.-X. Lemieux attributed t h e lack of successful recruitment in Quebec after 1917 on reports of d r u n k e n n e s s i n a r m y c a m p s . " S u r e l y s u c h e x a m p l e s w e r e h a r d l y of a n a t u r e to p l a c e recruiting in a favourable light in the estimate of fathers a n d m o t h e r s of families. E n l i s t m e n t appeared fraught with danger for the morals of t h e i r s o n s ; it s e e m e d to t h e m a s c h o o l of
The WCTU and other temperance groups sought also to deny Canadian soldiers beer, without success. Here, soldiers from the 92nd Highlanders receive their Beer issue on board E m p r e s s of Britain, 24 May 1916.
d r u n k e n n e s s a n d depravity," he wrote to Prime Minister Borden in J a n u a r y 1917.2 3 Temperance texts like Vance Thompson's Drink and Be Sober (1917) w e n t so far as to exclaim: "Men with d r i n k . . . c a n n o t even fight...Drink does not give courage...all it does is to destroy the moral n a t u r e in the man."2 4
While a l c o h o l c o u l d b e b a n n e d o n t h e homefront, it w a s not so easily a b a n d o n e d by the t r e n c h soldiers. Military officials advanced the claim t h a t drinking was absolutely necessary for war-fighting a n d p e r h a p s they were right.25 During the bitter winter m o n t h s , r u m acted as an i m p o r t a n t s t i m u l a n t for keeping up morale a n d sometimes for even keeping m e n alive. To soldiers, holding their t h i n ditches a n d open g r a v e y a r d s u n d e r t h e s t e a d y fall o f h i g h explosives, r u m w a s more t h a n a drink: they viewed it as medicine, a combat motivator a n d a general reward for life in the trenches; designated as s u c h , r u m w a s also assigned social properties which were incorporated into t r e n c h culture.
T r e n c h soldiers r e a c t e d to t h e a n t i - d r i n k movement with cynicism a n d outright hostility.
Harold Baldwin, a 5th Battalion infantryman who lost his leg in action, seethed with anger towards the perceived hypocrisy of the homefront:
Oh you psalm-singers, who raise your h a n d s in horror at the thought of the perdition the boys are bound for, if they should happen to take a
nip of rum to keep in a little warmth in their poor battered bodies. I wish you could all lie (sic) shivering in a hole full of icy liquid, with every nerve in your body quivering with pain, with the harrowing m o a n s of the wounded forever ringing in your ears, with hell's own din raging all around. Any one of you would need a barrel of it to keep his miserable life in his body.26
His vitriolic response is an indication of the value t h a t Baldwin a n d other trench soldiers placed on the r u m ration. His r e m a r k s also offer an introduction to some of the i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g r u m a n d the C a n a d i a n trench soldier of the First World War.
Life in the t r e n c h e s w a s nasty, b r u t i s h a n d s h o r t . S u m m e r m o n t h s w e r e s p e n t i n sweltering heat, with rotting corpses a n d a plague of flies. Winter carried its own trials, with m u d a n d freezing water s a t u r a t i n g the t r e n c h e s - the flies disappeared b u t the r a t s a n d lice remained.
The squalor broke m e n down; it was as u n n a t u r a l a way to live as having people you have never met a t t e m p t to kill you each day.27 With their a p o c a l y p t i c l a n d s c a p e , b a t t l e f i e l d s like t h e Somme in 1916 a n d Passchendaele in 1917 were indescribable. M.A. Searle of the 18th Battalion was one of the infantrymen ordered to hold the dissolving g r o u n d at Passchendaele. He frankly r e c o u n t e d : " M o s t o f u s c a r r i e d o n a t Passchendaele b e c a u s e of not limitless b u t more
training and, obviously, kill the enemy. Upon c a r r y i n g o u t t h e i r d u t y , t h e s u r v i v o r s w e r e r e w a r d e d w i t h a stiff m u g of r u m .3 2 O t h e r s t r e n u o u s t a s k s , like carrying w o u n d e d m e n through miles of m u d or digging n e w trenches, also m a d e a soldier a candidate for a late-night liquid issue.3 3 Particularly ghastly work like grave digging w a s a m o n g t h e worst of the soldier's fatigues. Private E r n e s t Spillett of t h e 4 6 t h Battalion wrote in a 1917 letter h o m e a b o u t having to clear up the corpses from the battalion's last tour on the front line:
one m a n s n i p e d t h r o u g h t h e h e a r t , two sergeants killed by bombs and one Moose J a w man, a private, a Rum Jar3 4 got him the poor devil. It made a sorry looking parcel of him, both legs were off....I am afraid I shall give you the horrors but that is war, there is no glory in it j u s t scientific murder. I am used to these sights they don't have to prime me with r u m before I can handle a man[ ; ] altho' I have and do certainly drink it sometimes on those jobs b u t usually afterwards, to take the taste of dead men out of my mouth.35
S u c h were the grim realities of life at the front.
