Turbo C Version 2 0 Reference Guide 1988 pdf

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®

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TURBO C®

Borland's No-Nonsense License Statement!

This software is protected by both United States copyright law and international treaty provisions. Therefore, you must treat this software just like a book, with the following single exception. Borland

International authorizes you to make archival copies of the software for the sole purpose of backing-up our software and protecting your investment from loss.

By saying, "just like a book," Borland means, for example, that this software may be used by any number of people and may be freely moved from one computer location to another, so long as there is no possibility of it being used at one location while it's being used at another. Just like a book that can't be read by two different people in two different places at the same time, neither can the software be used by two different people in two different places at the same time (unless, of course, Borland's copyright has been violated).

Programs that you write and compile using the Turbo C language compiler may be used, given away or sold without additional license or fees, as long as all copies of such programs bear a copyright notice. By "copyright notice" we mean either your own copyright notice or, if you prefer, the statement, "Created using Turbo C, Copyright © Borland 1987, 1988." Included in the Turbo C diskettes are several support files that contain encoded hardware and font information used by the standard graphics library (GRAPHICS.LIB). These files, which can be listed by typing DIR * .CHR and DIR * .BGI, are proprietary to Borland International. You may use these files with the programs you create with Turbo C for your own personal use. In addition, to the extent the programs you write and compile using the Turbo C language compiler make use of these support files, you may distribute these support files in combination with such programs, provided that you do not use, give away, or sell the support files separately, and all copies of such programs bear a copyright notice.

The sample programs included on the Turbo C diskettes provide a demonstration of how to use the various features of Turbo C. They are intended for educational purposes only. Borland International grants you (the registered owner of Turbo C) the right to edit or modify these sample programs for your own use, but you may not give away or sell them, alone or as part of any program, in executable, object or source code form. You may, however, incorporate miscellaneous sample program routines into your programs, as long as your resulting programs do not substantially duplicate all or part of a sample program in appearance or functionality and all copies of such programs bear a copyright notice.

Limited Warranty

With respect to the physical diskette and physical documentation enclosed herein, Borland International, Inc. ("Borland") warrants the same to be free of defects in materials and workmanship for a period of 60 days from the date of purchase. In the event of notification within the warranty period of defects in material or workmanship, Borland will replace the defective diskette or documentation. If

you need to return a product, call the Borland Customer Service Department to obtain a return authorization number. The remedy for breach of this warranty shall be limited to replacement and shall not encompass any other damages, including but not limited to loss of profit, and special, incidental, . consequential, or other similar claims.

Borland International, Inc. specifically disclaims all other warranties, expressed or implied, including but· not limited to implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose with respect to defects in the diskette and documentation, and the program license granted herein in particular, and without limiting operation of the program license with respect to any particular application, use, or purpose. In no event shall Borland be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential or other damages.

Governing Law

This statement shall be construed, interpreted, and governed by the laws of the state of California. Use, duplication, or disclosure by the U.S. Government of the computer software and documentation in this package shall be subject to the restricted rights under DFARS 52.227-7013 applicable to commercial computer software.

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Turbo C®

Reference Guide

Version 2.0

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All Borland products are trademarks or registered trademarks of

Borland International, Inc. Other brand and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.

Copyright4=' 1988 Borland International.

Printed in the U.S.A.

10987654321

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strstr ... . strtod ... . strtok ... . strtol ... . strtoul ... . stTtlpr ... . swab ... . system ... . tan ... . tanh ... . tell ... . textattr ... . textbackground ... . textcolor ... . textheight ... . textmode ... . textwidth ... . time ... . tmpfile ... . tmpnam ... . toascii ... . _tolower ... . tolower ... . _toupper ... . toupper ... . tzset ... . ultoa ... . ungetc ... . ungetch ... . unixtodos ... . unlink ... . unlock ... . va_ ... . vfprintf ... . vfscanf ... . vprintf ... . vscanf ... . vsprintf ... . vsscanf ... . wherex ... . wherey ... . window ... .

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write ... 407

Appendix A

The Turbo C Interactive Editor 409 Introduction ... 409

Turbo In, Turbo Out ... . . . .. 409

The Edit Window Status Line ... 410

Editor Commands . . . .. 411

Basic Cursor Movement Commands ... 413

Quick Cursor Movement Commands ... 414

Insert and Delete Commands ... 415

Block Commands ... 416

Miscellaneous Editing Commands ... 417

The Turbo C Editor Vs. WordStar ... 421

Appendix B

Compiler Error Messages 423 Fatal Errors ... 424

Errors ... 424

Warnings ... 437

Appendix C

TCC Command-Line Options 443 Turning Options On and Off . . . .. 445

Syntax ... 445

Compiler Options ... 446

Memory Model ... 447

#defines ... 447

Code Generation Options ... 448

Optimization Options. . . .. 449

Source Code Options ... 452

Error-Reporting Options ... 452

Segment-Naming Control ... 454

Compilation Control Options ... 455

Linker Options . . . .. 455

Environment Options . .. . . .. 455

Implicit vs. User-specified Library Files ... 457

The Include and Library File-Search Algorithms . . . .. 457

Using -L and -I in Configuration Files ... 458

An Example With Notes ... 458

Appendix D

Turbo C Utilities 461 CPP: The Turbo C Preprocessor Utility ... . . . .. 461

CPP as a Macro Preprocessor ... 462

An Example ... . . . .. 463

The Standalone MAKE Utility. . . .. 463

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Crea ting a Makefile ... '. . . .. 466

