Most college courses require writing. So do most jobs, which may surprise you. Good communication skills, including good writing, will help you achieve success in life.
Four elements are key to good writing. Keep them in mind through-out the writing process.
3
Writing Basics
Audience, Purpose, and Process
• You write a note to explain your child’s absence from school. • You e-mail a friend or coworker
to ask a favor. • You text friends
to make plans or just to keep in touch.
■IDEA JOURNAL Think of something you do well and how you got to be good at it.
■ For more on making a point, see Chapter 5. For more on supporting a point, see Chapter 6. FOUR BASICS OF GOOD WRITING
1. It considers the needs and knowledge of the audience.
2. It fulfi lls the writer’s purpose.
3. It includes a clear, defi nite point.
4. It provides support that explains or proves the main point.
This chapter discusses audience and purpose fi rst because they are es-sential to effective writing. Purpose determines what a writer’s main point is, and audience determines how the writer makes that point.
Understand Audience and Purpose
Audience
Your audience is the person or people who will read what you write. Whenever you write, always have at least one real person in mind as a reader. Think about what that person already knows and what he or she will need to know to understand your main idea. In most cases, assume that readers will know only what you write about your topic and main point.
Your writing may be very different for two different audiences. Read the following two examples, which describe the same situation but are written for different audiences. Notice both the tone and the content of each paragraph.
SITUATION: Christiane went to a big party over the weekend. She had a great time and met an interesting guy. She later describes the party in a letter to her grandmother (A) and in a text message to her friend (B):
Hey, went to GR8
prty @ Mike’s!!
Got waaasted,
stayed out L8.
Met SME1!!!
Jon, total QT,
drives a BMW!
How RU? TTYL
PRACTICE 1 UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE
Reread Christiane’s two notes, and answer the following questions.
1. How does the note to Christiane’s grandmother differ from the message to her friend?
2. How do her two audiences affect what Christiane writes (the content) and how she writes (the tone)?
3. What words in the note to the friend would have to be changed in a more formal note?
Purpose
The purpose for a piece of writing is your reason for writing it. In college, your purpose for writing often will be either to show something; to explain, analyze, or evaluate something; or to make a convincing argument.
PRACTICE 2 UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE
Reread Christiane’s notes, and answer the following questions.
1. What is Christiane’s purpose in the note to her grandmother?
Understand Paragraph
and Essay Forms
Throughout college and beyond, you will write paragraphs and essays. Each of these has a basic structure.
Paragraph Structure
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together to make a point. A good paragraph has three necessary parts — the topic sen-tence, the body, and the concluding sentence. Each part serves a specifi c purpose.
PARAGRAPH PART PURPOSE OF THE PARAGRAPH PART 1. The topic sentence states the main point. The topic
sentence is often either the fi rst or last sentence of a paragraph.
2. The body supports (shows, explains, or proves) the main point. It usually contains three to six support sentences, which present facts and details that develop the main point.
3. The concluding sentence reminds readers of the main point and often makes an observation.
Essay Structure
An essay is a piece of writing with more than one paragraph. A short essay may consist of four or fi ve paragraphs, totaling three hundred to six hun-dred words. A long essay is six paragraphs or more, depending on what the essay needs to accomplish — persuading someone to do something, using research to make a point, or explaining a complex concept.
An essay has three necessary parts — an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
ESSAY PART PURPOSE OF THE ESSAY PART
1. The introduction states the main point, or thesis, gener-ally in a single strong statement. The introduction may be a single paragraph or multiple paragraphs.
2. The body supports (shows, explains, or proves) the main point. The body generally has at least three support paragraphs. Each support paragraph begins with a
topic sentence that supports the thesis
statement and continues with facts and details that develop the main point. 3. The conclusion reminds readers of the main point. It may summarize and reinforce the support in the body paragraphs, or it may make an observation based on that support. Whether it is a single paragraph or more, the conclusion should relate back to the main point of the essay. The parts of an essay correspond to the parts of a paragraph:
• The thesis of an essay is like the topic sentence of a paragraph.