They were m a d e more palatable by the issue of r u m as a reward system.
Despite soldiers shivering in the t r e n c h e s , working all night to shore up the ever-crumbling defensive perimeter, a n d t h e n waiting d u r i n g the daylight h o u r s for enemy attacks, the reason why they were there w a s to b r e a k t h r o u g h the enemy lines. The big battles m a y have b e e n infrequent b u t they were nonetheless the focal point of war.
After t h e d i s a s t r o u s c a m p a i g n s of 1 9 1 5 , t h e British concluded t h a t the infantry could only get across the killing g r o u n d of n o - m a n ' s - l a n d by advancing behind massive artillery b a r r a g e s . Still, t h e b a r r a g e s n e v e r a n n i h i l a t e d all t h e defenders, a n d one machine-gunner w a s enough to w r e a k m u r d e r o u s havoc. With t h e e n e m y c o u n t e r - b a r r a g e a i m e d t o l a n d b e h i n d t h e attacking creeping barrage, m e n w h o left t h e relative safety of the t r e n c h e s e n d u r e d a s t o r m of steel from which m a n y soldiers realized they would not be returning.
With h o u r s a n d even days of waiting for one's artillery to soften up the enemy defences, the worst time in battle w a s waiting for zero hour.
A s t i m e d r e w n e a r , m e n fiddled w i t h final adjustments, prayed a n d gripped their rifle stocks with sweating h a n d s . Sergeant Archie Mackinnon t h a n ordinary i s s u e s of rum."2 8 Fighting in the
s a m e m u d , Private G. Boyd of the 8th Battalion remembered t h a t "if we h a d not h a d the r u m we would have died."29 Without the r u m , it is quite clear from t h e soldiers' testimony t h a t m a n y would not have b e e n able to e n d u r e the daily trials of war. U n s u r e if they should pray, scream or r u n , the r u m ration at the end of the day w a s a s m a l l m i l e s t o n e for m e n w h o s t a y e d a n d e n d u r e d at their post.
J u s t as r u m could take the edge off the most appalling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e war a n d give ordinary m e n a way to cope, r u m was also useful as a depressant. While in the trenches, soldiers were chronically sleep-deprived. One American who served in the C a n a d i a n Corps recounted in a postwar novel: "Sleep, sleep - if only we could sleep. O u r faces become gray. E a c h face is a different s h a d e of gray. Some are chalk-colored, some with a greenish tint, some yellow. But all of us are pallid with fear a n d fatigue."30 R u m helped. It acted as a sedative a n d because of its p o t e n c y i t could k n o c k m e n o u t for h o u r s , notwithstanding the cold or heat, the lice or r a t s , a n d t h e c o n s t a n t p o u n d i n g of the big g u n s . Twenty-year-old L i e u t e n a n t C l a u d e Williams scrawled a letter to his mother after winning the Military Cross at Vimy Ridge, t h a t r u m c a n "be regarded more as a medicine t h a n a beverage. It is...absolutely invaluable to p u t m e n to sleep w h e n they are wet a n d cold."31
R u m p r o t e c t e d m e n from physically a n d psychologically crumbling u n d e r the rigours of t r e n c h warfare. Not blind to h u m a n frailties, front-line officers a n d NCOs realized t h a t their m e n were u n d e r a terrible strain. R u m was issued to fortify the C a n a d i a n Tommy in his barbed- wire enclosed m u d d y ditch from whatever else lay beyond the safety of the t r e n c h wall. This u n d e r s t a n d i n g of war, however, w a s juxtaposed against the very real need to continue to shore up defences at night or to protect the front lines by patrolling a n d raiding. As a result, r u m w a s one of the few rewards for m e n who went beyond the call of n o r m a l soldiering.