U sing a Makefile ... 467

Stepping Through ... . . . .. 467

Creating Makefiles ... 468

Components of a Makefile ... 469

Comments ... 469

Explicit Rules .... . . .. 470

Special Considerations ... 471

Examples ... 471

Implicit Rules . . . .. 472

Examples ... 475

Command Lists ... 476

Prefix ... 476

Command body. . . .. 477

Examples ... 478

Macros ... 478

Defining Macros ... 479

Using Macros ... 480

Predefined Macros ... 480

Directives ... 483

File-Inclusion Directive ... 483

Conditional Execution Directives ... . . . .. 484

Error Detection Directive . . . .. 486

Macro Undefinition Directive ... 487

Using MAKE ... 487

Command-Line Syntax ... 487

A Note About Stopping MAKE ... 488

The BUlL TINS.MAK File . . . .. 488

How MAKE Searches for BUlL TINS.MAK and Makefiles . . . .. 489

MAKE Command-line Options ... 489

MAKE Error Messages . . . .. 490

Fatal Error Messages ... 490

Errors ... 491

The TOUCH Utility. . . .. 493

Turbo Link ... . . . .. 493

Invoking TLINK ... 493

Using Response Files ... 495

Using TLINK with Turbo C Modules ... 496

Initialization Modules ... 497

Libraries ... 497

Using TLINK with TCC ... 498

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TLINK Options ... 499

The / x, / m, / s Options ... 499

The /1 Option . . . .. 501

The /i Option. . . .. 501

The /n Option ... 501

The /c Option ... 501

The / d Option ... 502

The / e Option ... 502

The / t Option. . . .. 503

The /v Option ... 503

The /3 Option ... 503

Restrictions ... 504

Error Messages ... 504

Fatal Errors ... 504

N onfa tal Errors ... 507

Warnings. . . .. 507

TLIB: The Turbo Librarian . . . .. 508

The Advantages of Using Object Module Libraries ... 509

The Components of a TLIB Command Line ... 509

The Operation List ... 510

File and Module Names . . . .. 511

TLIB Operations ... 511

Creating a Library ... 512

Using Response Files ... 513

Creating an Extended Dictionary: The /E Option ... 513

Advanced Operation: The /C Option ... 514

Examples ... 514

GREP: A File-Search Utility . . . .. 515

The GREP Options ... 515

Order of Precedence ... . . . .. 517

The Search String ... 517

Operators in Regular Expressions ... 518

The File Specification ... 519

Examples with Notes ... 519

BGIOBJ: Conversion Utility for Graphics Drivers and Fonts ... 522

Adding the New .OBJ Files to GRAPHICS.LIB ... 523

Registering the Drivers and Fonts ... 523

The /F option. . . .. 525

Ad vanced BGIOBJ Features. . . .. 526

OBJXREF: The Object Module Cross-Reference Utility. . . .. 528

The OBJXREF Command Line ... 529

The OBJXREF Command-Line Options. . . .. 530

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Report Options ... 530

Response Files ... 531

Freeform Response Files ... 531

Project Files ... 532

Linker Response Files . . . .. 532

The /0 Command ... 532

The /N Command ... 533

Sample OBJXREF Reports ... 533

Report by Public Names (/RP) ... 534

Report by Module (/RM) . . . .. 534

Report by Reference (/RR) (Default) ... 535

Report by External References (/RX) .. . . .. 535

Report of Module Sizes (IRS) ... 536

Report by Class Type (/RC) ... 536

Report of Unreferenced Symbol Names (/RU) ... 537

Verbose Reporting (/RV) ... 537

Examples of How to Use OBJXREF ... 537

OBJXREF Error Messages and Warnings . . . .. 539

Error Messages ... 539

Warnings ... 539

Appendix E Language Syntax Summary 541 Lexical Grammar ... 541

Tokens ... 541

Keywords . . . .. 542

Identifiers ... 542

Constants ... 542

String Literals . . . .. 544

Operators ... 545

Punctua tors ... 545

Phrase Structure Grammar ... 545

Expressions ... 545

Declara tions ... . . . .. 548

Statements ... 551

External Definitions ... 552

Preprocessing Directives ... 552

Appendix F TCINST: Customizing Turbo C 555 Running TCINST . . . .. 556

The TCINST Installation Menu . . . .. 557

The Compile Menu . . . .. 558

The Project Menu ... 558

Project Name ... 558

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Auto Dependencies ... 559

Clear Project . . . .. 559

The Options Menu ... 559

The Compiler Menu ... 559

Model ... 559

Defines ... 559

The Code Generation Menu ... 559

The Optimiza tion Menu . . . .. 560

The Source Menu. . . .. 560

The Errors Menu ... . . . .. 560

The Names Menu ... 561

The Linker Menu ... 561

Map File ... 561

Initialize Segments ... 561

Default Libraries ... 561

Graphics Library ... 562

Warn Duplicate Symbols ... 562

Stack Warning ... 562

Case-Sensitive Link . . . .. 562

The Environment Menu . . . .. 562

Message Tracking ... 562

Keep Messages. . . .. 563

Config Auto Save ... 563

Edit Auto Save ... 563

Backup Source Files ... 563

Zoomed Windows. . . .. 563

Full Graphics Save ... 563

The Screen Size Menu. . . .. 563

The Options for Editor Menu ... 564

The Directories Menu . . . .. 565

Include Directories ... 565

Library Directories ... 566

Output Directory ... 566

Turbo C Directory . . . .. 566

Pick File Name . . . .. 566

Arguments ... 567

The Debug Menu. . . .. 567

Source Debugging . . . .. 567

Display Swapping ... 567

The Editor Commands Option ... 567

Allowed Keystrokes ... 571

The Mode for Display Menu . . . .. 572

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Resize Windows ... 574

Quitting the Program ... 574

Appendix G MicroCa1c 577 About MicroCalc . . . .. 577

How to Compile and Run MicroCa1c . . . .. 578

With TC.EXE ... 578

With TCC.EXE . . . .. 578

How to use MicroCa1c ... 579

The MicroCa1c Parser ... . . . .. 582

Index 583

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List of Figures

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List of Tables

Table Aol: Summary of Editor Commands ... .412 Table Col: Correlation of Command-Line Options and Menu Selections .444

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N T R

o

D

u

c

T

o

N

This is the second volume of documentation in the Turbo C package. This volume, the Turbo C Reference Guide, contains definitions of all the Turbo C library routines, common variables, and common defined types, along with example program code to illustrate how to use many of these routines, variables, and types.

If you are new to C programming, you should first read the other book in your Turbo C package-the Turbo C User's Guide. In that book you'll find instructions on how to install Turbo C on your system, an overview of Turbo C's window and menu system, and tutorial-style chapters designed to get you started programming in Turbo C. The user's guide also summarizes Turbo C's implementation of the C language and discusses some advanced programming techniques. For those of you who are Turbo Pascal and Turbo Prolog programmers, the user's guide provides information to help you integrate your understanding of those languages with your new knowledge of C.

You should refer to the UIntroduction" in the User's Guide for information on the Turbo C implementation, a summary of the contents of Volume I, and a short bibliography.

