The importance of communication skills: Perceptions of IS professionals, IS managers, and users

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Louisiana Tech Digital Commons

Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School

Summer 2000

The importance of communication skills:

Perceptions of IS professionals, IS managers, and

users

Ruth A. Spurlock Miller Louisiana Tech University

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Recommended Citation

Miller, Ruth A. Spurlock, "" (2000).Dissertation. 156.

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PERCEPTIONS OF IS PROFESSIONALS, IS MANAGERS, AND USERS

by

R uth A. Spurlock Miller, B.S., M .Ed.

A D issertation P resented in P artial F u l f i l l m e n t

of th e R equirem ents for the D egree Doctor of Business A dm inistration

COLLEGE O F ADMINISTRATION AND BUSINESS LOUISIANA TECH UNIVERSITY

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THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

August 17. 2000_________

Date

We hereby recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by__________________________ Ruth S. Miller_____________________________________ entitled_____________The Im portance o f Communication Skills:______________________ ___________ Perceptions o f IS Professionals. IS M anagers, an d U sers_________________

be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor o f Business Administration

isor^f Dissertation Headof Department

Computer Information Systems & Analysis

Department

Recommemjrfpbn concurred in:

Approved:

Director of Graduate SWaies

if the College

Advisory Committee

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ABSTRACT

Inform ation system s (IS) research has show n th a t communication skills tend to be m ore im p o rtan t th a n technical skills to IS sta ff in project development activities. Yet, research findings indicate th a t IS staff are lacking in th e com m unication skills they need to in te ra c t successfully w ith users and m anagers d u rin g system s development. T hus, th e two purposes of th is research w ere (1) to determ ine w hether IS staff, IS m anagers, and IS users differ in th e ir perceptions of im portant com m unication skills th a t IS staff need an d (2) if differences do exist, to assess th e im pact of the differences on u ser satisfaction w ith IS product a n d service and on IS m anager’s job perform ance evaluations of IS staff.

V ariables used in th is study were w ritten an d o ral communication skills, interp erso n al skills, u ser satisfaction, a n d job performance. Confirmatory factor an aly sis w as used to develop m odels of the constructs, to address validity an d reliability issues, and to assess model fit of the variables. Paired-sam ple T -tests were used to determ ine w hether significant differences in perceptions existed betw een IS sta ff and users an d between IS sta ff an d m anagers. Regression an aly sis w as used to analyze the im pact of differences on user satisfaction a n d job performance.

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perceptions of im portance of w ritten, oral, an d interpersonal com m unication skills existed betw een IS staff and u sers an d betw een IS sta ff and m anagers. Also, th e resu lts indicated th a t th e g re a te r the difference in perceptions of IS sta ff an d users w ith respect to w ritte n and oral communications, the lower th a t user satisfaction w as and t h a t the greater th e difference in perceptions w ith respect to interp erso n al skills, the lower th a t user satisfaction w ith user involvem ent w as. Findings indicated th a t IS staff an d m anagers differed significantly in th eir perceptions of importance of w ritten, oral, an d interpersonal com m unication skills and th a t the greater the difference, the low er job perform ance evaluations were.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1.1 Dimensions of W ritten Communication ... 9

1.2 Dim ensions of O ral Com munication ... 10

1.3 Dimensions of In terp erso n al Skill ... 11

1.4 Dimensions of U ser Satisfaction ... 13

1.5 Dimensions of Job Perform ance ... 15

2.1 Skills U sed by S ystem s A nalysts in Perform ing Their Jobs .. 42

3.1 W ritten Com m unication Skills Confirmatory Factor A nalysis ... 74

3.2 O ral C om m unication and Interpersonal Skills Confirm atory Factor A nalysis ... 76

3.3 U ser S atisfaction C onfirm atory Factor A nalysis ... 80

3.4 Job Perform ance C onfirm atory Factory A nalysis ... 81

4.1 Descriptive A nalysis of M atched P air Differences ... 90

4.2 Regression A nalysis R esults: IS U sers and IS S taff ... 93 4.3 Regression A nalysis R esults: IS M anagers a n d IS S t a f f 96

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F igure Page 2.1 The T ran sactio n al C om m unication M o d e l... 22 2.2 The O pen System s C o m m u n i c a t io n Model ... 24

2.3 Illu stra tio n of U ser Inform ation Satisfaction Form ... 47 2.4 The R elationship Between Difference in IS U ser an d

IS S taff Perceptions a n d U ser S atisfa c tio n ... 54 2.5 The R elationship Between Difference in IS M anager

a n d IS S taff Perceptions an d Job Perform ance ... 56

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

So m any helpful people deserve th a n k s. F irst, I th a n k the m em bers of m y committee. D r. Thom as Means, m y d issertatio n chairm an, offered his expertise in com m unications, as w ell as his guidance an d constant encouragem ent. D r. Ja m e s J. Jia n g provided direction for the study. From him I le a rn e d m uch about inform ation system s research an d a u th o rin g for publication. Dr. Joe P ullis contributed his expertise in com m unications a n d statistics. His ability to a s k thought-provoking questions helped to sh ap e my study.

My colleagues an d friends a t the U niversity of L ouisiana a t Monroe, m any of whom have been through sim ila r experiences, alw ays expressed confidence in m e a n d encouraged me to persevere. Also, our chinch fam ily h as prayed for me continually. They w ill never know how much th e ir w ords and prayers m e an t.

My family, m o st of all, deserve special recognition. W ithout my husband, Jerry, th is dissertatio n would n o t have been possible. He h a s constantly encouraged me, suffered w ith me, an d picked me up when I w as down. To our sons, C lin t an d Wes—I love you both dearly. They grew up

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for p u ttin g up w ith me. M y brother, Johnny, and m y sisters, M arie and Mary, along w ith th e ir fam ilies, cheered for me and understood w hen I had school work to do, as did m y in-laws, Ruby and A. L. H ilton. I love you all!

It saddens me th a t m y dad an d mom, L u th er a n d W inona Spurlock, are not here to sh are th is tim e w ith me. They were always so p roud of all our accomplishments.

As th is ch ap ter in m y life ends, I look forw ard to a challenging, rew arding future. Rem em ber, “all things are possible through C h rist who strengthens me” (Philippians 4:13).

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This stu d y investigates the relationships of com m unication skills and in terp erso n al skills of inform ation system s (IS) s ta ff w ith (1) successful project developm ent and (2) job perform ance ra tin g s of the IS staff w ith in a project environm ent.