Patrolling a n d raiding in no-man's-land at night were particularly d a n g e r o u s assignments.
The raids, consisting of parties anywhere between two or several h u n d r e d , were designed to win control of t h e battlefield, g a t h e r intelligence, destroy the enemy's fighting efficiency, provide
spell of this all-powerful stuff," wrote one Canadian, "one almost felt that he could eat a German, dead or alive, steel helmet and all."43
Another 25th Battalion sergeant, after chugging what was left of his company's rum ration before going over the top, later recounted that he was so drunk that, in his words, I "would have killed me own mother."44 Going "over the top" was one of the most difficult psychological strains for the trench soldier. It is not surprising then, that the smells of "rum and blood" were r e p o r t e d a s b e i n g o v e r p o w e r i n g o n t h e battlefield after an assault.45
Fortifying men with alcohol was not always the best policy as Sergeant J.H. MacArthur of the 7th Battalion warned: men fired up by rum sometimes did not "use their h e a d s and, instead of shooting a man, they'd run after him with a bayonet."46 For that very reason, rum was sometimes withheld before battle. Once again, it depended on the officers and units.
Lance Corporal C.J. Albon, a teetotaller it should be noted, refused to give his men rum before battle because he claimed of "several instances where men were lead into death traps just because the officer was drunk."47 Like the Australians who generally followed the same policy, the survivors were given rum after the battle.48 That policy, however, did not always sit well with the expectant soldiers and one draft of rough l u m b e r m e n from Northern British Columbia threatened a 54th Battalion officer when he tried to withhold their rum before battle.49 They got their rum.
Some operations succeeded while others failed, but all had terrible casualties. The ebb and flow of battle meant that soldiers attacked and were in turn counter-attacked. The wounded were left behind as flotsam. During and after battle, those wounded men who could walk struggled to the rear; those who could not, called out in pain or waited as stretcher-bearers heroically braved enemy fire, administering to them in turn. When soldiers were found, wounds were bound and a shot of rum poured down throats to help lessen the pain. Those who survived the agonizing hours until they made it back to a casualty clearing station or a field ambulance were once again given medical pain- killers like rum, port or morphine before an operation.50
of the 58th Battalion, a machine gunner who was w o u n d e d several times a n d finally permanently crippled on the Somme, wrote to his sister that "after a three hour artillery bombardment, when you finally get the word 'Over top in one minute.' Your hearts comes clean out of your mouth."36 Many felt like they were waiting for their own executions.
"We were all scared.. .but there was a job to do and you had to do it. The thing to do was to try and hide it from the others and not let fellows know you're scared, " recounted Sergeant James Page of the 42nd Battalion.37 That was not always easy, b u t George Bell of the 1st Battalion recorded that "a good stiff 'tot' of rum s e r v e d to b u c k up t h e s p i r i t s of t h o s e wavering."38 Officers and NCOs went up and down the forward firing line to calm men with a greeting and a ladle of rum. Lieutenant Lunt of the 4th Battalion remembered doling out rum to his boys and wishing them "best of luck" as he moved down the line before the Battle of Amiens on 8 August 1918. Coming across one green lad, he was shocked to find his teeth chattering so loudly that it sounded like he was breaking his jaw. Lunt plied him with four double rum shots before the shaking stopped.
When they finally attacked, Lunt remembered seeing the young lad stumbling forward in a drunken daze before he was shot in the face.39
On the Somme, where soldiers were ordered to a d v a n c e h e a d l o n g i n t o u n c u t wire a n d hardened machine gun nests, some units like the 21st Battalion simply laid out the brown, earthenware jugs of rum and let the soldiers take what they needed.40 Even the generals far from the front realized the importance of giving artificial s t i m u l a n t s t o t h e i r w a r r i o r s . Operational orders for the Canadian attack on Vimy Ridge, for instance, declared that "the comfort, efficiency and fighting value of the troops are greatly increased by the issue of solidified alcohol for use during the opening days of an attack, before the regular supply s y s t e m can be i n t r o d u c e d , [rum] s h o u l d invariably be supplied."41
Rum was essential for providing some men with liquid courage, while for others, it helped to control nerves or simply dull them. In the words of another Canadian trench soldier it was a
"self-appointed builder of morale."42 "Under the
Canadian soldiers enjoy a quiet moment in the trenches, with a rum j u g and beer bottles evident.
officers or NCOs to aid soldiers who h a d undergone severe psychic shock.