• The support paragraphs in the body of an essay are like the support sentences of a paragraph.
• The conclusion of an essay is like the concluding sentence of a
paragraph.
Asking your boss for a raise doesn’t have to be painful if you plan the conversation well, using several simple but effective techniques. These techniques will increase your chances of success and give you a blueprint for making the request professionally.
First, think about how you will introduce the subject when you talk with your boss. You must ask for the raise; don’t expect your employer to take the initiative. Before you confront your employer, stand in front of the mirror and rehearse, “I deserve a raise.” Never say, “May I have a raise?” “Could I have a raise?” or “Is it time for my raise?” Always say, “I deserve a raise.” You need to believe that before you can convince your employer. Then, make a list of the reasons why you deserve a raise. Write down exactly what you have done to deserve the raise. Use concrete, observ-able achievements that cannot be disputed, and be ready with specifi c examples. If a dollar value in savings to the company has resulted from your work, make sure you have documentation confi rming this.
Also, consider the amount you will ask for. Always ask for more than you think you deserve. The key word here is more. Rehearse this higher amount while standing in front of a mirror so that you won’t hesitate or stutter when you ask your boss for the raise. Too many people ask for a modest raise, unaware that this simple request may have negative side ef-fects. When a worker asks for an unusually small raise, the employer has a tendency to devalue the employee, in the same way that people may be skeptical about buying something that is priced too low.
When your plan is ready, make an appointment to meet with your boss. If you give well-documented reasons why you are valuable to the company, your boss may see you in a new, more positive light. You may not get quite as much as you requested, but your boss is likely to act in some way on the new, positively revised image of you as an employee. Your plan will allow you to be confi dent and will increase your chance of success.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS AND ESSAYS
Understand the Writing Process
The writing process consists of fi ve basic stages — generating ideas, plan-ning, drafting, revising, and editing.
Whenever you are fi rst learning to do something — playing a sport, driving a car, riding a bicycle — the steps seem complicated. However, after you practice them, the individual steps seem to blend together, and you just do them. The same thing will happen as you practice the steps in the writing process.
Topic sentence: Asking your boss for a raise doesn’t have to be painful if you plan the conversation well, using several simple but effective techniques. Support point: First, think about how you will introduce the sub-ject when you talk to your boss. Support point: Then, make a list of reasons why you deserve a raise. Support point: When your plan is ready, make an appointment to meet with your boss. Concluding sentence: Your plan will allow you to be confi dent and will increase your chance of success.
Thesis statement: Asking your boss for a . . .
Topic sentence 1: First, think about how you will . . .
Topic sentence 2: Then, make a list of reasons . . .
Topic sentence 3: When your plan is ready, make . . .
THE WRITING PROCESS
Generate Ideas
Consider: What is my purpose in writing? Given this purpose, what interests me? Who will read this? What do they need to know?
• Find and explore your topic (Chapter 4). • Make your point (Chapter 5).
• Support your point (Chapter 6).
Plan
Consider: How can I organize my ideas effectively for my readers? • Arrange your ideas, and make an outline (Chapter 7).
Draft
Consider: How can I show my readers what I mean?
• Write a draft, including an introduction that will interest your readers, a strong conclusion, and a title (Chapter 8).
Revise
Consider: How can I make my draft clearer or more convincing to my readers?
• Look for ideas that don’t fi t (Chapter 9).
• Look for ideas that could use more detailed support (Chapter 9). • Connect ideas with transitional words and sentences (Chapter 9).
Edit
Consider: What errors could confuse my readers and weaken my point? • Find and correct errors in grammar (Chapters 22–33).
The fl owchart on page 52 shows the fi ve basic stages of the writing process and the steps within each of those stages. The remaining chapters in Part One cover every stage except for editing, which is detailed later in the book. You will practice each stage, see how another student completes the stage, and write your own essay using the writing process.