The purpose of th is ch ap ter is to provide a n explanation o f the need for additional research on the influence of c o m m u n i c a t io n skills and

interpersonal skills of IS staff in system s developm ent a n d in job perform ance evaluation. Following th is explanation a re (1) sta te m en t of the problem. (2) delim itations, (3) lim itations, (4) objectives of th e study, (5) definitions of the variables, (6) possible contributions of th e stu d y to IS literatu re, a n d (7) sum m ary. The plan for th e re st of th e stu d y is then presented.

Need for F urther R esearch

In d u stry experts indicate th a t a m ajority of inform ation systems developm ent efforts en d in failure (Computer Weekly, F eb ru a ry 18, 1999).

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Also, m any system s developm ent projects are canceled p rio r to completion, or th ey are in a d eq u ately used an d abandoned afte r com pletion (Ewusi- M ensah, 1997). N e ith e r technology issues nor technical skills of IS sta ff a p p e ar to be th e problem (Bikson an d Gutek, 1984). A possible cause m ay be ineffective com m unication and interpersonal skills o f IS sta ff as they in te ra c t w ith IS u se rs a n d IS m anagers during project developm ent.

Systems developm ent projects are comprised of th re e d istin ct groups of stakeholders: IS u sers, IS staff, a n d IS m anagers. T hese three groups are defined as:

1. I S user: Employee who receives the services an d products of IS staff th ro u g h project developm ent. 2. I S staff: Inform ation system s professionals who provide system s analysis an d project developm ent for IS users.

3. I S m anager: M anager of IS sta ff d u rin g project developm ent.

R esearch indicates th e se groups perceive the needed skills for successful system s developm ent differently (Jiang, 1999). J ia n g found th a t IS sta ff have dem anding jobs because these professionals have two differing sets of expectations to m eet—those of the IS m anager and those o f the IS user.

The Relationship of th e IS U ser an d t h e I S S t a f f

In a sy stem s developm ent project environm ent, effective com m unication b etw een IS staff an d th e IS user h as been identified as a

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necessary factor for u ser satisfaction w ith inform ation systems developm ent (Bostram , 1984; Cronan and M eans, 1984; Edstrom , 1977; G uinan, 1988; K aiser an d King, 1982; Mintzberg, 1973; Salaw ay, 1987). Yet, because of th e ir backgrounds, education, an d functional orientations, IS sta ff an d IS u sers m ay have different goals and expectations of the system s developm ent process, which m ay lead to ineffective com m unication.

Specifically, rese a rch indicates th a t IS staff a n d IS users differ significantly in th e ir perceptions of the relative im portance of com m unication skills—w ritte n and oral—needed by th e IS sta ff (Green, 1989). However, y e t to be studied are (1) the specific dim ensions th a t com prise w ritten a n d o ral communication skills; (2) w h eth er a perceptual difference exists b etw een IS staff and IS users w ith respect to those dim ensions w ithin a project development environm ent; an d (3) if a difference exists, the effect of th e difference on IS user satisfaction.

Similarly, research ers have found th a t in terp erso n al skills are critical to IS staff for successful project development (H artog an d Rouse, 1987). However, rese arch ers need to be determ ine w h eth er (1) a p ercep tu al difference exists betw een IS staff and IS users w ith respect to a m ore com prehensive se t of interpersonal skills w ith in a project developm ent environm ent an d (2) if a difference does exist, its effect on IS u s e r satisfaction.

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The Relationship Between the IS M anager a n d th e IS Staff

R esearchers have explored some expectations th a t m anagers have of th e IS s ta ffs com munication skills and have identified various skills an d competencies th a t IS staff need. Listings of needed com m unication skills and interpersonal competency consistently appear w ith in categories such as people skills, organizational skills, social skills, a n d behavioral skills (Green, 1989; Nelson, 1991). In th eir research, Todd, McKeen, and Gallupe (1995) found th a t both m anagers and IS s ta ff realize the importance of w ritte n and oral com munication and in te rp e rso n al skills to IS staff. M isic (1996) found th a t m anagers rate com m unication skills and interpersonal skills as im portantly as technical skills for IS staff. A nother study found th a t IS sta ff rate com m unication skill and in terp e rso n al skill as the two m ost im portant skills th a t determ ine th e ir c u rre n t success and advancem ent po ten tial w ithin a n organization (Khan a n d K ukalis, 1990). Such findings lead to the conclusion th a t both IS staff a n d th e ir m anagers consider com m unication skill a n d interpersonal skill to b e im portant to IS staffs.

Likewise, communication competency has been identified as a significant discrim inator of a superior’s ra tin g of IS s ta ff’s job performance (Scudder an d G uinan, 1989). The finding revealed th a t high-perform ing IS

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sta ff m em bers w ere also ra te d significantly higher by th e ir supervisors on com m unication skills th a n were low-perform ing IS staffs.

Also, research in organizational behavior indicates th a t superiors’ an d subordinates’ perceptions differ significantly (Smircich, 1981). In IS research, some perceptual differences betw een superiors and subordinates have been identified. For exam ple, Jia n g (1999) found th a t m an ag ers and IS staff used different criteria for selecting system developm ent projects. These p ercep tu al differences raise oth er questions th a t need to be answered. For example, do IS sta ff an d th e ir m anagers differ in their perceptions of th e im portance of w ritten and oral com m unication skills and interp erso n al skills? Does the effect of a p erceptual difference betw een IS staff and th e ir m anagers im pact job perform ance ratin g s by IS m anagers?

S ta te m e n t of the Problem

The com m unication skills an d in terp erso n al skills of inform ation system s professionals have long been identified as being critical to project developm ent. A difference in the perceptions of IS sta ff m em bers and IS users reg ard in g im portant w ritte n and oral com munication skills and interpersonal skills needed by IS sta ff m ight lead to low er user satisfaction. Also, a difference in perceptions betw een IS sta ff m em bers an d th eir m anagers regarding im p o rtan t com m unication sk ills and interp erso n al skills m ight lead to lower IS sta ff job perform ance ra tin g s by

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IS m anagers. Thus, these relationships need to be investigated empirically. T his stu d y seeks to fulfill this need. I t seeks (1) to determ ine w hether a difference exists in IS sta ff and IS u se rs’ perceptions and, if the difference exists, its relationship to IS user satisfaction an d (2) to determ ine w h e th e r a difference exists in IS staffs’ and IS m anagers’ perceptions and, if a difference exists, its relationship to IS staffs’ job performance ra tin g s.

D e li m i t a t io n s

C ertain delim itations should be recognized so th a t the re s u lts of the study m ay be b e tte r understood.