Although rum was an essential tool for morale, it also played a key role in the social interaction of the trenches. Soldiers adapted to their surroundings and they reveled in the few pleasures available to them. For men desperately looking to push aside the ghastly nature of war, the simple joys of letters, food, cigarettes, and rum became paramount. The difficulty, however, was in getting this valued material to the front.
The logistics for supplying the thousands of troops garrisoning the front lines was one of the amazing feats of trench warfare. Keeping these men from starving to death was accomplished by the Q u a r t e r m a s t e r ' s D e p a r t m e n t a n d transport section which brought food, water, clothes, ammunition; in fact, all the necessities of life and all the accoutrements of war. With the lifeline to the front regularly swept with high explosive fire, shrapnel and gas, theirs was a dangerous task.53 Despite the casualties, the food, letters and rum had to be brought up. Without it morale would plummet.
Yet rum had medicinal uses other than for treating casualties and it was frequently used in a preventive role. If one is to believe the soldiers, rum helped to quell the rampant flu and colds that circulated. In addition, rum was valuable in cases of emotional trauma. At the J u n e 1916 Battle of Mount-Sorrel, while being relieved for sentry duty, 19-year-old Private M.E. Parsons watched his friend get shot in the head, his brains splashing all over Parson's face. A quick moving sergeant-major grabbed Parsons, wiped the blood off and gave him a triple shot of rum.
Reflecting on the event years later, Parsons believed that the only thing saving him from shellshock was the rum.5 1 Another soldier declared in his postwar memoirs: "There are not one, but numberless occasions, on which a tot of rum has saved a man from sickness, possibly from a serious illness. Many a life- long teetotaler has conformed to S.R.D. and taken the first drink of his life on the battle- fields of France, not because he wanted to, but because he had to."52 For the trench soldier r u m was viewed as genuine medicine, an a n t i d o t e a g a i n s t b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d psychological maladies. Moreover, rum was one of the few tools at the disposal of medical
advanced positions whenever the weather is cold a n d wet," one operational order stressed.5 9 R u m was as crucial as food, a n d in some cases more useful. It w a s c o n s u m e d in great quantity, with Divisional Pack Trains carrying more t h a n 100 gallons of r u m to the front each day.60 There w a s little left over. One C a n a d i a n soldier recounted how he a n d his c o m p a n i o n s were stationed on the Somme a n d literally s u r r o u n d e d by decaying bodies: "Nobody w a n t e d anything to eat. These dead bodies lying all a r o u n d took your appetite right away. However, we h a d a drink of rum."6 1 Rum, along with cigarettes, w a s one of the few p l e a s u r e s for front line soldiers. Men could stoically e n d u r e a drumfire b o m b a r d m e n t or the swirling tendrils of poison gas, only to swear a n d s c r e a m bloody m u r d e r w h e n their Woodbine cigarettes failed to arrive or their r u m ration appeared smaller t h a n the bloke's beside t h e m . As the issue of r u m w a s left to the prerogative of commanding officers (CO) a n d medical officers, it placed an important agent in their h a n d s . If a CO were a teetotaler, t h e n the m e n got lime juice a n d p e a s o u p i n s t e a d o f r u m . O n e o f t h e C a n a d i a n C o r p s ' m o s t a t t a c k - o r i e n t e d c o m m a n d e r s , or a "fire-eater" in the parlance of Pork a n d beans, bully beef, maconochie stew,
j a m , a n d h a r d t a c k biscuits were the staples of diet.54 As Major D.E. Macintyre wrote, the food w a s of "good quality b u t deadly monotonous."5 5 T h a t might have b e e n a generous a s s e s s m e n t a n d as an officer the Major profited from a servant to scrounge for a n d cook his food. Others, like Private Gregory C l a r k of t h e 4 t h C a n a d i a n Mounted Rifles r e m e m b e r e d t h a t the "rations c a m e u p i n s a n d b a g s s o t h a t your b r e a d w a s always plastered a n d covered with hairs. Bully beef w a s o u r great staple. Maconochie rations were dreadful things with a b o u t a q u a r t e r of an inch of gray grease."5 6 Another soldier remarked t h a t the a r m y - i s s u e d p l u m a n d apple j a m s were so strong t h a t if you got some on your h a n d s it would stain t h e m for days.5 7 This w a s reflected in one of the litanies of the trenches: "From p l u m j a m a n d bully beef, good Lord deliver us."5 8 The food h a d some value b u t it w a s terribly bland.