Volume II: The Reference Guide

The Turbo C Reference Guide is written for experienced C programmers; it provides implementation-specific details about the language and the run-time environment. In addition, it provides definitions for each of the Turbo C functions, listed in alphabetical order.

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These are the chapters and appendixes in the programmer's reference guide:

Chapter 1: Using Turbo C Library Routines summarizes Turbo C's input/ output (I/O) support, lists and describes the #include (.h) files, and lists the Turbo C library routines by category. Then it explains the Turbo C main function and its arguments, and concludes with a lookup section describing each of the Turbo C global variables.

Chapter 2: The Turbo C Library is an alphabetical reference of all Turbo C library functions. For each function it gives the function prototype, the include file(s) containing the prototype, an operative description of what the function does, return values, portability information, and a list of related functions.

Appendix A: The Turbo C Interactive Editor gives a more thorough explanation of the editor commands-for those who need more infor-mation than that given in Chapter 5 of the Turbo C User's Guide.

Appendix B: Compiler Error Messages lists and explains each of the error messages and summarizes the possible or probable causes of the problem that generated the message.

Appendix C: Options describes each of the Turbo C user-selectable compiler options.

Appendix D: Turbo C Utilities discusses the standalone MAKE utility, the CPP preprocessor, the Turbo Linker TLINK, TLIB the Turbo Librarian, the file-searching utility GREP, BGIOBl, a conversion utility for graphics drivers and fonts, and the object module cross-referencer OBJXREF.

Appendix E: Language Syntax Summary uses modified Backus-Naur Forms to detail the syntax of all Turbo C constructs.

Appendix F: Customizing Turbo C guides you through the customization program (TCINST), which lets you customize your keyboard, modify default values, change your screen colors, resize your Turbo C windows, and more.

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Typographic Conventions

All typefaces used in this manual were produced by Borland's Sprint: The Professional Word Processor on an Apple LaserWriter Plus. Their special uses are as follows:

Monospaced type This typeface represents text as it appears on the screen or in your program and anything you must type (such as command-lIne options).

[ 1

Square brackets in text or DOS command lines enclose optional input or data that depends on your system, which snould notoe typed verbatim.

<>

Boldface

Italics

Keycaps

Angle brackets in the function reference section enclose the names of include files.

Turbo C function names (such as printf) are shown in boldface when mentioned within text (but not in program examples). This typeface represents Turbo C keywords (such as char, switch, near, and cdec1).

Italics indicate variable names (identifiers) within sections of text and to emphasize certain words (especially new terms).

This special typeface indicates a key on your keyboard. It is often used when describing a particular key you should type; for example, "Press Esc to cancel a menu."

Borland's No-Nonsense License Statement

This software is protected by both United States Copyright Law and International Treaty provisions. Therefore, you must treat this software

just

like a book with the following single exception: Borland International authorizes you to make archival copies of Turbo C for the sole purpose of backing up your software and protecting your investment from loss.

By saying, "just like a book," Borland means, for example, that this software may be used by any number of people and may be freely moved from one computer location to another, so long as there is no possibility of its being used at one location while it's being used at another. Just like a book that can't be read by two different people in two different places at the same time, neither can the software be used by two different people in two different places at the same time. (Unless, of course, Borland's copyright has been violated.)

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Acknowledgments

In this manual, we refer to several products:

• Turbo Pascal, Turbo Prolog and Sprint: The Professional Word Processor are registered trademarks of Borland International, Inc.

• WordStar is a trademark of MicroPro, Inc.

• IBM PC, XT, and AT are trademarks of International Business Machines, Inc.

• MS-DOS is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation.

• UNIX is a registered trademark of American Telephone and Telegraph.

How to Contact Borland

The best way to contact Borland is to log on to Borland's Forum on CompuServe: Type GO BOR from the main CompuServe menu and choose "Borland Programming Forum B (Turbo Prolog & Turbo C)" from the Borland main menu. Leave your questions or comments there for the support staff to process.

If you prefer, write a letter detailing your comments and send it to:

Technical Support Department Borland International

1800 Green Hills Road

P.O. Box 660001

Scotts Valley, CA 95066-0001, USA

You can also telephone our Technical Support department at (408) 438-8400.

Please have the following information handy before you call:

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c

H A p T E R

1

Using Turbo C Library Routines

Turbo C comes equipped with over 450 library routines-functions and macros that you call from within your C programs to perform a wide variety of tasks, including low- and high-level I/O, string and file manipulation, memory allocation, process control, data conversion, mathematical calculations, and much more.

Turbo C's routines are contained in the library files (Cx.LIB, MATHx.LIB, and GRAPHICS.LIB). Because Turbo C supports six distinct memory models, each model except the tiny model has its own library file and math file, containing versions of the routines written for that particular model. (The tiny model shares the small library and math files.)

Turbo C supports the draft ANSI C standard which, among other things, allows function prototypes to be given for the routines in your C programs. All of Turbo C's library routines are declared with prototypes in one or more header files (these are the .h or "include" files that were copied from the distribution disks into your INCLUDE directory during installation).

In This Chapter

This first part of the

Turbo

C

Reference Guide

provides an overview of the Turbo C library routines and include files.

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In this chapter, we

• explain why you might want to obtain the source code for the Turbo C runtime library

• list and describe the include files

II describe the arguments to function main, and its return value

• summarize the different categories of tasks performed by the library routines

• describe (in lookup fashion) common global variables implemented in many of the library routines

The Library Routine Lookup Section

The second part of this reference guide is an alphabetical lookup; it

contains a description of each of the Turbo C routines.

A few of the routines are grouped by "family" (the exec ... and spawn ... functions that create, load, and run programs, for example) because they perform similar or related tasks.