1. E ach observation w as conducted a t the project level. T h a t is, each observation required the responses o f a n IS s ta ff person, an IS m an ag er, an d a n IS user. Thus, variables of th is stu d y were observed for a p a rtic u la r project on w hich th e th ree participants w orked together.

2. No a tte m p t w as m ade to involve all p artic ip an ts who m ight have p artic ip a te d in a p a rtic u lar project developm ent.

L im it a t io n s

The following lim itations were inherent in th is evaluative study: 1. Since projects m ight have been previously com pleted, some

project developm ent participants m ay have been unable to

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accurately recall im pressions of their experiences w ith other participants d u rin g system development.

2. Selection bias m ay have occurred since one p articip an t per observation w as initially contacted and w as asked to solicit others to p articip ate in th e study.

3. The sam ple w as draw n prim arily from the so u th e aste rn United States, which m akes th e conclusions less generalizable.

Objectives of the Study

This study had two objectives. First, it examined th e relationship of differences in expectations of com m unication skills and in terp erso n al skills of IS staff w ith successful project development. Second, the study exam ined the relationship of com m unication skills and in terp erso n al skills of IS sta ff to m anagers’ job perform ance ratings of IS sta ff w ith in a project environm ent.

The specific questions th is study attem pted to a n sw er were as follows:

1. Does a difference in th e perceptions of IS staff a n d IS users with regard to th e im portance of w ritten and oral com munication skills and in terp erso n al skills have a significant relationship to IS users’ satisfaction?

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2. Does a difference in th e perceptions of IS sta ff an d th e ir m an ag ers w ith regard to the im portance of w ritten an d oral com m unication skills an d interpersonal skills have a significant relationship to IS m an ag ers’ job perform ance ratin g s of IS staff du rin g project development?

Definition of the V ariables

The variables used in th is study included w ritten com m unication skills, oral com m unication skills, interpersonal skills, IS user satisfaction, an d job perform ance of IS staff.

W ritten Com m unication Skills

W ritten com m unication skills were defined as the set of knowledge an d techniques of w riting th a t IS professionals applied to docum ents th a t they prepared for IS users and IS m anagers d u rin g project developm ent. W ritten com m unication was m easured using dim ensions proposed by Quible (1991). These 36 dim ensions are listed in Table 1.1. R esearch by Adkins (1982), Lemly (1983), a n d Stine and S karzenski (1979) suggested th a t it is beneficial to consider w ritten com m unication skills along these dimensions.

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TABLE 1.1

D IM ENSIONS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

1. W rite coherently

2. Spell w ords correctly 3. Use gram m ar correctly 4. W rite decisively

5. Sell ideas well in w riting 6. Use w ords correctly

7. C onstruct effective sentences 8. W rite concisely

9. Use effective arran g em en t of ideas

10. Use p u n ctu atio n correctly 11. Have good proofreading skills 12. A dapt m a terial to th e read er 13. W rite concretely

14. Focus on rea d e r ra th e r than w riter

15. O rganize m a teria l well

16. Avoid redundancies in w riting 17. W rite u n d er p ressure

18. C onstruct effective p arag rap h s

19. Use effective sy n tax

20. H ave effective revising skill 21. H ave effective ed itin g skill 22. Be know ledgeable of w riting

process

23. Know ap p ro p riate business le tte r content

24. Use effective planning procedures

25. Use tra n s itio n effectively 26. D em onstrate un ity in

w ritin g

27. P a ra p h ra se effectively

28. Show courtesy tow ard reader 29. Perform effective audience

analysis

30. Use correct le tte r form at 31. P rep are effective graphic

aids

32. W rite extem poraneously 33. Know psychological aspects

of w ritin g

34. Use ideas subordination effectively

35. Avoid use o f jarg o n

36. W rite effective thesis sta te m e n ts

O ral Com m unication Skills

O ral com m unication skills were defined as th e set of knowledge and techniques of oral com m unication th a t IS professionals used while discussing aspects of the system w ith IS users an d IS m anagers. O ral

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com m unication w as m easured using six dimensions th a t were identified by a review of re le v a n t lite ra tu re (Peterson, 1997; Olney, 1989; Willmington, 1989) an d by u sin g the opinions of experts in th e field of communication. These dim ensions are listed in Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.2

DIM ENSIONS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

1. Have effective oral communication skill

2. A sk appropriate questions

3. Use a clear, distinct, pleasant voice 4. Use correct gram m ar

5. Organize ideas

6. Have good presentation skills

Interpersonal S kills

In terp erso n al skills w ere defined as the set of knowledge an d techniques of in teractio n th a t IS professionals used w hile working w ith IS users and IS m an ag ers du rin g system s development. Interpersonal skills were m easured along nine dim ensions used by Lee, T rau th , and Farw ell (1995) in th e ir stu d y of critical skills and knowledge of IS staff. These researchers developed th eir survey instrum ent th ro u g h a comprehensive review of recom m endations of the C urriculum Committee of th e Association for Com puting M achinery. These dim ensions are listed in Table 1.3.

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TABLE 1.3

DIMENSIONS OF INTERPERSONAL SKILL

1. Ability to work cooperatively in a one-on-one and project team

environm ent

2. Ability to plan and execute work in a collaborative environm ent 3. Ability to deal w ith am biguity

4. Ability to work closely w ith custom ers and m a in ta in product user/client relationships

5. Ability to accomplish assignm ents 6. Ability to teach others

7. Ability to develop an d deliver effective, informative, persuasive presentations

8. Ability to be self-directed and proactive

9. Ability to be sensitive to the organization’s culture

U ser Satisfaction

U ser satisfaction w as defined as the user’s level of satisfaction with the service and product provided by the IS professional d u rin g systems development. Project development success has been approached from m any perspectives. One of the most popular approaches used by IS researchers has been to employ an IS user satisfaction scale to m easure IS effectiveness. Among the m ost commonly used scales to m easure IS user satisfaction include those developed by Bailey and Pearson (1983), Baroudi and Orlikowski (1988), Ives, Olson, an d Baroudi (1983), an d Je n k in s and R icketts (1985). Baroudi a n d Orlikowski’s (1988) instrum ent consisting of sem antic differential polar adjective pairs to m easure 13 a ttrib u te s of user satisfaction was used in th is study. T heir instrum ent w as used for two reasons: The validity an d reliability of th e m easures have been

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established, a n d th e dimensions used in th eir in stru m e n t align along two factors th a t com m only define u ser satisfaction—IS product and IS service. (The developm ent of the in stru m e n t an d previous te sts of validity an d reliability of th e m easures are described in C hapter 3). The 13 a ttrib u te s are listed in T able 1.4.