Rum, however, w a s not. Being b o t h powerful a n d sugary, r u m w a s a treat.
"Hot food, s o u p a n d tea c a n often be s e n t up to m e n in the front-line trenches in containers;
b u t if this is found impossible, r u m , which is easier to transport, s h o u l d be sent up to m e n in
Rum was used to dull the pain of the wounded. Canadian soldiers receive a welcome drink at an advanced Dressing Station in France. September 1916.
Without it, soldiers could t u r n m u t i n o u s or
"swing the lead" [malinger].63 This w a s their form of protest against a perceived injustice. Frontline soldier Ralph Bell echoed Manion w h e n he wrote t h a t m e n will work in the rain or s t a n d in m u d for h o u r s on end if they knew they would receive a shot of r u m in the end: "Deny it to them, a n d more t h a n half will p a r a d e sick in the morning."6 4
The issue of r u m to soldiers also reinforced the hierarchical n a t u r e of the armies which w a s so integral to their s u c c e s s . A few lead, m a n y follow. In the unparalleled slaughter of the Great War, discipline a n d h i e r a r c h y were essential.
Soldiers rarely questioned orders, even seemingly suicidal ones. P u n i s h m e n t a n d discipline were the main deterrents for potential trouble-makers, b u t r u m also played a role in reinforcing this hierarchy of c o m m a n d . The clay r u m j a r s were issued to the battalions, with each q u a r t e r m a s t e r dividing it o u t to the companies. B u t it w a s the sergeants or officers who actually served the r u m . Men who were u n d e r p u n i s h m e n t were excluded.
Those who were in the good books lined up a n d the more senior ranking m e n moved down the line dolling out the precious liquid. It w a s a ritual t h e t i m e , w a s Victor O d i u m , CO of t h e 7 t h
Battalion a n d t h e n t h e 11th Brigade. With a missionary background, he refused to issue r u m to his troops. In the words of E.L.M. B u r n s , a signaler in the 4 t h Division a n d a general in the next war, his t e m p e r a n c e s t a n c e "got m i n u s zero i n t h e front-line o p i n i o n polls."6 2 M u t i n o u s feelings became so strong t h a t his superior officer, General David Watson, h a d to overrule h i m a n d instigated the r u m ration in February 1917. In an organization where soldiers h a d little if any power, the withholding of r u m w a s important enough for t h e m to raise their disenfranchised voices.
Soldiers expected the r u m ration a n d m a n y considered it as owed to t h e m for their h a r d life in the ditches of the Western Front. Perhaps some even s a w it as their reward for surviving another day. When r u m w a s issued, m e n were content.
If it were withheld, it could lead to a plunge in morale. R.J. Manion, a medical officer, a n d future p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n a n d l e a d e r o f t h e n a t i o n a l Conservative Party, believed t h a t the r u m ration w a s often the only "cheery thing" for the soldiers w h o e k e d o u t a n existence i n t h e t r e n c h e s .
A YMCA hut provides non-alcoholic comforts to soldiers returning from the firing line, August 1917.
Behind the lines Canadians wait for refreshments, likely to be coffee or tea. Farther forward rum was the preferred
drink. November 1916.
may have b e e n painful to drink b u t . like other male activities s u c h as r o u g h sports, the acts proved t h a t the drinker could m e a s u r e up to expectations. Many saw the r u m ration as a rite of passage a n d conforming to the n o r m s of the group was an essential part of soldiering.67 Others t h o u g h t a n d were told t h a t drink w a s the least of their worries; they were doing m e n ' s work a n d t h e y w o u l d p a r t a k e i n t h e few a d v a n t a g e s afforded to them.