Otherwise, we have included an individual entry in the lookup for every routine. For instance, if you want to look up information about the free routine, you would look under free; there you would find a listing for free that

II summarizes what free does

II gives the syntax for calling free

EI tells you which header file(s) contains the prototype for free

II gives a detailed description of how free is implemented and how it

relates to the other memory-allocation routines

IS lists other language compilers that include similar functions

c refers you to related Turbo C functions

II if appropriate, gives an example of how the function is used, or refers

you to a function entry where there is such an example

The last part of this reference guide contains several appendices designed to give you detailed reference and usage information about some of Turbo C's special features:

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III the TCC command-line options

III the Turbo C standalone utilities

II the Turbo C language syntax summary

II TCINST, the Turbo C customization program

II MicroCalc, a sample spreadsheet application

Why You Might Want to Access the Turbo C

Run-Time Library Source Code

The Turbo C run-time library contains over 300 functions, covering a broad range of areas: low-level control of your IBM PC, interfacing with DOS, input/output, process management, string and memory manipulations, rna th, sorting and searching, and so on. There are several good reasons why you may wish to obtain the source code for these functions:

C You may find that a particular Turbo C function you want to write is similar to, but not the same as, a function in the library. With access to the run-time library source code, you can tailor the library function to your own needs, and avoid having to write a separate function of your own.

II Sometimes, when you are debugging code, you may wish to know more

about the internals of a library function. Having the source code to the run-time library would be of great help in this situation.

D When you can't figure out what a library function is really supposed to

do, it's useful to be able to take a quick look at that function's source code.

Il You may dislike the underscore convention on C symbols, and wish you

had a version of the libraries without leading underscores. Again, access to the source code to the run-time library will let you eliminate leading underscores.

[] You can also learn a lot from studying tight, professionally written library source code.

For all these reasons, and more, you will want to have access to the Turbo C run-time library source code. Because Borland believes strongly in the concepts of "open architecture," we have made the Turbo C run-time library source code available for licensing. All you have to do is fill out the order form distributed with this documentation, include your payment, and we'll ship you the Turbo C run-time library source code.

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The Turbo C Include Files

Header files provide function prototype declarations for library functions. Data types and symbolic constants used with the library functions are also defined in them, along with global

variables defined by Turbo C and by the library functions. The Turbo C library follows the ANSI C draft standard on names of header files and their contents. Header files defined by ANSI C are marked with an asterisk (*) in the list below.

alloc.h

assert.h*

bios.h

conio.h

ctype.h*

dir.h

dos.h

errno.h*

fcntl.h

float.h*

graphics.h

io.h

limits.h*

math.h*

Declares memory management functions (allocation, deallocation, etc.).

Defines the assert debugging macro.

Declares various functions used in calling IBM-PC ROM BIOS routines.

Declares various functions used in calling the DOS console I/O routines.

Contains information used by the character classification and character conversion macros (such as isalpha and toascii).

Contains structures, macros, and functions for working with directories and path names.

Defines various constants and gives declarations needed for DOS and 8086-specific calls.

Defines constant mnemonics for the error codes.

Defines symbolic constants used in connection with the library routine open.

Contains parameters for floating-point routines.

Declares prototypes for the graphics functions.

Contains structures and declarations for low-level input/ output routines.

Contains environmental parameters, information about compile-time limitations, and ranges of integral quantities.

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mem.h

process.h

seljmp.h*

share.h

signa1.h*

stdargs.h*

stddef.h*

stdio.h*

stdlib.h*

string.h*

sys\stat.h

sys\timeb.h

sys \ types.h

time.h*

values.h

Declares the memory-manipulation functions. (Many of these are also defined in string.h.)

Contains structures and declarations for spawn ... and exec ... functions.

Defines a type

jmp_buf

used by the longjmp and setjmp functions and declares the routines longjmp and setjmp.

Defines parameters used in functions that make use of file-sharing.

Defines constants and declarations for use by the signal and raise functions.

Defines macros used for reading the argument list in functions declared to accept a variable number of argu-ments (such as vprintf, vscanf, etc.).

Defines several common data types and macros.

Defines types and macros needed for the Standard I/O Package defined in Kernighan and Ritchie and extended under UNIX System V. Defines the standard I/O pre-defined streams

stdin, stdout, stdprn,

and

stderr,

and de-clares stream-level I/O routines.

Declares several commonly used routines: conversion routines, search/ sort routines, and other miscellany.

Declares several string-manipulation and memory-manipulation routines.

Defines symbolic constants used for opening and creating files.

Declares the function ftime and the structure timeb that ftime returns.

Declares the type

time_t

used with time functions.

Defines a structure filled in by the time-conversion routines asctime, localtime, and gmtime, and a type used by the routines ctime, difftime, gmtime, localtime, and stime; also provides prototypes for these routines.

Defines important constants, including machine depen-dencies; provided for UNIX System V compatibility.

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Library Routines by Category

The Turbo C library routines perform a variety of tasks. In this section, we list the routines, along with the include files in which they are declared, under several general categories of task performed. For complete information about any of the functions below, see the function entry in Chapter 2 of this manual.

Classification Routines

These routines classify ASCII characters as letters, control characters, punctuation, uppercase, etc.

isalnum isalpha isascii iscntrl

(ctype .h) (ctype.h) (ctype.h) (ctype.h)

Conversion Routines

isdigit isgraph is lower isprint

(ctype. h) (ctype. h) (ctype. h) (ctype.h)

ispunct isspace isupper isxdigit

(ctype. h) (ctype.h) (ctype.h) (ctype.h)

These routines convert characters and strings from alpha to different numeric representations (floating-point, integers, longs) and vice versa, and from uppercase to lowercase and vice versa.

atof (stdlib. h) itoa (stdlib.h) toascii (ctype. h) atoi (stdlib.h) ltoa (stdlib. h) tolower (ctype.h) atol (stdlib.h) strtod (stdlib.h) _toupper (ctype.h) ecvt (stdlib.h) strtol (stdlib.h) toupper (ctype.h) fcvt (stdlib.h) strtoul (stdlib. h) ultoa (stdlib.h) gcvt (stdlib.h) to lower (ctype.h)

Directory Control Routines

These routines manipulate directories and path names.

chdir (dir.h) getcurdir (dir.h) mktemp (dir. h) findfirst (dir.h) getcwd (dir.h) rmdir (dir .h) findnext (dir.h) getdisk (dir.h) searchpath (dir .h) fnmerge (dir .h) mkdir (dir. h) setdisk (dir.h) fnsplit (dir.h)

Diagnostic Routines

These routines provide built-in troubleshooting capability.