Job Perform ance

Job perform ance was defined a s th e level of satisfaction w ith th e IS professional’s functioning during project developm ent. The item s th a t comprised th e job performance scale were adopted from research by Igbaria and B aro u d i (1995) and from G reenhaus, e t al., (1990). Ig b aria adapted G re e n h a u s’ scale to m ake the item s relev an t to IS staff. The scale used to m easu re job performance in th is study consisted of 23 item s: 21 from Igbaria’s stu d y th a t define two IS factors (task an d relationship) an d 2 from G re en h au s’ stu d y th a t Igbaria did not use. T he two item s from th e G reenhaus scale w ere included to provide a more comprehensive scale. The item s are show n in Table 1.5.

Possible C ontributions of the S tu d y

This stu d y attem pted to m ake th ree m ain contributions to IS research. F irst, th is study attem pted to identify specific w ritten an d o ral com munication sk ills an d interpersonal skills needed by IS staff for project success. Second, th is research extended previous IS skills research by

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TABLE 1.4

DIM ENSIONS OF USER SATISFACTION

1. R elationship with the I S staff: The m a n n e r and m ethods of in teractio n , conduct, a n d association betw een th e user an d the IS staff.

D issonant vs harm onious B ad vs good

2. Processing o f requests for chanties to existing systems: The m anner, m ethod, an d required tim e w ith which the IS s ta ff responds to user req u e sts for changes in existing com puter-based inform ation system s or services.

F a st vs slow R U ntim ely vs timely

3. Degree o f I S training provided to users: The am ount of specialized in stru c tio n and practice th a t is afforded to th e u se r to increase the u se r’s proficiency in using the com puter capability th a t is unavailable.

Com plete vs incomplete R Low vs high

4. Users’ understanding o f system: The degree of com prehension th a t a u se r possesses about th e computer-based inform ation system s or services th a t are provided.

Insufficient vs sufficient Com plete vs incomplete R

5. Users’ feelings of participation: The degree of involvem ent and com m itm ent which the u ser shares w ith th e IS sta ff an d others tow ard th e functioning o f th e com puter-based inform ation system s an d services.

Positive vs negative R Insufficient vs sufficient

6. A ttitu d e o f the I S staff: The willingness a n d com m itm ent of the IS sta ff to subjugate ex tern al, professional goals in favor of organizationally directed goals and tasks.

Cooperative vs belligerent R N egative vs positive

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TABLE 1.4 (continued)

7. Reliability of output inform ation: The consistency and dependability of the o u tp u t inform ation

H igh vs low R Superior vs inferior R

8. Relevancy o f output inform ation to intended function: The degree of congruence between w h a t the user w an ts or requires a n d w h at is provided by the inform ation products and services.

U seful vs useless R elevant vs irrelev an t

9. Accuracy o f output inform ation: The correctness of th e output inform ation.

Inaccurate vs accurate Low vs high

10. Precision o f output information: The variability of th e output inform ation from th a t w hich it purports to m easure.

Low vs high D efinite vs uncertain R

11. Communication w ith I S staff: The m anner and m ethods of inform ation exchange betw een the user and th e IS staff.

D issonant vs harm onious D estructive vs productive

12. Tim e required for new system s development: The elap sed time betw een the user’s req u est for new applications an d th e design, development, and/or im plem entation of the application system s by the IS staff.

U nreasonable vs reasonable Acceptable vs unacceptable R

13. Completeness of the output inform ation: The com prehensiveness of the o u tp u t inform ation content.

Sufficient vs insufficient R A dequate vs inadequate R

Measured on a scale of 1 to 5 with higher scores reflecting greater user satisfaction with project development. R = Reverse scored

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TABLE 1.5

D IM EN SIO N S OF JOB PERFORMANCE 1. Cooperation 13. P unctuality

2. Loyalty to organization 14. A ttitude 3. Honesty 15. Productivity 4. Initiative 16. Judgm ent 5. Com mitm ent to job 17. Creativity 6. Quality of work 18. Planning 7. Loyalty to supervisor 19. Ability

8. Interpersonal relatio n sh ip s 20. Prom otability 9. Com munication skills 21. Job knowledge

10. Dependability 22. Com m itm ent to organization 11. Accuracy 23. A ttendance

12. Responsibility

empirically assessing th e relationship of w ritten an d oral com m unication skills and interpersonal sk ills to user satisfaction. Third, th is research attem pted to assess th e im p act of a perceptual difference betw een IS staff and m anagers about the im portance of w ritten an d oral com m unication skills and interpersonal sk ills on IS staffs job perform ance ratin g s.

S u m m a r y

Since m any IS project development efforts resu lt in system s th a t are not used or are little used an d because n eith er technology or technical skills of IS staff seem to be th e problem, a possible cause m ay be ineffective communication an d in te rp e rso n al skills of IS sta ff d u rin g project development. Therefore, th is study sought to answ er th e following questions:

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Do th e perceptions of IS staff and IS u se rs differ w ith respect to the im portance of specific com munication needed by IS sta ff during project developm ent If th e ir perceptions are different, w h at im pact does the difference have on IS u se r satisfaction?

Likewise, do th e perceptions of IS sta ff a n d IS m anagers differ w ith respect to th e im portance of specific com m unication needed by IS sta ff d u rin g project developm ent? If th e ir perceptions are different, w hat relatio n sh ip does th e difference have w ith IS m an ag ers’ performance ev alu atio n of IS staff?

Plan of the Study

C h ap ter I provides an introduction to th is d issertatio n by presenting th e problem to be investigated, describing th e need for additional IS com m unication skills research, defining the purpose of th e study along w ith a sta te m e n t of th e problem, identifying delim itatio n s an d lim itations, outlining the research objectives, an d describing possible contributions to IS lite ra tu re . C h a p ter II presents a review of th e lite ra tu re relating to com m unication skills research, project developm ent success, IS user satisfaction, job perform ance, the proposed relatio n sh ip s am ong the variables hypotheses, and the hypotheses. C h ap ter III describes the sam pling plan, op eratio n al definition of th e research variables, and sta tistic a l methodology used in th e study. R esults are presented in

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C hapter IV. C h a p ter V contains a sum m ary of the study a n d its conclusions and recom m endations for future research.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The lite ra tu re th a t is relevant to this stu d y provided a theoretical base for this d issertatio n . To understand the n a tu re of com m unication and how others have m easured its aspects and to help u n d ersta n d the variables of th is study, it is necessary to exam ine th e evolution of com munication models, communication skills research, role of com munication in u ser satisfaction w ith an inform ation system , m easures of u ser satisfaction, m easu res of IS staff performance, achievem ent of consonance in IS developm ent, and discrepancy theory. These areas of research established th e basis for e x a m i n i n g th e relationships am ong the

variables th a t w ere studied.