Before moving on to those chapters, read the following advice on ana-lyzing writing assignments, understanding grading criteria, and creating a writing portfolio.
How to Analyze a Writing Assignment
Getting started can be one of the hardest parts of writing, and one com-mon obstacle to starting is not quite understanding what the assignment is asking you to do. There are ways of translating writing assignments that will help you get started. Let’s look at a couple of assignments and the ways you might begin them.
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the reasons for low employee morale at your
workplace.
ANALYZING A WRITING ASSIGNMENT
STEPS WHAT TO DO FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT
1. Highlight the key words.
Discuss the reasons for low employee morale at your workplace.
2. Get some ideas down on paper or on your computer.
List all reasons you can think of — at your current job, past jobs, or other jobs you know about. (For more on getting ideas, see the next chapter.)
3. Think again. Revise your ideas, and add to them.
Give some details about each reason, and say how each contributes to low employee morale. Then reread your list. Do they all contribute to low employee morale? Delete those that now seem irrelevant, and try to say more about the others. Record any other reasons that occur to you in the process.
4. Try out a main point.
Reread your revised list of reasons, and decide on your main point — what you want to say about your reasons. Do they have a common cause? What do they say about the workplace? Can you think of a way to improve morale?
To fi nd your main point, think about your audience and purpose.
For example, if you are writing a report for your boss, your thesis should not be entirely critical of the company:
PRACTICE 3 ANALYZING A WRITING ASSIGNMENT Fill in the chart that follows, using this assignment:
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the challenges of juggling work and school responsibilities.
Grading Criteria
Many instructors use a rubric, which is a list of the categories on which your writing is graded. If your instructor uses a rubric, it may be included in your course syllabus, and you should refer to it each time you write. A sample rubric follows to show you some of the categories you may be graded on. Rubrics often differ from one instructor to another, so this example will give you an idea of some of the kinds of elements you might
STEPS WHAT TO DO FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT
1. Highlight the key words. 2. Get some ideas down on
paper or on your computer. 3. Think again. Revise your
ideas, and add to them. 4. Try out a main point. 5. Jump in.
STEPS WHAT TO DO FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT
4. Try out a main point (cont.).
• Main point (for boss): Super Java has some good employee benefi ts, but several conditions here negatively affect the working experience. If you are writing for your teacher, you might be more candid:
• Main point (for teacher): It’s a myth that Super Java is a great employer. Employee morale is low, and for very good reasons.
or
• Company policies at Super Java guarantee low employee morale.
be graded on. The importance of each element in determining the fi nal grade will also vary by instructor. The elements listed in the rubric will be covered in Chapters 4 through 9.
Sample Essay Rubric
ELEMENT GRADING CRITERIA Relevance orappropriateness
• Did the student follow the directions in writing the essay?
• Are the topic, length, and so on appropriate? Introduction • Does the introduction give the reader a
preview of the subject?
• Does it include a clear and defi nite thesis? Thesis Does the thesis clearly state a main point and
use a complete sentence?
Support • Is there enough support for the thesis statement?
• Is the support presented in paragraph form with topic sentences that relate to the thesis statement?
Organization • Is the structure logical?
• Are transitions (both transitional words and transitional sentences) used to help move the reader from one idea to the next? Conclusion • Does the conclusion remind the reader of
the main point?
• Does it make an observation based on the information the writer has presented in the essay?
Coherence Does the essay stay on topic throughout? Grammar • Is the essay free of the four most serious
errors?
• Are all words correctly spelled?
• Are all punctuation and mechanics correct? Timeliness Was the essay submitted on time?
Sample Student Essays
The following examples and analyses of each example will help you under-stand how rubrics may be used to evaluate student essays. For a key to the correction symbols used, see the chart at the back of this book.
TOPIC: As we mature, our hobbies and interests are likely to change. In an essay of no more than fi ve hundred words, describe how your inter-ests have changed as you have gotten older.