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Graphics Routines

These routines let you create onscreen graphics with text.

arc (graphics .h) graphresult (graphics.h)

bar (graphics.h) imagesize (graphics.h)

bar3d (graphics .h) initgraph (graphics. h)

circle (graphics.h) installuserdriver (graphics.h) cleardevica (graphics.h) insta11userfont

clearviewport (graphics. h) line (graphics.h)

closegraph (graphics.h) linerel (graphics.h)

detect graph (graphics.h) lineto (graphics.h)

drawpoly (graphics.h) moverel (graphics.h)

ellipse (graphics.h) moveto (graphics.h)

fi11ellipse (graphics.h) out text (graphics.h)

fi11poly (graphics.h) outtextxy (graphics.h)

£1oodfi11 (graphics .h) pies lice (graphics. h)

getarccoords (graphics .h) put image (graphics.h) getaspectratio (graphics. h) putpixel (graphics. h)

gatbkcolor (graphics.h) rectangle (graphics.h)

getcolor (graphics.h) registerbgidriver (graphics. h) getdefaultpalette (graphics.h) registerbgifont (graphics. h) getdrivernama (graphics. h) restorecrtmode (graphics. h) get fil lpattern (graphics. h) sector (graphics.h) gatfillsattings (graphics. h) sotactivepaga (graphics .h) getgraphmode (graphics.h) seta11palette (graphics. h) get image (graphics .h) setaspectratio (graphics .h) getlinesettings (graphics. h) setbkcolor (graphics. h) getmaxcolor (graphics. h) aetcolor (graphics. h) getmaxmoda (graphics.h) aetfillpattern (graphics .h) getmaxx (graphics .h) setfillstyla (graphics. h) getmaxy (graphics.h) setgraphbufsize (graphics. h) getmodename (graphics.h) setgraphmode (graphics.h) getmoderange (graphics.h) setlinestyle (graphics. h) getpa1ette (graphics .h) setpalette (graphics.h) getpalettesize (graphics. h) setrgbpalette (graphics. h) getpixel (graphics. h) settextjustify (graphics. h) gettextsettings (graphics. h) settextstyle (graphics. h) getviewsettings (graphics. h) setusercharsize (graphics .h)

gatx (graphics.h) set viewport (graphics .h)

gety (graphics.h) setvisualpage (graphics. h)

graphdefaults (graphics. h) satwritemode (graphics. h) grapharrormsg (graphics. h) textheight (graphics .h) _graphfreemem (graphics.h) textwidth (graphics.h) _graphgebnem (graphics .h)

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Input/Output Routines

These routines provide stream-level and DOS-level I/O capability.

access (io.h) fputc (stdio.h) putw (stdio.h)

cgets (conio.h) fputchar (stdio.h) read (io.h)

chmod (io.h) fputs (stdio.h) read (io.h)

chmod (io.h) fread (stdio.h) remove (stdio.h)

chsize (io.h) freopen (stdio.h) rename (stdio.h)

clearerr (stdio.h) fscanf (stdio.h) rewind (stdio.h)

close (io.h) fseek (stdio.h) scanf (stdio.h)

close (io.h) fsetpos (stdio.h) setbuf (stdio.h)

cprintf (conio.h) fstat (sys\stat.h) setftime (io.h)

cputs (conio.h) ftell (stdio.h) setmode (io.h)

creat (io.h) fwrite (stdio. h) setvbuf (stdio.h)

creat (io.h) getc (stdio.h) sopen (io.h)

creatnew (io.h) getch (conio.h) sprintf (stdio.h)

creattemp (io.h) get char (stdio.h) sscanf (stdio.h)

cscanf (conio.h) getche (conio.h) stat (sys\stat.h)

dup (io.h) getftime (io.h) strerror (string.h ,

dup2 (io.h) getpass (conio.h) stdio.h)

eof (io.h) gets (stdio.h) strerror (stdio.h)

fclose (stdio.h) getw (stdio.h) tell (io.h)

fcloseall (stdio.h) gsignal (signal.h) tmpfile (stdio.h)

fdopen (stdio.h) ioctl (io.h) tmpnam (stdio.h)

feof (stdio.h) batty (io.h) ungetc (stdio. h)

ferror (stdio.h) kbhit (conio.h) ungetch (conio.h)

fflush (stdio. h) lock (io.h) unlock (io.h)

fgetc (stdio.h) lseek (io.h) vfprintf (stdio.h)

fgetchar (stdio.h) _open (io.h) vfscanf (stdio.h)

fgetpos (stdio.h) open (io.h) vprintf (stdio.h)

fgets (stdio.h) perror (stdio.h) vscanf (stdio.h)

filelength (io.h) printf (stdio.h) vsprintf (stdio.h)

fileno (stdio.h) putc (stdio.h) vsscanf (io.h)

flushall (stdio.h) putch (conio.h) write (io.h)

fopen (stdio.h) put char (stdio.h) write (io.h)

(37)

Interface Routines (DOS, 8086, BIOS)

These routines provide DOS, BIOS and machine-specific capabilities.

absread (dos.h) geninterrupt (dos.h) keep (dos.h)

abswrito (dos.h) getcbrk (dos.h) MK FP (dos .h)

bdos (dos.h) getdfreo (dos.h) outport (dos.h)

bdosptr (dos.h) getdta (dos .h) outportb (dos.h)

bioscom (bios.h) got fat (dos.h) parsfnm (dos.h)

biosdisk (bios .h) gotfatd (dos.h) peek (dos.h)

bios equip (bios .h) getpsp (dos.h) peokb (dos.h)

bioskey (bios .h) getvect (dos.h) poke (dos.h)

biosmamory (bios.h) getvorify (dos.h) pokeb (dos.h)

biosprint (bios .h) harderr (dos.h) randbrd (dos.h)

biostima (bios .h) hardresume (dos.h) randbwr (dos.h)

country (dos.h) hardretn (dos.h) segroad (dos.h)

ctrlbrk (dos.h) inport (dos.h) setcbrk (dos.h)

disable (dos.h) inportb (dos .h) setdta (dos .h)

dosoxterr (dos.h) int86 (dos.h) sotvect (dos.h)

enable (dos.h) int86x (dos.h) sotverify (dos.h)

FP OFF (dos.h) intdos (dos.h) sloep (dos.h)

FP SEG (dos.h) intdosx (dos.h) unlink (dos.h)

freomam (dos.h) intr (dos .h)

Manipulation Routines

These routines handle strings and blocks of memory: copying, comparing, converting, and searching.