Evolution of Communication Models

Several th eo retical models to describe th e com m unication process exist. Over th e la st fifty years, one model, in p articu lar, has greatly influenced com m unication in business research. T h a t model is the inform ation tra n s fe r model. O ther models th a t have evolved since the

18

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19

inform ation tran sfer model are th e social constructionist model, th e tran sactio n al com m unication model, an d th e open system s com m unication model.

The Inform ation T ransfer Model

In The M athem atical Theory o f Communication, first pu b lish ed in 1949, Shannon an d W eaver (1963) extended ea rlier com m unication theory. T h eir treatise was from a n engineering perspective, a n d in th e ir introduction, they stated:

The fu n d am en tal problem of com munication is t h a t of reproducing at th e one point exactly or approxim ately a message selected a t a n o th e r point. Frequently th e m essages have meaning; th a t is, th e y refer to or are co rrelated according to some system w ith certain physical or conceptual entities. These sem antic aspects of com m unication are irrelevant to the engineering problem (Shannon an d W eaver, 1963:3).

Although Shannon an d W eaver stressed th a t th e ir m a th em atic al model of communication w as not intended to derive sem antically th e m eaning of messages, m any business researchers used the m odel as th e basis for other com m unication models. Axley (1984) noted t h a t if one viewed communication as a tra n sfe r of inform ation, m eaning w as directed along a figurative pipeline betw een sender and receiver. Therefore, th e m essage w as the pipeline, or container.

Similarly, Bowden (1993) indicated th a t if m essages a c t a s if th e y w ere containers, th e n m ean in g could be p u t into an d ex tracted from

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m essages. T hus, the m eaning o f th e message w as in th e text itself; an d if th e m eaning of a document w as n o t easily understood, th e n the m essage— or container—w as poorly formed. Poorly-formed docum ents re su lte d from problem s, such as confusing stru c tu re , incorrect gram m ar, poor word choice, poor tran sitio n , etc.

T he Social C onstructionist Model

Another group of research ers, called social constructionists, stu d ied th e w ay in w hich language sh ap es reality in an organization. These researchers believed th a t com m unication w as more complicated th a n a receiver simply extracting m e a n i n g by in terp retin g th e sender’s m essage.

Social constructionists hypothesized th a t language in th e form of w ritte n a n d o ral com munication w as more complex th a n it seem ed (Bakhtin, 1981; Fish, 1989; G iddens, 1984; G ergen, 1991). T hey em phasized t h a t the context of language an d the com m unicator’s in te rn a l and e x tern a l reference points shaped th e m ean in g of a m essage. As a re su lt, the m essage sent (intended) m ight n o t be the m essage received (interpreted) because a receiver’s ethnicity, cu ltu re, gender, a n d background knowledge w ould differ from th e sender’s.

A forerunner to social constructionism , S. I. H ayakaw a, h ad sim ila r views. His concept of th e sem antic environm ent encompasses ethnicity, culture, and gen d er effects in com m unication. In his book, Language in

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Thought a n d Action, H ayakaw a (1972:16-17) used th e exam ple of a fictional ch aracter, Mr. M its, to define the te rm sem antic environm ent and to illu strate its role in creatin g conflict:

W hether he realizes it or not, Mr. M its is affected every day of his life not only by the words he h ears an d uses, but also by his unconscious assum ptions ab o u t language. I f for exam ple, he likes th e nam e Albert and would like to christen his child by th a t nam e but superstitiously avoids doing so because he once knew a n Albert who com m itted suicide, he is operating, w h eth er he realizes it or not, u n d er certain assum ptions about th e relationship o f language to reality. Such unconscious assum ptions determ ine th e effect th e words have on him —w hich in tu rn determ ines the way he acts, w h eth er wisely or foolishly. Words—th e way he u ses them and th e w ay he ta k es them when spoken by others—largely shape his beliefs, h is prejudices, his ideals, his aspirations. They constitute th e m oral and in tellectu al atm osphere in w hich he lives—in short, his sem antic environm ent.

The passage illu stra te s how Hayakawa believed th a t a n individual’s unconscious assum ption about words had a n effect on th e way one interacts w ith others th ro u g h communication.

The T ransactional Com m unication Model

The tran sa ctio n al com munication model stressed “th e sim ultaneous an d m utually influential n a tu re of the com m unication ev en t” (Tubbs, 1994:8). T h a t is, com m unicators were interdependent a n d th e result of th e ir com m unication w as exam ined in term s of th e context of the event an d the com m unication mode, as depicted in Figure 2.1, a representation of the model.

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Sender Sender

Input > Input >

Receiver Receiver

Figure 2.1

The T ransactional Communication Model

Source: Tubbs, S tew art L. and Sylvia Moss. 1994. H um an Communication, Seventh edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

The model includes references to filters a n d interference, w hich support both th e social constructionist view and th e inform ation tra n sfe r approach. Supporting the social constructionist view point are the filters (used by both th e sender an d receiver). These a re in tern al an d ex tern al reference points th a t individuals developed from th e ir culture, ethnicity, and gender. Supporting th e inform ation tra n s fe r approach are the

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interferences. Interferences could be caused by th e form of th e com m unication itself—including poor sentence stru ctu re, poor transition, incorrect g ram m ar, an d in ap p ro p riate word usage—m a k in g it more difficult to access m eaning from th e document. As th e stru c tu re of the com m unication model changed from th e simple, m echanistic inform ation tran sfer m odel to a model th a t is more complex in n a tu re (like th e tran sactio n al model), it is e a sie r to see how “complex organizational interactions shape th e n atu re o f on-the-job” com m unications (Suchan an d Dulek, 1998:93).

The Open S ystem s Com m unication Model

S uchan an d Dulek (1998) suggested th a t perspectives of o rganizational theory m ust be applied to the stu d y of organizational com m unication. They believed t h a t one p articu lar aspect o f organizational theory—open system s—is necessary to un d erstan d b e tte r th e complexity of com m unication in business environm ents. They in d icated th a t open system s th eo ry provided a vehicle for researchers to focus on th e contextual asp ect of organizational communication. A sy stem s approach provided a broader, richer fram ew ork for studying com m unication by focusing b o th on a n organization’s in te rn a l a n d external enviro n m en ts th a t created c o n stra in ts such as tim e an d stakeholder power.