Although it remained a worry a m o n g s o m e t h a t r u m w a s b e i n g a b u s e d , t h e r a t i o n w a s usually delivered in small enough portions so as not to m a k e soldiers exceedingly d r u n k . Still, the powerful r u m affected m e n differently a n d soldiers who secretly pooled their i s s u e s could get into real trouble. At the s a m e time, soldiers h a d an amazing ability to ferret out n o n - a r m y sanctioned alcohol in the rear. The F r e n c h - r u n informal e s t a m i n e t s were extremely p o p u l a r among soldiers who could get a bite of eggs a n d frites, w a s h e d down with c h e a p wine or watery beer. Generally, however, while in the trenches, it was the officers who a b u s e d the r u m ration as they were the ones who h a d ready access to it.
of war a n d akin in m a n y soldiers' eyes to t h a t of a religious offering. E a c h soldier waited patiently for his s h a r e , all the while aware t h a t it w a s the h i g h e r - r a n k i n g s o l d i e r w h o divided u p t h e portions, giving a little more or less depending o n his whim. J u s t a s r u m w a s meaningful t o the individual soldiers, it w a s also essential to the officers in helping to enforce their role in the primary group. If the enlisted m e n were against having their r u m curtailed, it is also clear t h a t it w a s n o t in the interest of the officers to s u p p o r t the t e m p e r a n c e calls from the homefront. The politics of power were essential in all armies a n d the r u m issue helped to s u p p o r t them.6 5
If drinking r u m was a ritual of war a n d helped t o enforce t h e c o m m a n d h i e r a r c h y , alcohol c o n s u m p t i o n w a s also a practice of male youth.
Warfare is a m a s c u l i n e operation t h a t cultivates a n d e x p e c t s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s , c o m r a d e r y a n d heroics. Even in civilian life, the act of drinking w a s often u n d e r s t o o d to be w h a t distinguished boys from men, especially by young males. When J.I. C h a m b e r s of the 7th Battalion h a d his first tot of r u m , he remembered t h a t it felt as if he'd
"swallowed a red-hot poker."66 The powerful liquid
in the Brigade, a n d they are brothers."7 0 Few m e n were "on the dead," b u t those t h a t remained were o f t e n s h o c k e d b y t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e i r companions. William Ogilvie, who enlisted at the a g e of 17 from Lakefield, O n t a r i o , f r a n k l y recounted his introduction to the r o u g h world of soldiering: "As I stood in line for my first meal I w a s amazed at the cursing, the extravagant u s e of four letter words seldom h e a r d in our quiet village. I, whose swearing propensities generally r a n to s u c h inoffensive o u t b u r s t s as, 'God all fishhooks,' or 'gosh, golly,' or an occasional 'darn' or 'damn,' w a s now treated to r o u n d after r o u n d of obscene language."7 1 Others like the future historian a n d Baptist, Harold Innis, recounted to his diary t h a t military life w a s m o n o t o n o u s b u t filled with temptations from "beer a n d r u m a n d electric pianos."7 2
Soldiers raised in strict religious or moral families found the "drinking" lifestyle trying, a n d m a n y feared for their companions. One of the soldiers' letters t h a t m a d e it p a s t the various c e n s o r s w a s b y a y o u n g m e d i c a l officer In either case, as in p a s t armies, d r u n k e n n e s s
w a s c o m m o n , a n d d e s p i t e n o t always being reported, within the C a n a d i a n Corps it resulted in more courts martials t h a n all other crimes combined.6 8 Major Agar Adamson of the PPCLI r e m a r k e d in a letter h o m e to his wife t h a t "Rum is a great warmer, b u t it gives us more trouble t h a n almost anything else, a n d certainly gets m o r e m e n i n t o t r o u b l e o u t h e r e t h a n i t s companion a n d associate - women."69 Despite being a b u s e d on occasion, w h e n the r u m issue w a s being given out, each m a n waited, staring intently for the one before h i m to finish his shot, with little t h o u g h t of pooling his portion for a latter time.
Notwithstanding this, there were soldiers who did n o t participate in the ritual a n d who actively o p p o s e d i t s u s e . L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l J . J . Creelman of the C a n a d i a n Field Artillery wrote i n h i s d i a r y t h a t " I h a v e j u s t b e e n o u t s i d e watching the m e n have their issue of r u m . They certainly do enjoy it a n d n o t one in a 100 refuses it. As far as I know there are only two teetotalers
c a n raise a little hell with the rest of them."7 7 The war eroded old beliefs a n d broke b o n d s with the p a s t . Soldiers were forced to forge n e w ones among their surrogate family of the trenches. An essential social a n d cultural component of t h a t family life w a s r u m .