mamccpy (mem.h, string. h) strchr (string.h) strncmpi (string .h)

memchr (mem.h, string.h) strcmp (string.h) strncpy (string .h)

memcmp (mem.h, string.h) stricmpi (string.h) strnicmp (string .h)

mamcpy (mem.h, string. h) strcpy (string .h) strnset (string.h)

memicmp (mem.h, string. h) strcspn (string.h) strpbrk (string.h)

mommove (mem.h, string .h) strdup (string.h) strrchr (string.h)

memset (mem.h, string.h) strorror (string.h) strrev (string .h)

movadata (mem.h, string. h) stricmp (string.h) strset (string .h)

movmem (mem.h, string.h) strlon (string.h) strspn (string .h)

setmem (mem.h) strlwr (string.h) strstr (string .h)

stpcpy (string.h) strncat (string.h) strtok (string .h)

strcat (string.h) strncmp (string.h) strupr (string .h)

(38)

Math Routines

These routines perform mathematical calculations and conversions.

abs (stdlib.h) fcvt (stdlib.h) poly (math.h)

acos (math.h) floor (math.h) pow (math.h)

asin (math.h) fmod (math.h) powlO (math.h)

atan (math.h) _fpreset (float.h) rand (stdlib.h)

atan2 (math.h) frexp (math.h) randan (stdlib.h)

atof (stdlib.h , gcvt (stdlib.h) randomize (stdlib.h)

math.h) hypot (math.h) rotl (stdlib.h)

atoi (stdlib.h) itoa (stdlib.h) rotr (stdlib.h)

atol (stdlib. h) labs (stdlib.h) sin (math.h)

cabs (math.h) ldexp (math.h) sinh (math.h)

ceil (math.h) ldiv (math) sqrt (math.h)

clear87 (float.h) log (math.h) srand (stdlib.h)

contro187 (float. h) 10g10 (math.h) status87 (float. h)

cos (math.h) lrotl (stdlib.h) strtod (stdlib.h)

-cosh (math.h) lrotr (stdlib.h) strtol (stdlib.h)

div (math.h) ltoa (stdlib.h) strtoul (stdlib. h)

ecvt (stdlib.h) _matherr (math.h) tan (math.h)

exp (math.h) matherr (math.h) tanh (math.h)

fabs (math.h) modf (math.h) ultoa (stdlib.h)

Memory Allocation Routines

These routines provide dynamic memory allocation in the small-data and large-da ta models.

allocmem (dos.h) farmalloc (alloe.h)

brk (alloe.h) farrealloc (alloe. h)

calloc (alloe.h) free (alloe. hi stdlib.h)

coreleft (alloe.h , stdlib.h) malloc (alloe.h , stdlib. h) farcalloc (alloe.h) realloc (alloe.h , stdlib.h)

farcoreleft (alloe.h) sbrk (alloe.h)

farfree (alloe.h) setblock (dos.h)

Miscellaneous Routines

These routines provide nonlocal goto capabilities and sound effects.

delay longjmp nosound

(dos.h) (setjmp.h) (dos.h)

setjmp sound

(39)

Process Control Routines

These routines invoke and terminate new processes from within another.

abort (process. h) raise (signal. h)

execl (process. h) signal (signal.h)

execle (process. h) spawnl (process .h)

exoclp (process.h) spawnlo (proces s . h)

oxoclpo (process. h) spawnlp (process .h)

oxecv (process. h) spawnlpo (process. h)

oxocvo (process.h) spawnv (process. h)

oxocvp (process.h) spawnvo (process. h)

oxocvpo (process.h) spawnvp (process. h)

oxit (process.h) spawnvpe (process. h)

oxit (process.h) system (proces s . h)

Standard Routines

These are standard routines.

abort (stdlib.h) fcvt (stdlib.h) putonv (stdlib.h)

abs (stdlib. h) frao (stdlib.h) qsort (stdlib.h)

atoxit (stdlib. h) gcvt (stdlib.h) rand (stdlib.h)

atof (stdlib.h) gotonv (stdlib.h) roalloc (stdlib.h)

atoi (stdlib.h) itoa (stdlib.h) srand (stdlib.h)

atol (stdlib.h) labs (stdlib.h) strtod (stdlib.h)

bsoarch (stdlib.h) Hind (stdlib.h) strtol (stdlib.h)

calloc (stdlib.h) lsoarch (stdlib.h) swab (stdlib.h)

ecvt (stdlib. h) ltoa (stdlib.h) system (stdlib.h)

oxit (stdlib.h) malloc (stdlib.h) ultoa (stdlib .h)

oxit (stdlib. h)

Text Window Display Routines

These routines output text to the screen.

clrool (conio.h) inslino (conio.h) toxtbackground (conio.h)

clrscr (conio.h) lowvidoo (conio.h) toxtcolor (conio.h)

dollinG (conio.h) movotoxt (conia.h) toxtmode (conia.h) got ton (conia.h) normvidoo (canio.h) whorox (canio.h)

gottoxtinfo (cania.h) puttoxt (cania.h) whorey (conia.h)

gotoxy (conio.h) toxtattr (conia.h) window (cania.h)

highvidoo (conia.h)

(40)

Time and Date Routines

These are time conversion and time manipulation routines.

asctime (time.h) getdate (dos.h) settime

ctima (time.h) gettime (dos.h) stime

difftime (time.h) gmtime (time.h) time dostounix (dos.h) local time (time.h) tzset ftima (sys\timeb.h) setdate (dos.h) unixtodos

Variable Argument List Routines

These routines are for use when accessing variable argument lists (such as with vprintf, etc).

(stdarg .h) va end (stdarg .h) va start

(dos.h) (time.h) (time. h) (time.h) (dos.h)

(41)

The main Function

Every C program must have a main function; where you place it is a matter of preference. Some programmers place main at the beginning of the file, others at the very end. But regardless of its location, the following points about main always apply.

The Arguments to main

Three parameters (arguments) are passed to main by the Turbo C startup routine: argc, argo, and env.

e argc, an integer, is the number of command-line arguments passed to main.

e argo is an array of pointers to strings.

o Under 3.x versions of DOS, argv[O] is defined as the full path name of

the program being run.

o Under versions of DOS before 3.0, argv[O] points to the null string ("").

o argv[l] points to the first string typed on the DOS command line after the program name.

o argv[2] points to the second string typed after the program name.

o argv[argc -1] points to the last argument passed to main.

o argv[argc] contains NULL.

e env is also an array of pointers to strings. Each element of envIl holds a string of the form ENVVAR=value.

o ENVVAR is the name of an environment variable, such as PATH or 87.

oval ue is the value to which an ENVVAR is set, such as

c:

\DOS;

c: \

TURBOC (for PATH) or YES (for 87).