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S u ch an a n d Dulek divided a n organization into four subsystem s based on m anagem ent theory—ta sk , control, stru ctu re , an d technology. T raditional job roles—executive, m anager, staff, and specialist—were superim posed over th e subsystem s, an d environm ental influences existed on the fringes o f th e subsystem s, a s depicted in F igure 2.2.

zz

° 03 Oh C

%

I M a p < u £ > O fi h Executive .CONTROL TASK M anager S taff TECHNOLOGY STRUCTURE Specialist ”* 9 c m 3 < 3 3 m • < 3 93 © 3 © l- H 3 S L S3 3 © 93 n rH -3 o n © 0 9 CD F igure 2.2

The Open System s Com m unication Model

Source: Suchan, Jim and Ron Dulek. 1998. F rom Text to Context: An O pen S ystem s Approach to Research in W ritten B usiness Com m unication. The Journal o f Business C om m unication, 35(1), 87-110.

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According to th e ir theory, com m unication context an d complexity shift w ith changes in th e subsystem s (e.g., th e level of ta s k uncertainty, the degree of job form alization, th e level of employee em pow erm ent, and the com m unication technology media). Likewise, environm ental factors (such as tim e constraints, a c tu al or im plied power, and audience) can affect the n a tu re o f th e com m unication. Therefore, they hypothesized th a t organizational com m unication cannot be viewed in a “singular, isolated text approach” (e.g., letter, memo, or report); instead, it m u st be viewed based on “shifting organizational contexts” (1998:106).

C om m unication Skills Research

The opinions of executives indicate th a t com m unicating effectively in business is a critical skill for overall job success (Joyce, 1991; Locker, 1995). According to H arcourt, Krizan, an d M errier (1995:7):

The h ig h er th e responsibility level to which individuals progress in an organization, the more tim e they spend com m unicating. U pper-level executives in many business or nonprofit organizations will spend up to 95 percent of th e ir w orking tim e com m unicating—speaking, listening, w riting, an d reading. While some persons m ay spend as little as 10 percent of th e ir w ork tim e com municating, it is estim a ted th a t a n average of 60 percent of employee time is sp en t in some form of com m unication.

Thus, research ers a n d business professionals realized the importance of com m unication skills to organizational success, promotion, and job perform ance (Aranoff, 1980; Eckert an d Allen, 1986; H arper, 1987).

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M anagers have in d icated th a t both w ritte n an d oral com m unication skills and in terp erso n al skills are critical factors for entry-level employment, on- the-job success, an d professional advancem ent. In a sam ple of 164 prospective em ployers from 31 states, J ia n g (1994) found th a t, out of 13 skills, m an ag ers ra n k e d oral com munication as the second-highest valued skill of new hires, in terp erso n al skills as th e fourth-highest valued skill, and w ritte n com m unication as the seventh-highest valued skill.

W hen research in g communication skills in inform ation systems, Misic (1996) found th a t system s analysts a n d program m ers ra te d w ritten and oral com m unication skills as im portant as technical skills. From th is study th a t included responses from 107 organizations, M isic concluded th a t IS staff, unlike those o f te n years before, needed to be more technology- independent an d needed to employ b etter w ritte n and o ral communication and in terp erso n al skills w hen interacting w ith IS u sers during project development:

Since in th e p a s t there have been frequent occasions w here “technical” a n aly sts may have become preoccupied w ith technology a t the price of user satisfaction, the new breed [of IS staff] th a t approaches system problem s from a more im plem entation- a n d technology-independent perspective may be m uch more effective a t developing system s th a t u sers need an d w ith which u se rs are satisfied (Misic, 1996:39).

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W r it t e n C o m m u n ic a t io n S k ill s

Research findings indicate th a t w ritten com m unication skills are critical to all b u sin ess professionals regardless of functional area. S everal studies categorized w ritte n com m unication skill by type of document, such as letter, m em oranda, or report. According to K irtz an d Reep (1990), businesspeople sp en d a su b stan tial p a r t of th e ir d ay on w riting task s. They found th a t, on th e average, m an ag ers spent alm o st h a lf of th e ir tim e w riting (49.4 percent) and th a t technical p erso n n el spend ab o u t 40.7 percent of th e ir day writing. In th e survey o f 118 p articip an ts in te n w riting sem inars, m anagers indicated th a t they w rite prim arily letters, m em oranda, a n d sh o rt reports; technical personnel indicated th a t th ey m ost frequently w rite m em oranda, sh o rt reports, a n d instructions or procedures. B oth m an ag ers and technical personnel reported th a t w ritin g w as very im p o rta n t or critical to th e ir job perform ance and th a t w ritin g effectiveness h ad a n effect on th e ir prom otability.

Recent survey findings indicated th a t job can d id ates w ith stro n g w riting skills are highly sought b u t difficult to find (The Internal A u d ito r, 1998). In the survey of executives w ith the n a tio n ’s 1,000 la rg e st companies, th e OfficeTeam (a well-known em ploym ent group) research ers found th a t 29 p erce n t of the executives ran k ed w ritin g skills, along w ith leadership skill, a s th e scarcest a ttrib u te of job candidates. The finding of th e dearth in w ritin g skills of em ployees supported th e finding by Ju n g e,

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D aniels, a n d K arm os (1984). They found th a t th e g reatest discrepancy betw een com m unication skill im portance a n d com m unication skill perform ance occurred w ith w riting.

In a study to determ ine th e m ost needed w riting skills, W aner (1995) asked 38 business professionals in a m etropolitan area to ra n k com m unication com petencies in order of im portance. From highest to lowest, th e five m ost im p o rtan t competencies w ere (1) w rites w ell (concisely, clearly, correctly, completely); (2) m ain tain s appropriate level of confidentiality; (3) organizes inform ation into effective sentences a n d p arag rap h s; (4) ed its and revises docum ents conscientiously; and (5) w rites n atu ra lly an d on rea d e r’s level. The highest ra te d competency h a d a m ean = 6.13, an d th e lowest ra te d h ad a m ean of 5.45 on a scale from u n im p o rtan t (1) to extrem ely im p o rta n t (7).

In a study of 221 in te rn a tio n a l companies, Cassady and W asson (1994) found th a t em ployers indicated the following major w ritin g deficiencies am ong th e ir personnel: m echanics (spelling, gram m ar, punctuation, proofreading, a n d form at), content (sentence stru ctu re , organization, com position/wordiness, a n d p arag rap h structure); an d style a n d tone (word choice, tone/psychology, an d lack of “You” approach).