The importance of r u m in the t r e n c h e s w a s reinforced by its p r o m i n e n c e in t h e c u l t u r a l expression of the soldiers. Some of their favourite anecdotes in their memoirs a n d letters revolve a r o u n d r u m . An examination of their writings, r a t h e r t h a n those of the senior officers or official historians, shows how it slips into so m a n y of their poems, t r e n c h n e w s p a p e r s a n d memoirs.
Even the n a m e of the r u m itself - Special Red Demerara rum, or S.R.D. for short - was toyed with by the men. They jokingly referred to it as "Services' R u m Diluted,""Seldom R e a c h e s Destination,"
"Sergeants Rarely Deliver," "Soldiers' Real Delight,"
or "Soon R u n s Dry."78 Along with their s h a r e d language, r u m was a component of their poems and songs. A favourite, "The Old Barbed Wire," h a s a stanza that revolves around the real suspicion of the sergeant-major hoarding a n d cheating the soldiers out of their rum:
If you want to find the sergeant-major, I know where he is, I know where he is.
If you want to find the sergeant-major, I know where he is,
He's boozing up the private's rum.
I've seen him, I've seen him, Boozing up the privates' rum, I've seen him,
Boozing up the privates' rum.79
Even w e a p o n s of war, like t h e tightly p a c k e d d r u m s of explosives that the G e r m a n s catapulted into the Allied lines, were n i c k n a m e d by soldiers as R u m J a r s to help ease some of the fear a n d m a k e t h e m less terrifying.80 In the strange world of trench warfare, r u m worked as a cultural tool to b o t h express a n d come to grips with their u n i q u e situation.
Aware of the d a u n t i n g p r e s s u r e to abolish the r u m ration, those who joined "the colours"
wrote h o m e attempting to convince those on the h o m e f r o n t of r u m ' s i m p o r t a n c e .8 1 It w a s a w r e n c h i n g t a s k for s o m e m e n , especially t h e p a d r e s , m a n y of w h o m h a d b e e n at the forefront of the temperance c a u s e before the war. Their calling required their rejection of alcohol, b u t to c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h h i s f a t h e r , w h o l a t e r
published his letter in the Christian Guardian.
In it he outlined how alcohol corrupted young m e n a n d would ultimately cause the Allies to lose the war. Even worse, "let me say in all seriousness t h a t t h e p o o r fellows w h o h a v e s o d d e n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h alcohol h a v e n ' t a n e a r t h l y c h a n c e on recovering from the ghastly w o u n d s c a u s e d by shrapnel; even the fellows who have b e e n fairly temperate have a far h a r d e r fight for recovery as against abstainers. I don't know w h a t you're doing in C a n a d a about the drink business, b u t if you've a n y influence, for God's s a k e u s e it to s u p p r e s s the c u r s e d liquor traffic during the war."73 Others like F r a n k Fox, moreover, were constantly worried a b o u t the long-term moral effects on their companions and, speaking for h i s like-minded a b s t a i n e r s , concluded i n h i s diary t h a t with alcohol "the world is very, very wicked."74
Many Canadian soldiers h a d gone to war with promises to their loved ones t h a t they would not drink. Charles Stafford of the 116th Battalion r e m e m b e r e d t h a t the only opposition his mother h a d to h i s enlistment w a s to be s u r e t h a t he did not "get in with a drinking bunch."7 5 At the s a m e t i m e t h o u g h , t h e r e w a s a g e n e r a l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g between b o t h soldiers a n d patriotic citizens as to w h a t war entailed. For those who m a d e it to the front lines, the t r u e n a t u r e o f w a r w a s all too a p p a r e n t . M a n y eventually took the r u m to ease the b u r d e n of war. One s u c h C a n a d i a n tried to convince his father in a letter:
This war h a s opened my eyes a great deal about the drink question. Like thousands of others, I am now no longer bigoted against the drink traffic if properly controlled. I have seen that done here. The rum too - perhaps you read what Dr. Gordon (Ralph Connor) a great temperance m i n i s t e r as you know, told t h e people of Winnipeg after returning from France. He said
"Rum is an absolute necessity for the soldiers in the field. I would rather dispossess them of their rifles than the rum they are now issued."