The Turbo C startup routine always passes these three arguments to main; you have the option of whether to declare them in your program. If you declare some (or all) of these arguments to main, they are made available as local variables to your main routine.

Note, however, that if you do declare any of these parameters, you must

declare them exactly in the order given: argc, argo, env.

(42)

For example, the following are all valid declarations of main's arguments:

main ()

main (int argc) /* legal but very unlikely */ main(int argc, char * argv[])

main(int argc, char * argv[], char * env[])

Note: The declaration main (int argc) is legal, but it's very unlikely that you would use argc in your program without also using the elements of argv.

Another Note: The argument env is also available via the global variable environ. Refer to the environ lookup entry (in this chapter) and the putenv and getenv lookup entries (in Chapter 2 of this manual) for more information. argc and argv are also available via the global variables _argc and_argv.

An Example Program Using argc, argv and env

Here is an example program, ARGS.EXE, that demonstrates a simple way of using these arguments passed to main.

finclude <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h>

/* Program ARGS.C */

void main (int argc, char *argv[], char *env[])

(

int i;

printf("The value of argc is %d \n\n",argc);

printf("These are the %d command-line arguments passed to main:\n\n",argc); for (i = 0; i <= argci itt)

printf(" argv[%d]: %s\n", i, argv[i])i

printf("\nThe environment string(s) on this system are:\n\n"); for (i = 0; env[i] != NULLi itt)

printf(" env[%d]: %s\n", i, env[i])i

Suppose you run ARGS.EXE at the DOS prompt with the following com-mand line:

c:> args first_argument "argument with blanks" 3 4 "last but one" stop!

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The output of ARGS.EXE (assuming that the environment variables are set as shown here) would then be like this:

The value of argc is 7

These are the 7 command-line arguments passed to main: argv[O]: C:\TURBOC\TESTARGS.EXE

argv[l]: first_argument argv[2]: argument with blanks argv[3]: 3

argv[4]: 4

argv[5]: last but one argv[6]: stop! argv[7]: (null)

The environment string(s) on this system are: env[O]: COMSPEC=C:\COMMAND.COM

env[l]: PROMPT=$p $g

env[2]: PATH=C:\SPRINTiC:\DOSiC:\TURBOC

Note: The maximum combined length of the command-line arguments passed to main (including the space between adjacent arguments and the name of the program itself) is 128 characters; this is a DOS limit.

Wildcard Command-Line Arguments to main

Command-line arguments containing wildcard characters can be expanded to all the matching file names, much the same way DOS expands wildcards when used with commands like COPY. All you have to do to get wildcard expansion is to link your program with the WILDARGS.OBJ object file, which is included with Turbo C.

Once WILDARGS.OBJ is linked into your program code, you can send wildcard arguments of the type

*. *

to your main function. The argument will be expanded (in the

argv

array) to all files matching the wildcard mask. The maximum size of the

argv

array will vary, depending on the amount of memory available in your heap.

If no matching files are found, the argument is passed unchanged. (That is, a string consisting of the wildcard mask is passed to main.)

Arguments enclosed in quotes (" ... ") are not expanded.

An Example: The following commands will compile the file ARGS.C and link it with the wildcard expansion module WILDARGS.OBJ, then run the resulting executable file ARGS.EXE:

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tee args wildargs.obj args C:\TC\INCLUDE\*.H "*.e"

When ARGS.EXE is run, the first argument is expanded to the names of all the *.H files in the C:\ TC\INCLUDE directory. Note that the expanded argument strings include the entire path (for example, C: \ TC\INCLUDE\ ALLOC.H). The argument *.C will not be expanded, as it is enclosed in quotes.

In the Integrated Environment (TC.EXE), you simply specify a project file on the project menu, which contains the following lines:

ARGS WILDARGS .OBJ

Then use the Options/ Args option to set the command-line parameters.

Note: If you prefer the wildcard expansion to be the default so that you won't have to link your program explicitly with WILDARGS.OB], you can modify your standard C?LIB library files to have WILDARGS.OB] linked automatically. In order to accomplish that, you have to remove SETARGV from the libraries, and add WILDARGS. The following commands will invoke the Turbo librarian to modify all the standard library files (assuming the current directory contains the standard C libraries, and WILDARGS.OBJ):

tlib cs -setargv +wildargs tlib cc -setargv +wildargs tlib em -setargv +wildargs tlib cl -setargv +wildargs tlib ch -setargv +wildargs

When You Compile Using -p (Pascal Calling

Conventions)

If you compile your program using Pascal calling conventions (described in detail in Chapter 12 of the Turbo C User's Guide), you must remember to explicitly declare main as a C type.

You do this with the cdecl keyword, like this:

(45)

The Value main Returns

The value returned by main is the status code of the program: an into If,

however, your program uses the routine exit (or _exit) to terminate, the value returned by main is the argument passed to the call to exit (or to _exit).

For example, if your program contains the call exit (1)

the status is 1.

If you are using the Integrated Environment version of Turbo C (TC.EXE) to run your program, you can display the return value from main by selecting the Get Info item on the Compile menu (AIt-C, G).

(46)

Global Variables

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

daylight

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Keeps a count of command-line arguments.

extern int _argc;

dos.h

_argc has the value of argc passed to main when the program sta~ts.

An array of pointers to command-line arguments. extern char

*

_argv[J;

dos.h

_argv points to an array containing the original command-line arguments (the elements of argvn) passed

to main when the program starts.

Indicates whether Daylight Savings Time is in effect.

extern int daylight;

time.h

(47)

directvideo

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Flag that controls video output.

extern int directvideo;

conio.h

directvideo

directvideo controls whether your program's console output (from cputs, for example) goes directly to the video RAM (directvideo = 1) or goes via ROM BIOS calls (directvideo

=

0).

The default value is directvideo

=

1 (console output goes directly to video RAM). In order to use directvideo = I, your system's video hardware must be identical to IBM display adapters. Setting directvideo = 0 allows your console output to work on any system that is IBM BIOS-compa tible.