Quible developed a 36-item scale to assess perceived im portance of w ritte n com m unication skills needed by employees. He based his scale on previous research in com m unication th a t identified skills th a t g rad u ates

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perceived to be “m ost im p o rtan t” (Storms, 1983); th at reflected significant differences in perceptions of im portance by businesspeople, teachers, and stu d en ts (Adkins, 1982); th a t indicated strong agreem ent of im portance by both w orking stu d e n ts and th e ir faculty (Lemley, 1983); and th a t indicated those skills th a t executives perceived to be m ost im portant for university graduates to have (Stine an d Skarzenski, 1979). Quible’s re su lts indicated th a t all 36 skill item s had w eighted averages (of perceived im portance) less th a n two, indicating th a t each skill was a t least quite im p o rta n t to business employees.

Roebuck, Sightler, an d B rush (1995) found th a t employee perceptions of th e im portance of w ritten communication skills for current job perform ance an d for job advancem ent differed by company type. They surveyed 610 employees from the operative to the executive level in companies th a t ranged in size from small, family-run businesses to Fortune 500 firm s all located in the southeastern United S tate s. They found th a t em ployees in high technology, communication, engineering, and m anufacturing organizations perceived w ritten communication skills to be more im p o rtan t for cu rren t job success an d advancem ent th a n did employees of service, governm ent, healthcare, education, a n d retail companies.

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O r a l C o m m u n ic a t io n S k i l l s

The findings of non-IS dom ain studies indicated th a t o ral com m unication skills are critical to all b u sin ess professionals regardless of functional area. K rajew ski an d Wood (1993) identified four o ral com m unication skills th a t graduates need—listen in g skills, speaking skills, collaborative skills, and verbal skills.

In a 1975 stu d y investigating im p o rta n t applicant qualifications for entry-level jobs, o ra l com m unication ra n k e d low in im portance. Yet in a follow-up study in 1989, oral com m unication w as ran k ed as th e top qualifier (Buckley, Peach, and W eitzel, 1989). These findings lead to th e assum ption th a t o ra l com m unication sk ills have become more im p o rtan t as th e economy h as m oved tow ard technology-enhanced, service- a n d inform ation-oriented businesses.

In 1997, M aes, Weldy, and Icenogle conducted two studies. The first study confirm ed th e im portance o f oral com m unication in h irin g decisions. In th is study, th e researchers exam ined th e characteristics or competencies th a t m a n ag ers look for in entry-level employees. U sing a list of 13 competencies or characteristics developed from a pilot test, th e researchers asked 354 m anagers to ra n k the 10 competencies or characteristics th a t th e y felt were m ost im p o rta n t in h irin g decisions. The resu lts indicated t h a t o ral com m unication w as the m ost im portant skill

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th a t m an ag ers sought in new hires—65 m anagers ranked it n u m b er one and 231 ra n k e d it in the top five.

In th e ir follow-up study, Maes, Weldy, and Icenogle m e asu red oral com m unication skill im portance an d frequency of use for entry-level employees. T he researchers surveyed 150 respondents from th e ir first study; 58 u sab le responses were received. These researchers used a 13- item scale th e y ad a p ted from Shockley-Zalabak, Staley, an d M orley (1988). Their scale included these skills: following instructions, listen in g skills, conversational skills, giving feedback, com m unicating w ith th e public, skills in m eetings, p resen tatio n skills, h andling custom er com plaints, conflict reso lu tio n skills, negotiation skills, taking cu sto m er order, teaching/instructing skills, an d interview ing skills. In th e study, m anagers rep o rted th e five m ost im p o rtan t oral com m unication skills needed by entry-level employees to be [(very unim portant) 1 to (very im portant) 5]: following instructions (m ean = 4.66), liste n in g skills (mean = 4.60), conversational skills (m ean = 4.47), giving feedback (mean = 4.00), an d com m unicating w ith the public (mean = 3.98). Usage frequencies w ere found to be highly correlated with skill im portance, verifying th a t im p o rta n t oral com m unication skills needed by entry-level employees a re also th e m ost frequently used skills.

G reen (1989) found th a t th e need to be effective com m unicators did not dim inish over tim e. In th e study, he asked experienced IS s ta ff whose

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com panies were selected from Fortune 500 companies, 50 sta te governm ents, an d th e 100 largest U.S. cities to rate selected behavioral skills. (He found th a t th e m ean cu rren t em ploym ent te n u re of the 872 IS staff m em bers th a t participated was 10.21 years.) The re su lts showed th a t IS sta ff m em bers’ perceived oral com m unication to be essen tial in face-to- face an d group settings. (The m ean ra tin g was 5.98 on a scale from (1) very u n im p o rta n t to (7) very im portant).

I n t e r p e r s o n a l S k i l l s

M ichael B. Coyle (1993:2) said th e following:

Aimed a t both the new employee and the experienced ones, quality interpersonal com m unication skills provide a m eaningful response to th e dem and for a more in te rd e p en d e n t an d productive A m erican labor force. These skills are th e keys to cooperation am ong our people in m eetin g world competition challenges now and in th e 21st century.

The field of interpersonal com m unication research is so vast th a t Stam p (1999) developed a comprehensive, general fram ew ork to promote better u n d ersta n d in g of the interp erso n al skill components. His fram ew ork is so complex th a t it includes 17 categories of interpersonal research w ith links am ong the categories. His fram ework dem onstrates the com plexity of h u m an behavior as people attem pt to rela te to each other. A useful definition of interpersonal skill was provided by B arnlund (1968:10): in terp erso n al behavior occurs in “relatively inform al social

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situations in w hich p ersons in face-to-face encounters m ain tain a focused interaction th ro u g h th e reciprocal exchange of verbal an d nonverbal cues.” This definition incorporated all th e behavioral tra its th a t affect in terp retatio n of m essages composed of verbal an d nonverbal prom pts.

Bennis, e t a l. (1968) described four types of interpersonal communication a s (1) to express feelings; (2) to confirm social realities; (3) to change and influence; and (4) to work and create. All four types described activities involved w ith IS project development. For exam ple, project development te a m members work together to create a new system . Through th eir in teractio n , they provide input an d expertise; and they attem p t to exert influence to shape th e new system based on needs and w ants. As they a tte m p t to shape th e proposed system through personal influence, th eir beh av io r em its feelings th a t resu lt from the way in w hich th ey view th eir role in the project developm ent effort.

M essmer (1999) found th a t business practitioners expect employees in accounting, finance, and inform ation system s to have good interpersonal skills. The survey of 1,400 chief financial officers indicated that, because innovations in technology allow em ployees to com m unicate more rapidly, more often, and w ith greater num bers of people, interpersonal skills will be showcased; an d em ployees who are lack ing those skills will reveal th e ir shortcomings to w id er audiences. Yet, practitioner jo u rn als indicate th a t

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IS staff often do n ot possess good interpersonal skills (Bridges, 1994; Field, 1996; Gibson, 1997; Horowitz, 1996; Raths, 1999; York, 1998).