STUDENT ESSAY #1
I had many hobbies over the years. I use to play T-ball but I moved on to playing real Baseball. I played baseball for more than ten years fi naly I became a pitcher for my High School varsity squad. The one hobby that I can think of that I use to have that I don’t do anymore is riding bicycles. My friends and I cruised all over our neighborhood on our bicycles looking for trouble to get into all the time and once even running from the cops, who caught my friend Jimmy, who was the leader of our so called gang. When I got in high school, though I got another hobby which took all my time and money, my car was my new love. I got it when I was 17 and I put everything I had into it and I loved it almost as much as my girlfriend Kate. As you can see, by my senior year, my only hobbies were play-ing baseball for my school team and takplay-ing care of my sweet car.
Student essay #1 likely will not pass, for the following reasons: • It’s a single paragraph. The assignment called for an essay.
• There is a thesis (double-underlined on p. 56), but it’s too general. A more compelling thesis would explain how (and perhaps why) the writer’s interests changed.
• There is no real conclusion. The paragraph simply stops. • The writer gives examples of hobbies but few supporting details.
• It doesn’t have a clear pattern of organization, and the writer strays from the point occasionally (see “u” on p. 56).
• The sentence structure is unvaried and contains few transitions. There are a number of grammar and spelling errors (marked on p. 56), and the language is too informal for an essay.
STUDENT ESSAY #2
Everybody has some kind of hobby, whether it is playing piano, or skiing. People’s hobbies change sometimes over the years as they change too. This is certainly true for me. I have had many hobbies over the years, and they have certainly changed.
As a child, I played T-ball, and I eventually moved on to playing real baseball. I played baseball for more than ten years; fi nally, I became a pitcher for my High School varsity squad, and I played during my junior and senior years. I am looking forward to pitching in the college ranks.
The one favorite hobby I used to have that I don’t have anymore is riding bicycles. My friends and I cruised all over our neighborhood on our bicycles looking for trouble to get into all the time and once even running from the cops, who caught my friend Jimmy, who was the leader of our so called gang. I eventually outgrew this hobby, as it was replaced by a new more exciting vehicle.
-When I got in high school, though I got another hobby which took all my time and money, my car was my new love. It is a Nissan 300 ZX, and it is black with a black interior. It had 16" rims and a sweet body kit. I got it when I was 17 and I put everything I had into it and I loved it almost as much as my girlfriend Kate.
As you can see, by my senior year, my only hobbies were playing baseball for my school team and taking care of the car. I once spent all my time riding my bicycle with my friends but I guess I’ve outgrown that. The one hobby that has lasted throughout my life is my love for baseball. I will probably play that until I am an old man.
Student essay #2 is better for the following reasons: • It has a clearly identifi able thesis, introduction, body, and
conclusion.
• The body paragraphs are generally cohesive, and the essay shows a chronological (time order) development.
• It has fewer errors in grammar and punctuation than the low-level essay has.
The following areas still need improvement:
• The thesis (double-underlined on p. 57) could be more specifi c. Again, a more compelling thesis would explain how (and perhaps why) the writer’s interests changed.
• The writing strays from the topic in a few areas and could use several more transitions between paragraphs.
• The language is too informal in spots.
• Most of all, the essay needs more supporting details about the writer’s hobbies and changes in them over the years.
Everybody has some kind of hobby, whether it is a craft, a musical instrument, or a sport. While some hobbies last a lifetime, many fade or appear at different times during our lives. Some people play sports as youngsters that they cannot play later in life, and some people adopt new hobbies as adults that they would never have enjoyed as a young person. This is certainly true for me. I have had many hobbies over the years, and as I have gotten older, they have changed. As I have grown, I have lost my interest in riding bicycles, gained a love for cars, and undergone some changes in the way I play baseball, the one hobby I have always enjoyed.
My earliest hobby was one that I outgrew some time during junior high school: riding bicycles with my friends. As a child, my bicycle was my only real means of independence. My friends and I rode all over our neighborhood, looking for trouble to get into and even tan-gling with the police on one occasion. As I got older and my friends began to get cars, this hobby faded and a new one emerged, featuring a new type of vehicle.