Coprocessor chip flag.

extern int _8087;

dos.h

The _8087 variable is set to a nonzero value

0,

2, or 3) if

the startup code autodetection logic detects a floating-point coprocessor (an 8087, 80287, or 80387, respectively). The _8087 variable is set to 0 otherwise.

The autodetection logic can be overridden by setting the 87 environment variable to YES or NO. (The commands are SET 87=YES and SET 87=NO; it is essential that there be no spaces before or after the equal sign.) In this case, the _8087 variable will reflect the override, and be set to 1 or

O.

Refer to Chapter 12 in the Turbo C User's Guide for more information about the 87 environment variable.

You must have floating-point code in your program for the _8087 variable to be defined properly.

(48)

environ

.

envtron

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Accesses DOS environment variables.

extern char

*

environ[ ];

dos.h

environ is an array of pointers to strings; it is used to access and alter the DOS environment variables. Each string is of the form

envvar = varval ue

where envvar is the name of an environment variable (such as PATH), and varvalue is the string value to which envvar is set (such as

c:

\BIN;

c:

\DOS). The string varvalue may be empty.

When a program begins execution, the DOS envi-ronment settings are passed directly to the program. Note that env, the third argument to main, is equal to the initial setting of environ.

The environ array can be accessed by getenv; however, the putenv function is the only routine that should be used to add, change or delete the environ array entries. This is because modification can resize and relocate the process environment array, but environ is automatically adjusted so that it always points to the array.

errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Enable perror to print error messages.

extern int errno; extern int _doserrno; extern char

*

sys_errlist[ ]; extern int sys_nerr;

errno.h, stdlib.h (errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr) dos.h (_doserrno)

(49)

errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr

accomplish their appointed tasks. _doserrno is a variable that maps many DOS error codes to errno; however,

perror does not use _doserrno directly.

_doserrno: When a DOS system call results in an error, _doserrno is set to the actual DOS error code. errno is a parallel error variable inherited from UNIX.

errno: When an error in a system call occurs, errno is set to indicate the type of error. Sometimes errno and _doserrno are equivalent. At other times, errno does not contain the actual DOS error code, which is contained in _doserrno. Still other errors might occur that set only errno, not _doserrno.

sys_errlist: To provide more control over message formatting, the array of message strings is provided in sys_errlist. errno can be used as an index into the array to find the string corresponding to the error number. The string does not include any newline character.

sys_nerr: This variable is defined as the number of error message strings in sys_errlist.

The following table gives mnemonics and their mean-ings for the values stored in sys_errlist.

(50)

errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr Mnemonic E2BIG EACCES EBADF ECONTR ECURDIR EDOM EEXIST EINVACC EINVAL EINVDAT EINVDRV EINVENV EINVFMT EINVFNC EINVMEM EMFILE ENMFILE ENODEV ENOENT ENOEXEC ENOFILE ENOMEM ENOPATH ENOTSAM ERANGE EXDEV EZERO Meaning

Arg list too long Permission denied Bad file number

Memory blocks destroyed Attempt to remove CurDir Domain error

File already exists Invalid access code Invalid argument Invalid data

Invalid drive specified Invalid environment Invalid format

Invalid function number Invalid memory block address Too many open files

No more files No such device

No such file or directory Exec format error No such file or directory Not enough memory Path not found Not same device Result out of range Cross-device link Error 0

(51)

Jmode

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

Mnemonic

EINVAL E2BIG EACCES EACCES EACCES EBADF EFAULT EINVAL EMFILE ENOENT ENOEXEC ENOMEM ENOMEM ENOMEM EXDEV EXDEV

errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr

DOS error code

Bad function Bad environ Access denied Bad access Is current dir Bad handle Reserved Bad data Too many open

No such file or directory Bad format

Mcb destroyed Out of memory Bad block Bad drive Not same device

Refer to the Microsoft MS-DOS Programmer's Reference Manual for more information about DOS error return codes.

Determines default file-translation mode.

extern int Jmode;

fcntl.h

Jmode determines in which mode (text or binary) files will be opened and translated. The value of Jmode is a_TEXT by default, which specifies that files will be read in text mode. If Jmode is set to a_BINARY, the files are opened and read in binary mode. (a_TEXT and a_BINARY are defined in fcntl.h.)

In text mode, on input carriage-return/linefeed (CR/LF) combinations are translated to a single linefeed character

(52)

_heaplen

Function

Syntax

Declared in

Remarks

(LF). On output, the reverse is true: LF characters are translated to CR/LF combinations.

In binary mode, no such translation occurs.

You can override the default mode as set by Jmode by specifying a t (for text mode) or b (for binary mode) in the argument type in the library routines fopen, fdopen, and freopen. Also, in the routine open, the argument access can include either a_BINARY or a_TEXT, which will explicitly define the file being opened (given by the open pathname argument) to be in either binary or text mode.

Holds the length of the near heap.

extern unsigned _heaplen;

dos.h

_heap len specifies the size of the near heap in the small data models (tiny, small, and medium). _heaplen does not exist in

Turbo C Version 2 0 Reference Guide 1988 pdf

TURBO C®

Limited Warranty

Turbo C®

Table of Contents

Introduction 1

FP_OFF ... 136

Appendix A

Appendix C

Appendix D

List of Figures

Volume II: The Reference Guide

Typographic Conventions

Italics

Borland's No-Nonsense License Statement

Acknowledgments

How to Contact Borland

Using Turbo C Library Routines

Turbo

The Library Routine Lookup Section

Why You Might Want to Access the Turbo C

The Turbo C Include Files

jmp_buf

stdin, stdout, stdprn,

time_t

Process Control Routines

Text Window Display Routines

The main Function

An Example Program Using argc, argv and env

Wildcard Command-Line Arguments to main

ARGS WILDARGS .OBJ

When You Compile Using -p (Pascal Calling

Global Variables

Function

daylight

Function

directvideo

envtron

errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr

errno, _doserrno, sys_errlist, sys_nerr

Jmode

EINVAL E2BIG EACCES EACCES EACCES EBADF EFAULT EINVAL EMFILE ENOENT ENOEXEC ENOMEM ENOMEM ENOMEM EXDEV EXDEV

_heaplen