In th e ir survey of 50 IS executives in Fortune 500 com panies, H artog an d Rouse (1987) found a growing dem and for IS sta ff to have interpersonal com m unication skills. One IS executive said, “I look for com m unication skills even a t th e college train e e level. We’ve sent four MIS m anagers th ro u g h . . . executive w riting a n d interpersonal relations courses” (H artog a n d Rouse, 1987:68). The research ers concluded th a t IS professionals’ ab ility to ad a p t to changing business environm ents a n d to em brace a g re ater support role to IS users were critical to their job success an d career developm ent.

Misic an d G ra f (1993) identified several interp erso n al environm ents of system s an aly sts: working w ith IS users, w orking w ith IS personnel or peers, and w orking w ith groups or project team s. To assess the changing w ork environm ent of system s an aly sts, the research ers surveyed system s an aly sts by contacting MIS m an ag ers listed in th e 1991 Directory o f Top Computer Executives. The research ers used the self-selection survey m ethod by ask in g m anagers to identify a system s analyst in th e ir dep artm en t to com plete the survey. The 115 system s analysts who particip ated in th e study indicated th a t the m ost frequently perform ed interpersonal activities w ith each group of people were the following:

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Group 1: IS u sers—d eterm in in g new system requirem ents, defining the scope of th e system , analyzing th e existing system , assessing th e im pact of th e new system on the company, interview ing, a n d developing cost/benefit analyses.

Group 2: IS personnel or peers—p articip atin g in tra d itio n a l system developm ent activities, such a s defining the scope of the system , defining new system requirem ents, developing system developm ent sta n d a rd s and guidelines, reviewing IS p lan s and scope, debugging th e system, a n d assessing the im p act of new system s on th e company.

Group 3: G roups or project team s—The sam e type of activities as th e IS personnel or p eer groups.

O ther rese arch h a s also indicated t h a t IS staff an d IS m anagers recognize th e need for effective interpersonal skills. In perform ing a content analysis of IS job advertisem ents from 1970 to 1990, Todd, McKeen, an d G allupe (1995) found th a t th e g reatest dem and in business knowledge for p rogram m ers w as in the interpersonal/social skills. Their content analysis indicated th a t interpersonal skill was not m entioned in 1970 IS job ad v ertisem en ts b u t w as the m ost frequently m entioned skill in 1990 advertisem ents.

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The Role of C om m unication in U ser Satisfaction w ith a n Inform ation System

In th e past, IS developers determ ined basic inform ation needs of th e proposed system. Then th ey developed th e m ost efficient, effective system possible, often com m unicating little w ith the people who would be using th e system . Frequently, th e resu lt w as a n inform ation system th a t w as unused, little used, or ineffectively used. But such uneconomical approaches to systems developm ent cannot survive in today’s dynamic, globally competitive environm ent (Lee, e t al., 1995). IS s ta ff can no longer function alone w ithin th e isolation of th eir d ep artm en tal walls. M anagem ent and social interaction theories are good resources in looking a t the interaction process th a t occurs among p artic ip an ts in IS developm ent. Some of th e se theories are described here.

Stakeholder theory. By applying Freem an’s (1984) stakeholder approach to strategic m anagem ent, one would conclude th a t IS project developm ent activities m u st include all groups and individuals who can affect a project and m u st allow for m an ag erial behavior to direct those groups or individuals. Such a conclusion is supported by IS research. M intzberg (1973:163) viewed the roles of IS users and IS s ta ff in th is way: “U sers have the inform ation an d the u n d erstan d in g of th e dynam ics of the environm ent, [and IS staff] have the tim e an d the inclination to do th e system atic analysis th a t complex strategic decisions require.” Researchers

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have found t h a t IS users often p articip ate to varying degrees in p h ases of system developm ent, necessitating interaction w ith IS staff (McKeen, G uim araes, a n d W etherbe, 1994; Olson an d Ives, 1980). R esearch h a s show n th a t effective com m unication assists creative, cooperative efforts in system s developm ent (Bostrom, 1984; C ronan and M eans, 1984; G uinan, 1988; K aiser a n d King, 1982; Salaw ay, 1987).

Edstrom (1977) concluded th a t effective com m unication am ong project developm ent members w as significantly rela ted to system success for various p h a ses of system developm ent. In h is exam ination of 16 system developm ent projects, E dstrom studied the influence of key people (user, functional m anager, IS staff, an d IS m anager) during system developm ent p h ases on perceived success of the system . U sing a 7-point scale of perceived conflict (none to very great) for each person in each developm ent phase, he derived a n indicator of ineffective com munication. By relating ineffective com m unication to a m easure of perceived system success, E dstrom concluded th a t u se r influence was very im portant in two phases: d eterm ining the scope of th e project and helping w ith system s analysis.

O ther research ers have concluded th a t com munication betw een IS users and system developers is im portant for deriving system requirem ents (V errijn-S tuart an d Annzehnofer, 1988) and for helping IS users to have realistic expectations of a system (Szajna and Scamell, 1993).

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G u in a n (1988) concluded th a t effective com m unication su p p o rts the collaborative process in system developm ent. T his type of com m unication prom oted u se r participation an d conflict resolution (Robey a n d Farrow,

1982).

In a survey of 86 IS project m anagers, Jia n g and K lein (1999) stu d ied th e project risk variables th a t w ere m ost influential to satisfaction w ith th e IS development project. T hey concluded th a t effective com m unication betw een IS users and project developm ent staff w a s one of four critical factors of project success. Such findings led to the conclusion th a t, for each system development project, th e IS staff needed appro p riate com m unication skills to in te ra ct successfitlly w ith IS u sers a n d IS m a n ag ers to enhance user satisfaction.

Agency Theory. According to agency theory, IS users are viewed as p rin cip als who contract w ith IS sta ff to develop inform ation system s (Je n se n a n d Meckling, 1976; F am a an d Je n se n , 1983). The IS u se rs are d ep en d en t on th e actions of th e IS sta ff (the agents). According to P ra tt a n d Z eckhauser (1985:5), “Because agents control organizational resources a n d a re likely to know more about the ta s k s th a t they perform [than] the principal, a n inform ation [imbalance] exists th a t gives a n adv an tag e to the ag e n ts.” In o th er words, because system developm ent is a com plex field w hich req u ires specialization th a t is not w ell know n to or understood by IS