Working on my car is my new interest, and it is a hobby that grew from my love for my bicycle. The car is a Nissan 300 ZX, and it is black with a black interior, sixteen-inch rims, and a beautiful body kit. I got it when I was seventeen, and, for the past two years, I have put all of my time and money into it. My high school friends joked that I loved it almost as much as my girlfriend, Kate. It offers me the same sense of freedom as the bicycle, and I feel the same pride in keeping it in perfect shape.
My one love that has remained throughout my life is baseball, but even that hobby has undergone some changes as I have matured. As a young child, I played T-ball and quickly grew to love it. I eventu-ally moved on to playing real baseball and played second base and shortstop in little league for more than ten years. After ten years of hard work, I became a pitcher for my high school varsity squad, and STUDENT ESSAY #3
I pitched in the starting rotation for both my junior and senior years. I am looking forward to pitching in college and beginning a new stage in my baseball “career.”
My hobbies have changed as I’ve matured, but in many ways, they have stayed the same. My fi rst hobby, riding my bicycle, grew into my love for my car, and in many ways, the change from two wheels to four wheels refl ects my growing maturity. My one lifetime hobby, baseball, has evolved as well, as I’ve lost the “T” and changed positions. One day, I may play another position or even another sport. However, like my love for speed, my love for competition will always defi ne my hobbies.
Student essay #3 is clear, effective, and well supported. All the essential elements are present:
• The thesis is specifi c and clearly sets up the rest of the essay.
• The writer has described the hobbies in a clear chronological order, and he uses transitions effectively.
• Descriptions of the hobbies are detailed. They use more varied and exciting language and sentence structure than the previous sample essays.
• The writing stays on topic throughout and answers the essay question thoughtfully and thoroughly.
How to Create a Writing Portfolio
Your instructor may want you to create a writing portfolio. This is a collec-tion of the writing you do in the course that shows your writing progress. Usually, a portfolio will include drafts, revisions, and fi nal copies of cer-tain assignments. To create the portfolio, you should print out copies of all the drafts you do of each assignment and keep them in an organized folder. You should also create a Writing Portfolio folder on your computer with subfolders for each assignment. Use a shortened version of the title of the assignment (for example, “Why Trans Fat Should Not Be Banned”) to name your computer fi les, and include both the assignment step and the date they were created:
For advice about using writing portfolios, including how to structure and evaluate them, see Practical
• Trans Fat prewriting 3/6/09 • Trans Fat draft 1 3/13/09 • Trans Fat draft 2 3/18/09 • Trans Fat revision 1 3/23/09 • Trans Fat revision 2 3/28/09
• Trans Fat fi nal paper submitted 4/1/09
As always, make sure that you back up any work that you do on the computer.
In some cases, your instructor will select the assignments that should be added to your portfolio. If you are responsible for deciding which as-signments to add, you should choose pieces that you’re proud of but also those that show improvement in your writing. Look not only at the fi nal grade you earned but also at the changes you made from draft to fi nal copy:
• Review your instructor’s comments on your draft.
• See the changes you made in your revised paper (those that your in-structor suggested and those that you decided on yourself).
• Read your instructor’s comments on your fi nal paper.
Most instructors who assign portfolios will also ask you to write state-ments in which you refl ect on your writing process — what you think you did well, what still needs improvement, and what you have learned about writing. Some teachers ask students to write refl ective statements or a letter to the teacher for each assignment, along with one end-of-semester refl ection statement. Others may ask for just an end-of-semester statement that might include the following:
• A detailed description of your writing process
• An evaluation of your best piece of writing in the course — what is good about it, why it is good, and examples from the actual piece of writing • A comparison of your worst piece of writing to your best, with specifi c
examples of why one is better than the other
• A letter written to your instructor about what you have learned and how your writing has improved during the semester
• A paper describing how what you have learned about writing will help you in the future