Those were his exact words. I have no love for it, b u t sometimes take it with the others when very cold and wet. I am sure it does more good than harm.7 6
Another religious soldier, Charlie Sprague, wrote to h i s brother, still using his C a n a d i a n YMCA letterhead: "This life h a s changed a lot of u s . I think, I believe, I have changed a lot myself, a n d
But no! For see that fearsome sight Of bursting shell, above, below, Before, behind! think you go TO SLEEP!
Yes, golden liquid from a jar
Marked S.R.D. - what spells there are Within thee, that each tired limb And aching nerve is filled with VIM And rosy glow. With sweet content To sleep and dream, through magic lent By you, scorned rum, of home and love And friends - Forgot the strife above!
KIND RUM.
Reformer, if you wish to do One kindness, and I think it true You this intend, then have the grace To come out here and hold my place And send me back home again, Back to the farm amid the grain And I will promise not to drink
Ought stronger than - what do y' think?
BUTTERMILK!86
Soldiers felt it w a s a b s u r d t h a t they were forced to live in u n s p e a k a b l e conditions, suffer every type of abomination, a n d even kill other men, while those on the homefront implored t h e m to a b s t a i n from alcohol from their pulpits a n d t h e n went home to their clean, dry h o u s e s with a clear conscience.
When the Armistice w a s finally s t r u c k on 11 November 1918, some 6 0 , 0 0 0 C a n a d i a n s were d e a d a n d a n o t h e r 1 7 0 , 0 0 0 w o u n d e d a n d maimed. It w a s a h a r s h price to pay for victory.
S o w h e n C a n a d i a n soldiers were e v e n t u a l l y demobilized, they were not particularly a m u s e d to find t h a t although they h a d won the war, they h a d lost the right to drink. With the help of the v e t e r a n s , p r o h i b i t i o n w a s r e p e a l e d i n m o s t provinces d u r i n g the 1920s.
Military history is boring a n d old-fashioned.
That, at least, is h o w m o s t m a i n s t r e a m academic h i s t o r i a n s view the field. They are wrong, however, a n d while s h u n t i n g military historians to the periphery a n d averting their collective gazes, academic historians have missed t h a t military history h a s c o n t i n u e d to evolve, borrowing a n d b l e n d i n g methodologies from social, cultural, labour a n d intellectual historians fight against it m e a n t losing all influence they
might have h a d with the soldiers.82 Catholic Padre B.J. Murdoch w a s able to assuage his conscience b y j u s t i f y i n g t h e r u m r a t i o n a s m e d i c i n e .8 3
Another c h a p l a i n laid o u t t h e i s s u e in s t a r k terms: "When we sent our m e n to slaughter other m e n , t o t h r u s t b a y o n e t s i n t o t h e m a n d t o experience all the carnage a n d deviltry of war, don't you imagine it will m a k e spiritual beings o u t of t h e m b e c a u s e it won't."84 Despite their prewar perceptions, m a n y of the chaplains of the overseas forces came to realise the importance of alcohol in the soldiers' lives.
It w a s not j u s t the p a d r e s , b u t also soldiers who a t t e m p t e d to convey the necessity of r u m . Private Ronald Mackinnon wrote to his father shortly before he w a s killed in battle: "A few people at h o m e are chewing the rag a b o u t brave boys leaving to drink 'rum'....I take my r u m . . . n o t b e c a u s e I like it, I don't, b u t it drives out the wet a n d cold a n d keeps a m a n fit... .Those people who worry about the soldier's r u m should do a sentry- go in the front line; they would know then. They do more h a r m t h a n good as they m a k e the boys' m o t h e r s worry a b o u t their s o n s a n d they have e n o u g h t o w o r r y a b o u t a s i t is."8 5 E c h o i n g Mackinnon's s e n t i m e n t s , George Maxwell poked fun at the moralizing prohibitionists:
Reformers in your hours of ease, WCTU's and stern T.T.'s,
Why do you try to make us "good"
By pointing out the way we should Travel along, because you think The army cannot stand a drink Of rum, but through it will our wives And homes forsake, and e'en our lives WILL RUIN....
When we have been out on patrol, Or listening post in damp shell hole, And through the long night vigil kept, Mind you in feather bed had slept, While we had not a wink to sleep, But constantly to arms did leap At each alarm, with bated breath And nerves a quiver, braving death FOR YOU....
Then in the morning cold and gray The haggard men in every "bay"
Show on their faces the awful strain Of war, but yet they hope to gain Some rest and sleep with coming light.